Part 3

It will be seen from this course of crops, that the principal object of Tuscan agriculture, is wheat, of which they have two species, the one bald, the other bearded; both larger than the corresponding species in other countries of Europe; convertible into excellent bread and pastes, and probably but varieties of that _Sicilian family_, which Pliny describes, as yielding "_most flour_ and _least bran_, and _suffering no degradation from time_." It is harvested about the middle of June and when the grain crop is secured, the ploughing for the second, or forage crop, begins; which besides lupins, lupinella, and beans, often consists of a mixture of lupins, turnips, and flax. The lupins ripen first and are gathered in autumn; the turnips are drawn in the winter and the flax in the spring.

Besides the application of _ordinary manures_, the lupin is ploughed down, _when in flower_; a practice that began with the Romans: Columella says, "of all leguminous vegetables, the _lupin_ is that which most merits attention, because it costs least, employs least time and furnishes an _excellent manure_." The culture of this vegetable is different, according to the purposes for which it is raised; if for grain, the ground has two ploughings and twenty-five pounds weight of seed to a square of a hundred toises: if for manure, one ploughing is sufficient. Like our buckwheat, its vegetation is quick and its growth rapid; whence the farther advantage of suppressing, and even of destroying the weeds that would have infested any other crop. In the neighbourhood of Florence, they are in the practice of _burning the soil_; which they do by digging holes, filling them with faggots and raising the earth into mounds over them.--The faggots are then inflamed and burnt, and with them the incumbent earth, which is afterwards scattered, so as to give the whole field the same preparation.

3d. "The countries," says Arthur Young, "the most rich and flourishing of Europe, in proportion to their extent, are probably _Piedmont_ and the _Milanese_. We there meet all the signs of prosperity--an active and well conditioned population, great exportations, considerable interior consumption, superb roads, many opulent towns, a ready and abundant circulation, the interest of money low, the price of labour high; in one word, it is impossible to cite a single fact that shews that Manchester, Birmingham, Rouen, and Lyons, are in a condition equally prosperous, as the whole of these Dutchies." Their population is stated at "1,114,000, and the territory at little more than two millions of arpents, (acres.) Wheat, rye, indian corn, flax and hemp, the vine and the olive, the caper and the cotton tree, with all kinds of garden fruits and vegetables, are cultivated here: the soil knows no repose, and much of it yields annually and uniformly two crops of grain, or three of grass."[6] These are the miracles of irrigation; not a drop of water is lost. Besides the permanent supplies furnished from lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks and springs, even the winter torrent and summer shower, are every where intercepted by drains, and led to reservoirs; whence they are distributed at will to the neighbouring grounds.

[6] Geographic, Mathematique, &c. Article Italie.

In 1770, an agricultural school was established at Milan, consisting of 220 boys, who were instructed in theoretical and practical husbandry.--This institution has escaped the notice of travellers; and we are unable to say whether it has or has not, fulfilled the intentions of its projectors.

4. _Switzerland_ has about 1444 square leagues of surface, and presents an assemblage of mountains, one rising above another, until the summits are lost in masses of snow and ice, which never melt. This short description sufficiently indicates the character of both the soil and the climate; yet unpropitious as these are, we find a population of 1242 inhabitants to each square league! "This is perhaps the country of the world, which presents the most happy effects of an industry always active and persevering. The traveller who climbs her mountains, is struck with admiration when he beholds vineyards and rich pastures in those places, which before appeared naked and barren rocks. The traces of the plough are perceived on the border of precipices, where the most savage animals do not pass without danger; in one word the inhabitants appear to have conquered all obstacles, whether arising from soil, position or climate and to have drawn abundance from territory, condemned by nature to perpetual sterility."[7]

[7] Idem. Article Helvetia.

