Part 4

_Export and Production._--Although the raisin industry had long existed in the province of Valencia, it was only in late years that it assumed an importance. They were already known as _Duracinae_ by the Romans. Re-introduced or improved by the Arabs or Moors, it soon became a prominent industry, and the export of raisins to England was already of some consequence in the time of William and Mary. In the year 1638, Lewis Roberts, in his merchant map of commerce, informs us that Denia raisins cost eighteen rials or three shillings per hundred weight. In 1664, Gandia raisins were quite famous, and were known as Pasas. At the end of the last century, the raisins from Denia and Liria reached forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons, distributed as follows: Spain, six thousand; France, six thousand; England, twenty-eight thousand,--equal to one million, four hundred and thirty thousand boxes, forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons. In 1862, the raisin export from Valencia had dwindled down to seven thousand tons. In 1876, it had again risen to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1883 to forty thousand tons. Of these, nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes were exported to the United States, one million, three hundred and eighty-five thousand were sent to England, and four hundred and thirty-six thousand found their way to other parts of Europe and Spain. In 1888, the yield was two million, three hundred and sixteen thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each, equal to thirty-two thousand, four hundred and twenty-four tons. If packed in twenty-pound boxes, this crop would have equaled three million, two hundred and forty thousand, four hundred boxes, or four times as much as California produced at the same time. The crop of 1889 is calculated to have reached two million, eight hundred thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each.

When we remember that this class of raisins is as yet hardly produced in California, and that the nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes or more imported could and should be supplied by us, it would seem that our fears of overproduction will not immediately be realized. The tendency of the raisin market is now to supplant these Valencia dipped raisins with California undipped or sun-dried raisins, the California Sultanas being considered superior for the same purpose that Valencias were formerly used.

CORINTH AND CURRANTS.

_Historical and Geographical Notes._--The principal and only raisins of any great commercial importance which are produced by Greece are the currants. We have already spoken of their name, and its supposed origin from the town of Corinth, and of their having been mentioned by Pliny in the year 75 A. D. The currants must thus very early have been of considerable importance as a commercial product, although the great increase in their production is of more recent date. The crusades which brought the nations of the North in contact with the Orient and the South also spread the knowledge of the Grecian currants to the distant parts of Europe. After the Latin conquest, currants became a commercial article, and we have every reason to suppose that, as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century, currants had reached the English shores, and that in the middle of the fourteenth century the English trade was fully established. Raysins of Corauntz were quoted in 1374 at two pence and three farthings per pound, equivalent to one dollar and twenty-five cents in our money at its present value. In 1513, the first English consul was appointed at Chios, and from that time on a direct traffic was maintained between the Grecian Islands and the North of Europe. In 1582, Hakluyt writes that efforts had been made to introduce the coren plant or vine into England, but that the same failed to fruit. The first introduction of the Zante vine into England is supposed by Anderson to have taken place in 1533. In the end of the sixteenth century, the currant traders were in full intercourse with the Venetians on the Island of Zante, and the Turks on the mainland or Morea. In 1581, the Levant Company received a monopoly in the trade of the small fruits called currants, being the raysins of Corinth. According to Wheler, who traveled in the Ionian Islands in 1675, Zante produced enough currants to charge five or six vessels, Cephalonia three or four, and Nathaligo, Missolonghi and Patros one each. Some few were also brought down from the Gulf of Lepanto.

As to the native home of the currants, opinions have considerably differed. Some have supposed Zante or Naxos to have been the original home of this grape; while others, with better reasons, have held that their original home was Corinth. Beaujour, who was French consul in Greece in 1790, says: “The fruit is not indigenous to Morea. No writer before the sixteenth century mentions it, and the result of my inquiries is that the currant came from Naxos into the Morea about 1580. It is true no such plant now exists in Naxos, but it has similarly disappeared from the territory of Corinth, though it is very certain it was cultivated there in former days, when the Venetians held the country.” This account does not agree with the statements of Comte Grasset St. Sauveur, consul to the Ionian Islands from France in 1781. He states, in his History of the Ionian Islands, that “the first plants were imported from Corinth to Zante about two centuries ago” (or about 1580). There are no exact records of the time or of the introducer; but the date is fixed by the regulations of the Senate of Venice relating to custom duties. It is likely this introduction took place not much before 1553, and was caused by the hostility of the Turks, who then held Morea, to the merchant vessels of the other nations of Europe, who in fact forbade them any entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, the principal export place for the currants. Thus John Locke, who in 1553 describes Zante, speaks of other products of the island, but not of currants.

