Part 16

When the sheep’s-foot is used in planting, the butt end of the cutting is inserted in the forked end of this tool, and this explains why it is necessary to have as little wood as possible below the last eye of the cutting. By pushing the sheep’s-foot down in the soil, the cutting is pushed simultaneously down to the proper length; a twist is then given the sheep’s-foot so as to get it loose from the cutting, and the former is then pulled up. It may in some instances be necessary to push down the cutting with the left hand, while the sheep’s-foot is being pulled back, as care must be taken that in pulling back the sheep’s-foot the cutting is not lifted. Even the smallest lift will cause the lower end of the cutting to hang in an air chamber, and this will, as I have stated, cause the cutting to mold and die. When planted, a few sharp taps with the foot will sufficiently fix the cutting. When the flat bar is used, a hole is first made by the bar, the cutting is then inserted, and the hole filled up by again inserting the bar near the cutting, and by pressing it forward towards the latter. Neither of these tools can be used in dry or stony soils, but in moist and loamy soil, which has been previously well prepared, they are most excellent, as doing the work both quickly and well. The sheep’s-foot is unexcelled for speed in loose soil, while the flat bar is of advantage where the soil is a little harder. The flat spade is used when rocky and stony or even gravelly soil interferes with the using of the former tools. Every farmer will know how to use the spade, and no further explanation is required here.

Some plant the cuttings slantingly in the soil, in order to bring them as near the surface as possible. This is well enough and proper in very wet soils, where the lower strata are too cool, but in this warm country the perpendicular planting is easier and better. By twisting and bending the cutting in the dug hole a longer cutting can be used, but I have seldom found any advantage of very long cuttings, and few soils are suited to raisin grapes when such methods are needed to produce strong and rapidly growing vines.

_Care of Young Cuttings._--In places where irrigation is needed and used, many irrigate the cuttings immediately after they are planted, so as to settle the soil. This, however, is only needed where the ground is very dry or very sandy. It is much the better way to irrigate before planting and to plant on the loose soil after it has been replowed and properly prepared. Such soil keeps the moisture for a long time, and even in dry climates will require no irrigation for months after the planting. The principal care, after the cuttings have been planted, but before they are fairly started, is to keep the ground loose and to prevent it from baking on the surface. The best way to accomplish this is to run a revolving randel harrow over the land regardless of the cuttings. This kind of harrow consists of a row of vertical, slightly concave steel discs, which revolve when the harrow is pulled over the land. No regard need be paid to the rows of cuttings, provided they do not stand too high above the surface, or have begun to swell. Not one cutting in a hundred is injured, and those that are cut off are sure to sprout from below. After every shower of rain, the land should be harrowed or pulverized in this way. If the soil is baked and hard around the cuttings, the latter will be slow to start, but a loosening of the soil will have the desired effect almost immediately. The amount of irrigation needed for young plantations can only be decided upon on the ground. The cuttings should be kept growing, and young leaves should always be seen at the tips of the branches. Long before these young leaves cease growing, a copious supply of water should be added to keep the soil from becoming too dry.

_Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts._--When cuttings are to be shipped any distance, they must be packed. The simplest method of packing for short distances is to fill the bottom of a sack with wet straw, and then slip the bundle of cuttings down in the sack, and a single string will then suffice to secure the sack to the bundle. Packed this way, cuttings can stand a voyage of a week or more if the weather is not too hot. If a longer voyage, of say several weeks’ duration, is necessary, the cuttings should be packed in dry-goods boxes, and, if the time of transit is not too long, no other packing is needed. If, however, a very long transit is in view, more precautions for the safe arrival of the cuttings are required. After the bundles have been pressed down in the box, moist and fresh moss is packed tightly down all along the sides of the box. Such packing will keep the cuttings fresh for over a month. For a longer time, coarse, pulverized charcoal filled in between the cuttings is a splendid packing. The charcoal must be dry, the moisture in the cuttings being enough to keep them alive for several months. Packed first in tin boxes surrounded by charcoal, and then the boxes soldered tightly, so as to allow no air to enter, is the safest method for transporting cuttings long distances. If there is a possibility to repack at certain stations on the road, wooden boxes may be used instead of tin. The waxing of the ends of the cuttings will help to keep them moist. All lumber boxes should be lined with waxed paper, and all cracks carefully nailed up, as by the drying of the boards the contents are very liable to run out. Large and heavy boxes should be surrounded by iron bands.