5. The classical reader will remember, that _Spain_ was the garden of the Hesperides of the Roman writers; by which was meant the combinations of a fine climate, a rich soil and an active and intelligent agriculture. To this state of things, even the empire of the Goths was not fatal,[8] and that of the Moors rendered it still more distinguished. In their hands, the plains of Valentia were cultivated throughout, with the utmost care and skill; and where their wheels, reservoirs, and drains of irrigation, yet remain, the soil continues to yield the richest and most abundant products. In Catalonia, Navarre, Galitia and the Austurias, many species of the ancient agriculture are yet in vigour, because "the _leases are long_, and the _landlord cannot capriciously violate them_." The same causes are followed by the same effects, in the three districts of Biscaya, Guiposcoa and Alava. "In running over these, every thing one finds is animated by the presence of liberty and industry; nothing can be more charming than the coasts, nothing more attractive than the culture of the vallies. Throughout the thirty leagues that separate Bedassod from Vittoria, every quarter of an hour we discover some well built village, or comfortable cottage."[9]

[8] It appears from Varro _Dere rustica_ and the letters of Cassiodorus, that the Goths introduced into Spain the subterranean granaries, called _Siilos_, and the _art of irrigation_. The former are now exclusively used in Tuscany, and Cato's precept, 'Prata irrigua,' &c. shews whence their knowledge of the latter was derived.

[9] Burgoing's modern Spain, vol. i.

How different is the aspect of the other provinces! In these, not more than two thirds of the earth are cultivated; and "it is not uncommon to travel eight and ten leagues together, without finding a trace of human industry. In the district of Badejoz alone, is a desert of twenty-six leagues in length and twelve in breadth.[10] Ten of the fourteen leagues that traverse the duchy of Medina Sidonia, consist altogether of pasturage. There is no where a vestige of man; not an orchard, not a garden, not a ditch, not a cottage to be seen! The great proprietor appears to reign, like the lion in the desert, repulsing by his roaring all who would approach him. But, instead of human colonies, we encounter troops of horned cattle and of _mares_, wandering, self directed, over plains, to which the eye can discover no boundary or barrier, and which brings to one's recollection the days when the beasts shared with man the empire of the earth."[11]

[10] Borde's Hineraira de l'Espagne, vol. iv. p. 30.

[11] Burgoing. Spain has been long renowned for its horses. The Romans, in settling their pedigree and illustrating their swiftness, called them '_the children of the winds_.'

"Even when the plough is used, it is little more than a great knife fastened to a stick, that just scratches the surface. The grain is threshed by horses, or mules driven over it, of by means of a plank studded with nails or flint stones and drawn across it. With even this miserable culture, the land in Andalusia yields considerable crops; yet are the inhabitants too lazy or too few to gather them together. This is done by Galiegos, who are the labourers of Spain." We need scarcely remark, that in a state of agriculture like this, the peasantry cannot be either well fed or well clothed. "The mountaineers live principally upon roasted acorns and goats' milk, and those of the plain (from Barcelona to Malaga) on bread steeped with oil, and occasionally seasoned with vinegar."[12]

[12] Swinburne's Travels, Vol. I. A Spanish peasant, who has earned or begged enough for the wants of the day, will refuse to earn more, even by running an errand. Striking as this fact is, it does not so well illustrate Spanish indolence as the following anecdote from the same pen. In the great sedition at Madrid, which ended in the defeat of the king and the disgrace of his minister, (the Marquis des Squillas) and in its most fervid moments, both parties retired about dinner time to take their _nap_ or _meridiana_, after which they returned to the combat with new vigour and enraged fury. If _habits_ can thus control the _passions_, to what important uses might not a wise legislation turn them?