Hakluyt states that, in 1586, the chief commodities of the island were “oyle and currants.” The latter, then, must have been introduced some time in the middle of the sixteenth century. Lithgow, a Scotch traveler who in 1609 visited the islands and published an account of the same in 1633, informs us that, besides oyle and wine, Zante produced one hundred and sixty thousand chickens of currants, each chicken of gold being equal to nine shillings of English money. And he adds that the custom duties on those currants amounted to twenty-two thousand piasters (one piaster is equivalent to six shillings), a sum of money which those Islanders could not have afforded (they having been, not above sixty years ago, but a base, beggarly people, and in an obscure place) if it were not that in England there are some who cannot digest bread, etc., without these currants. This seems to imply that, since the introduction of the currant culture in the Island of Zante about the year 1550, the Zanteans had suddenly become comparatively wealthy. So suddenly had this important industry spread, that in 1610, according to Sandys, the chief export of both Zante and Cephalonia was currants. In 1612, Coryat says that “Zante is famous for its wine, oile and currants.” Fynes Moryson, in his “Itinerary” published in 1617, states that “the English merchant vessels exported currants from Zante and Cephalonia, and from Petrasso in the Gulfe of Corinth.” Tavernier says, in 1678, that, “Corinth exports great quantities of currants. Patras does the same, which is all the trade from those two places.” In 1682, Wheler states that “the ports of Patros, Nathaligo and Missolonghi, all three together having enough to lade only one good ship every year.” Randolph, in 1689, mentions that currants were first planted on the plains of Corinth, and that the plain about Vostizza produced corn, currants and wine. Of Zante, he says that it produced two thousand tons of currants. Thus it will seem as if, through the fostering care of the Venetians, the currant trade was transplanted from the mainland of Morea to the Islands of Zante and Cephalonia, there to become of almost national importance. Until the Turks were expelled from Morea, the latter never made any serious efforts to recover the lost trade. First in later times the culture of currants has again spread on the mainland, especially on the northern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, and to-day the combined production of the Morean vineyards is largely in excess of that of the Ionian Islands.

In our times the currants are exported either from the mainland of Greece, the Morea, the ancient Peloponnesus, or from the Grecian Islands,--Cephalonia and Zante. In Morea, the principal ports for the exportation of the currants are Patras and Vostizza, although other ports export a few. Even the Islands of Ithaca and Santa Maura contribute a few. Efforts have been made to extend the culture of the currant vine, and introduce it to other islands, but not with any great degree of success. This is entirely attributed to climatic conditions.

_Characteristics and Quality._--The currants are small, seedless raisins produced from the currant grape, which again is characterized by small clusters, which, when perfect, are very compact like the heads of Indian corn or maize. The skin of the berries is thin, the pulp very sweet, with a strong flavor and aroma. The raisins are similarly aromatic and very sweet, sometimes semi-transparent, but generally dark violet. The flavor of the raisins is entirely distinct from the Muscatel, and is very superior to that of the also seedless Sultana raisins.

_Soil and Irrigation._--The soil best suited to the currant grape is a calcareous marl, which must be of good depth, loose, and easily worked. Such marls are also prized for their great power of retaining moisture. But vineyards are planted in Cephalonia, Zante and Ithaca in the most different soils and situations. They are found in gray marls, in red clay, on the plains and among the hills, in fact, in the most widely different situations. The soil of Zante contains a small percentage of sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is by many considered indispensable for the successful and profitable culture of the currant vine. The currant vine thrives especially in low and rich land which can be irrigated, and irrigation is quite essential to the perfect development of the grapes. Many vineyards, however, are not irrigated, the irrigation, of course, only being practicable on the plains. This irrigation is practiced from October to the end of December, often while the natural rainfall supplies the artificial watering. The lands are generally small freeholdings, owned by the peasants. The most valuable currant vineyards are situated on the rich and level valley lands.

_Preparation of the Land for Irrigation._--The preparation of the land for a currant vineyard is expensive, as the land is hardly ever level enough to admit of the vines being immediately planted. The surface is therefore first leveled and divided up in smaller cheeks or flats, each one surrounded by a bank. The whole is covered with a network of ditches, which are necessary for the perfect irrigation of the soil. Where there is water enough, the vineyards are irrigated in November and December, and are then flooded as often as practicable, the water sometimes standing on the ground for weeks in succession. In perfectly arranged vineyards, the irrigation is so managed that the water flows from one check to another, and is first shut off at the advent of the New Year, when the pruning and cultivation begins. By this plentiful irrigation, the ground becomes thoroughly soaked, and remains saturated until the next season, when rain again sets in and fills the irrigation canals. No summer irrigation is used in old vineyards, and in young vineyards only in case of great necessity.