It is wide of our object to examine the causes of the degradation of character, which marks the agriculture of Spain. Well informed writers have ascribed it to the expulsion of the Moors and Jews, to the weight of taxes and imposts, to the _mesta_ or common right of pasturage, to the discovery of America and its consequences, to the effect of climate and the ill judged charity of bishops and convents, but principally to the great _manorial grants_ and _unequal division_ of the soil, which followed the conquest. "We often find six, eight, ten, and even fifteen leagues of extent belonging to one master. The nobility and clergy possess nearly the whole country. One third of Spain belongs to the families of Medina, Celi, D'Alva, De l'Infatado, D'Aceda, and to the archbishops, bishops and chapters of Toledo, Compostella, Valentia, Seville and Murcia. A great proportion of these lands remain untilled and untenanted, and those which are let in _Cortijo_ or farms are double or treble the quantity that can be occupied in tillage."[13]

[13] Le Borde's Heneraire D'Espagne, Vol. 1.

6. The agriculture of _Portugal_, has been subjected to the same evils as that of Spain, to which may be superadded, her connexion with Great Britain; under whose policy she has become a raiser of _fruit_ instead of _grain_.

7. _France_ is probably the country of Europe, which most unites the great desiderata of an extended and profitable agriculture; fertility of soil, mildness of climate, a dense population, an enlightened government, and facility of exportation. Within her ancient limits, she boasts of a surface of more than one hundred and fifteen millions of arpents, and a population of twenty-two millions of inhabitants. The following tables will shew, in a compressed form, the nature of her soil, and the use to which it is put.[14]

[14] See Geographique, &c. Vol. VI. Art. _France_, p. 13, and Young's tour through France.

GEOLOGICAL TABLE.

Arpents or Acres. Alluvial and other rich soil, 26,159,340 Chalky do 13,268,911 Gravelly do 3,261,826 Stony do 18,128,660 Sandy do 7,553,956 Substratum of clay with a slight covering of sand--called _landes_, 21,879,120 Granitic and other mountains 25,261,946

AGRICULTURAL TABLES.

Arable land 63,600,000 Vineyards, 4,764,960 Woods, 15,931,850 Natural meadows, 5,464,800 Artificial meadows, 6,332,100 Lakes, marshes, wastes, 19,400,049 ----------- Total, 115,493,759

From the average of a number of statistical tables made by the Abbe D'Expillyt and others, it appears that in 1777, the agriculture of France was sufficient for the subsistence of its inhabitants, and had a surplus to spare;[15] and though it be universally admitted that her condition in this respect is not less prosperous _now_ than it was _then_,[16] still it cannot be dissembled that her husbandry has many defects.

[15] The products of agricultural labour, were, in these tables, stated at 114,552,000 L. T. Those of manufacturing labour at 128,015,000.

[16] The effects of the revolution of 1789 on _agriculture_ are no longer doubtful. The suppression of _tythes_--of the _exclusive privilege_--of the _chase_--of every species of _corvee_ (labour performed by tenants for landlords)--of _taxes_ or _rents_, and of _rights_ of _commonage_--was among these effects; and if to these we add the _division_ of the _great landed estates of the nobility and clergy_, there can no longer be any scepticism on this point. No truth is better established than the advantage of _small_ farms over _great_, as far as the _public_ is concerned. The Roman latifundia (military grants) destroyed Roman agriculture.

1. A supposed resemblance between the earth and animals, gave rise to _fallows_; because men and horses required repose after _labour_, it was supposed that after _cropping_, the earth also required it. Faithful to this absurd analogy, the French landlord binds down his tenent by lease, not to crop the soil more than _three_ years in _four_, which in effect is to consign to barrenness or weeds, one fourth of the whole arable land of France yearly!

2. There is not a sufficiently fixed, or steady proportion, between _arable_ and _pasture_ land.--The production of grain is the great object of culture--often with too little regard to the nature of the soil, and generally without any to its improvement. "Where pasturage is scanty, where natural meadows are bad, where artificial are rare, and root husbandry little extended, cattle cannot be either numerous or well conditioned; and as without these there can be no manure, so without manure there can be no abundance."[17]

[17] Herbin's statistique Gen. de la France Vol. I. introduc.

3. The land is generally worked by _farmers, hired for that purpose, or by renters on short leases_; which in neither case betters the condition of the soil; the one having no interest in improvements, and the other too small a one to justify any expense in making them.