_Distances of the Currant Vines._--The vines are set at various distances, in some places four feet each way, in others again six by ten, giving a various number of from 740 to 2,622 to the acre. In some places, the old practice of planting the vines in groups of four still exists. Each group consists of four vines one and a half feet apart, and each group distant six feet from each other either way. Of late, however, the vines are planted farther apart, probably because the soil is becoming exhausted, a favorite way being to have the vines closer one way than the other.

_Care of Cuttings, Planting and Grafting._--Great importance is attached to procuring cuttings from a distance, or in getting new strains. Cuttings from the nearest vineyard are never used, as they are considered to produce inferior vines, and not do as well. To procure cuttings or vines, the old vines are sometimes cut a few inches below the surface of the soil, causing the parent plant to throw off numerous suckers or shoots, which the following winter are separated and used as we do rooted vines here in California. Three or four years will elapse before they come into regular bearing. Some vineyards are produced by grafting the black currant on the wine grape, and many wine vineyards that do not pay are thus transformed into paying raisin vineyards. The grafted vines come into bearing much sooner than those grown from cuttings. The grafting is performed in Zante as follows: The soil is dug away from the main trunk of the old vine to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches, and the trunk cut off square at the bottom of the pit. Two or three scions are then inserted in the trunk, and made to slightly project above the ground, in no case with more than two or three eyes. Clay is then applied to the joint of the graft, and the trunk slightly covered with leaves, and the hole then filled up with soil. The grafting is done in the spring, and the cuttings must be kept dormant in dark and cool cellars.

_Pruning the Vines._--The pruning is done in the fall, just as soon as the leaves have fallen, and is performed in two parts. In December, the vines are cleaned of all small, weakly or dead branches, and at that time only the large and strong branches are left. In February, the regular cutting back commences, two or three eyes being left on every spur. There are as many different ideas of pruning the vines in Greece as there are in California, each one having his favorite methods and theories as to what is proper and what is not. Some vineyardists prefer to delay the second pruning until after the vines have started to bud out, and, when the young shoots are two weeks old, the old wood is so cut that the bleeding of the vine will not run down on the bud. Bleeding is at any time considered injurious. The principal pruning is therefore conducted in February, as being the time most suitable to the currant grape and conducive to the best crops. Mr. Manoti, a very intelligent Zanteote currant grower, told Dr. Davy (_Ionian Islands_, page 343) that he had at one time experimented with pruning the currant vine at different times of the year. Those pruned in December yielded very few grapes, which were large; those pruned in April gave plenty, but very small berries. Again, those pruned in February were in every way the best. Mr. Manoti added that if he had told one of his neighbors of his experiments they would have laughed at him, and said, “Whoever thinks of pruning the uva passa (or currant) in December or April.” This shows how much the growers are opposed to experimenting and improving upon the methods which have been handed down to them from their forefathers. As we have shown, the currant vines are all very closely pruned, very much in the same way as our Muscats. Seldom more than three spurs are allowed to remain, each one with two or three eyes. Summer pruning or topping the branches is never practiced on the currant vines, but generally on the wine grapes. On the contrary the currant branches are carefully guarded, and in order that they may not break are tied to stakes from four to five feet high.

_Care of the Vineyard._--After irrigation is over, the vineyards are dug over. The soil is dug up around the vines and placed on top of the ground in small heaps, which process is considered beneficial both to the roots of the vines and to the soil. In April, this soil is all put back, and the ground leveled. Each vine is staked. By the middle of April, the vines are in leaf. By the middle of July, the first fruit is ripe, and by the middle of August the harvest has everywhere begun. The stakes for the vines are imported at a cost of $15 or $16 per thousand, and constitute the most expensive item in the construction of a currant vineyard.

The mildew or oidium, which some fifty years ago spread all over the world, destroyed many of the vineyards before the sulphuring was discovered as a sure remedy. Sulphuring the vines is now regularly practiced in all the vineyards; but there is a popular belief that the raisins are no longer of the same fine and pure flavor as they used to be before the advent of the oidium and the sulphur.

_Ringing the Branches._--A process much used in the currant vineyards is the ringing of the branches. At the time of blossoming, some of the main branches are cut in such a way that a small ring of bark is separated from the branch near its base. The sap which ascends in the interior of the branch, but which returns by the bark, is thus prevented from returning, and must remain in the branch. The effect is that a large number of clusters are formed with berries both larger and sweeter than those not thus treated. But the practice is not without its drawbacks. In the dry lands of Cephalonia, where it was first introduced, it was soon discovered that the ringed vines began to fail after two or three years, and the method had to be modified or abandoned. In Morea, where the soil is moister and richer, the ringing did not prove as dangerous, and is yet practiced, though great care is taken that the same branch is never girdled or ringed in two successive years. Only the strongest vines are able to resist the exhausting effects of the process; the weaker ones should never be forced to overproduce.

The exhalations of fig-trees and pomegranate bushes are considered most beneficial to the currant grape, and the former are found everywhere among the plantations, especially along roads and ditches.

_Drying and Curing._--The drying and curing of the currant grapes are done on drying grounds. These are simply leveled places covered with fresh cow dung, or cow dung first mixed with water into a paste. When this paste is dried, it presents a smooth surface, firm but elastic, and entirely free from smell. This kind of drying ground is considered the best kind. Inferior drying grounds are simply made of the cleared soil. The currants dried on the latter are always full of sand and dirt to an alarming extent, and bring an inferior price in the market. The bunches are turned several times until dry, when they are raked over with a wooden rake or broom, by which process the stalks are separated from the berries. The berries are now gathered, and the better qualities are winnowed in machines like our fanning-mills. The next step is to sweat the currants, which is simply done by piling them in air-tight rooms. The currants are here put in large piles, which by sweating and pressure become so hard and solid that, when removing the berries, a sharp spade is used for digging. The vintage begins in July in Zante; Cephalonia grapes ripen almost one week earlier.

_Cost of Currant Vineyards in Greece._--In the Grecian Islands and Morea, the best vineyard land varies between $80 and $125 per acre for unimproved land. To prepare the land for the vineyard and irrigation, it will cost, in extreme cases, from $20 to $50 more. The first year’s cultivation and care of the young vines is, of course, different according to locality, but the average is seldom less than $50 per acre. The value of already planted property or a vineyard in good bearing is seldom less than $320 per acre, and often as high as $650 per acre,--four stremmas. Strange enough, in calculating the cost of a vineyard in Greece, no one ever takes into consideration the price of the plantation or the capital invested. The interest on the same is never considered by the natives. In this respect they resemble our own farmers, who, in calculating the expenses of their farms, never take into consideration the labor of themselves and family. Of course, it is almost impossible to obtain exact calculations of profit. The following will serve as a sample: An acre of vineyard planted to currants yields 3,200 pounds. The price obtained for the same is two cents per pound, or $64. The labor for the year on one acre is estimated at $45, leaving a yearly profit of $19 per acre. In reality, however, this is not a true statement, as it does not consider the interest on the capital. If the same should be added, it is evident that there would be but little or no profit in the growing of currants. The industry simply enables the peasant who pursues the work to live and support his family, and possibly to pay his taxes. Only the very best land and the best vineyards can pay enough to enable its owner to save up a capital, generally a difficult thing in Greece for any one but a merchant or government officer.

As a rule, the cost of producing one hundred pounds of currant raisins is not less than $1.35. Whatever the merchant pays above this to the producer will be for the benefit of the producer. But, as a rule, this way of buying direct is not in use. The merchant sells on commission, and what this means we who have had experience in the raisin business in this State all know. We will see how a calculation of an acre of currants will look, when all the expenses are taken into consideration:

One acre of currants equals 3,200 pounds at three cents per pound $96.00 ------ Expense on 3,200 pounds at $1.35 $43.00 Packing and hauling 7.50 Freight, insurance, duty, etc. 22.50 Interest on capital invested 15.00 Merchant charges say 8.00 ------ $96.00

In this instance the poor currant raiser has had no other profit than the five per cent interest on his capital invested; he has, in other words, come out even. But figures, sometimes, are apt to lie. The profit, no doubt, is small to the producer, but it must still be some. He makes, no doubt, fair wages according to his own ideas, and as he has paid for his capital in labor, and probably never handled a dollar of the same, he considers himself comparatively well-to-do. But, as currant vineyards sometimes sell, and sell high, too, it is simply unaccountable that the interest is never taken into consideration in estimating the profits of the grower. The currant industry is, I believe, the only one in the world in which this is not done. I have thus extensively dwelt upon the profits and expenses of this industry in its native country, on account of the many attempts to introduce the growing of currants here in California. The question with us is, will it pay. Our advantage is that our currants would be protected; but still it is very doubtful if currant plantations would ever pay enough to warrant us to engage in the same. The price paid at present is too low, and, as long as Muscatels bring a higher price, it will probably be the favorite grape with us.