4. A _good rotation system_, adapted to the soil and climate, is not absolutely unknown, and may be found even in whole districts (as in French Flanders) but much too rarely. We have seen _wheat_ and _fallows_ alternately for years; and _wheat_, _rye_, _hemp_, and _rye_, and many others equally ridiculous.

5. To the eye, more than one half of France is a common, without fences of any kind, excepting garden or park walls. Can there be order, economy and security, under such circumstances? Can the _police_ and the _gens d'armes_ be sufficient substitutes?

[_Albany Argus._

(To be continued.)

_The Moral Plough Boy._

In that volume whose morality is as sound, as the religion, it inculcates is celestial; and which is in fact an inexhaustible source of human wisdom, as well as a pure and incorruptible fountain of divine light; we are taught to "_despise not the day of small things_."

How much better off than they are, would thousands of their countrymen be at this moment, had this injunction never failed of its proper effect upon their conduct! If they had constantly cherished it in their recollection and carried it into practice in their daily occupations. But to contemplate the past or the present is needless, if it be not with a view to awaken the soul not only to a proper train of reflection, but to a salutary system of practice for the future.

If we had not "_despised the day of small things_," and sought too eagerly after brilliant speculations and splendid fortunes, thousands of us might now be blessed with ease and competence, and still animated by a sober and useful spirit of industry, who are, on the contrary, plunged into embarrasment, stripped of our property, and paralyzed in our energies.

We began the world with fair prospects, and we thought, at the same time with firm resolutions not to blast them by seeking too eagerly after _fairer_ ones; but man is rarely contented with what is simply good or bright; he must have something _better_ and _brighter_. There is always some tree whose fruit is forbidden, or beyond his reach, but of which he cannot rest easy till he has tasted. He can never think of resting upon the clear declivity, whilst the "cloud-capped" summit is above him, veiling something which he has not seen, and which may be, as he is apt to imagine, a pleasing, a valuable or a wonderful discovery.

Thus it is that we always reject the good within our grasp, in the delusive hope of grasping something better beyond it; that we lose sight of the content and happiness which are to-day within our reach; and look to the morrow to bring forth that which will satisfy our desires, and cause us to rejoice in our existence. But the morrow comes, our anticipations are not realized, and we vainly regret that we had not enjoyed the day before, as we might have done, without trusting to a deceitful futurity.

We aim to inculcate moderation in the desire of wealth, or of any other acquisition which is supposed to contribute to human happiness, combined with a steady, industrious and persevering attention to the means of obtaining what we desire. To this end, we must not "_despise the day of small things_;" but must set out in every undertaking with a determination to take advantage of the most trivial, as well as the most important circumstance, calculated to favour our designs. We must watch with the eyes of an _Argus_ for Opportunity, never forgetting, that she is bald behind, and must therefore be caught by the forelock, if caught at all. When once she turns her back upon us, she is soon out of sight, and we vainly attempt to overtake her. She mocks at our folly, and leaves us to brood, in hopeless amazement, over our own blindness and imbecility.

But who are they that "_despise the day of small things_?" They are too numerous for description in a brief essay; but we shall point out a few, and leave the reader's imagination to enlarge the catalogue.

The MECHANIC who puts off a small job, as unworthy of his attention, because he happens to have a larger one on hand; without stopping to reflect, that small streams are more numerous than large ones; that the former continually supply the latter; and that by a steady succession of small jobs, he may acquire a capital to execute large ones upon his own account.

The MERCHANT who will sit behind his counter with a segar in his mouth, and think it derogatory to his dignity to reply to a demand for a shilling's worth of any thing. Such "_small things_" are too insignificant for this man of smoke; and consequently when those who call for them, and find themselves neglected, have occasion to make a _large_ purchase, they go to him, who will not only lay down his segar, but leave his dinner, if required to wait upon them in ever so small a way.

The PHYSICIAN, who passes by the the poor man's door hardly stopping to give a hasty prescription, although he never fails to loiter in the sick rooms of the rich and the powerful, till his sycophancy becomes as disgusting to the mind, as his medicine is nauseating to the stomach of his patient.

The LAWYER who turns a deaf ear to an honest client with but _five_ dollars in his pocket; but is quick of hearing when accosted by a party with a _fifty dollar bill_, and not over scrupulous either about the justice of the cause.

The CLERGYMAN--and what shall we say of the Clergyman, who "_despises the day of small things_;" who forsakes and forgets the poor, but pious flock, which first cherished him, to gratify his pride and ambition, and acquire those robes and riches which moths may corrupt and thieves may steal; and who is so eager withal to make converts, that he does not stop to be satisfied that conversion is the offspring of conviction, forgetting how much joy there is in Heaven over one sinner that truly repenteth; and that the hope of the hypocrite shall perish for-ever!

The FARMER who clears more land than he can cultivate to advantage, destroying the present and preventing the future growth of timber to no purpose; who keeps his produce on hand, when he can get a good and saving price, in hopes it may rise; who sells it at last for less than he could have had at first; and who is not as grateful to God for a scanty harvest, as he is for a plentiful one.

We might enlarge the catalogue of those, who, by "_despising the day of small things_," never arrive at that of great ones; but we do not wish to tire the reader with a tedious essay, when a light and pleasant one is our aim.

There is, however, one precious delinquent, in whose soul we would gladly awaken those moral energies which alone can save it from eventual ruin; from the tortures of self condemnation, the contempt of mankind, and the horrors of despair.

We mean the YOUNG STUDENT of GENIUS, who consumes the vigour of his youth in the haunts of vice and infamy--who despises the minutia of his profession, whatever it may be, and wantonly neglects his daily studies for the _present_, in pursuit of pleasure, intending, perhaps, to make great and rapid strides at a _future_ time--but when that time arrives may find his former neglect and dissipation have destroyed the energies of his mind, and left it like a sieve, incapable of containing any thing but dregs! In this case the ruin is indeed a melancholy one; for instead of being "led, through paths of glory, to the grave," the stews and the state prison are too often the pathways of such a youth to that closing scene; and his _hic jacet_ may be found, if found at all, in the _Potter's field_, that last receptacle of the dregs of humanity! Think of this, ye giddy, ye thoughtless young men, who are squandering your precious moments in idleness and vice, dishonouring yourselves, disgusting your friends, disappointing the expectations of your country, breaking the hearts of your fond parents, and bringing their "grey hairs with sorrow to the grave!" How bitter will be your feelings, when you are driven to reflect, as you finally must be, and perhaps at the foot of the gallows, that by your folly and wickedness, you have not only sealed your own ruin, but madly

"Steep'd a mother's couch in tears, "And ting'd a father's glowing cheek with shame!"

Many of those giddy young men, to whom these remarks apply, may perhaps sneer at the idea of being brought up at last, in their mad career, by the arm of the public executioner. But let them turn, in some hour of solitude, if such hours ever bless them with the sweets of calm reflection, to the pages of the _Criminal Recorder_! They will there find, that from GEORGE BARNWELL, down to JAMES HAMILTON, those who have died upon the gallows have not always plunged at once into the depths of depravity; but have gone on, step by step, from slight deviations to serious ones, till they have lost all sense of shame, and become rebels to God as well as man. In this degraded state of their souls, they have not stopt at the brothel, the cock-pit, or the gambling table; but urged by the demons of hell, they have wantonly seized the dagger of assassination, and bathed it in the blood of innocence! thus closing their criminal career by a deed of desperation.

H. H. jr.

Mr. Nicholson's Prize Essay.

_On a Rotation of Crops, and the most profitable mode of collecting, preserving, and applying Manures._

(Communicated to the Albany County Agricultural Society.)

[CONTINUED.]