_Rooting Cuttings._--There are two ways of planting cuttings in the nursery in order to have them rooted for next season’s planting. One way is to plant in nursery rows four feet apart; the other is to set in beds. For such nursery, a plat of land with rich soil and with good water facilities should be selected. Water should never fail in the nursery, as cuttings always require more water than old plants set farther apart. The rows should be staked out four feet from each other. Six or eight inch cuttings should be used, according to the depth to moisture; the more moisture, the shorter need be the cuttings. With a big, flat hoe the soil along the line of the row is thrown up on one side, the cuttings are set down upright close to the perpendicular side, and the soil is again raked back with the same kind of hoe, and then tamped hard around the cuttings. The latter need not be over two or three inches apart, and from forty to fifty thousand may be set on one acre of ground. In no instance should the cutting be left more than one or two inches above the surface of the ground. The best instrument or tool for opening the soil and for covering the cuttings is the large flat-faced Italian hoe, used by Italian workmen both in Europe and in this country.

If the bed system is adopted, much smaller cuttings may be used, although it is not necessary to have them smaller than six inches. The beds may be two feet wide and four feet apart, in this respect resembling nursery rows, and treated just as such. The cuttings are set in the beds two or three inches apart each way. We must remember that such cuttings require much more water than cuttings planted in four-foot rows, as the quantity soon exhausts the moisture in the soil. The beds may also be square, each one surrounded by a little bank or levee of soil in order to hold the water. In these beds, which should be slightly below the general surface of the ground, the cuttings are set very close,--two or three inches apart,--until the whole bed is filled up. These beds are never cultivated in any other way than by pulling the weeds out by hand. They must be frequently irrigated by flooding, except when the soil is immensely wet or moist.

Vines may also be propagated from a single eye, or from cuttings containing a single eye. Such cuttings may be set perpendicularly in beds or in rows, or they may be placed horizontally in boxes with pure sand, and entirely covered over. The single eyes soon sprout and make nice little plants, with a well-developed system of roots.

All these cuttings planted in beds, if properly watered during the summer, will make excellent vines to be set in vineyard form next season. Being set so close, they require much moisture and irrigation, the many new roots soon exhausting the moisture in the soil. It is better, however, to have the cuttings set as closely as possible, so as not to get too strong vines. An overgrown vine is more expensive to plant and more difficult to handle than one of medium growth. Besides, the latter has a greater number of fibrous roots, which, if in good condition, will give a quick start and rapid growth to the new vine.

_Care of Rooted Vines._--The same precautions are to be observed with rooted vines as with cuttings, only more care is required to shield the roots from the sun and wind. Wet blankets or sacks should always be used when the roots are taken to the field, and, if the vines show the least sign of being dry, they should be soaked for several hours in pure water, and in this respect treated just like cuttings.

_Planting Rooted Vines._--Planting rooted vines is not attended with many difficulties. The most important points to observe are these. The vines must be freshly dug. If not, or if the least dry, soak in water over night. Cut away all dead or dry rootlets. Prune the top of the vine down to two or three buds, and leave only one spur. Have the vines covered while carried out in the field, and plant only in moist ground. The young and tender roots are easily dried if set in warm and dry soil, and they will afterwards decay and injure the vine. A carefully planted vineyard, where rooted vines alone have been used, and where every precaution has been taken to insure success, should have about ninety-seven per cent of the vines growing. To make every one grow would only be possible in a very small plantation. In the large raisin centers, all this planting may be contracted for. The cost of planting cuttings is generally calculated at one-half cent per cutting, and for rooted vines at one cent per vine. Frequently parties contract to supply cuttings and to plant the land for from eighteen to twenty dollars per acre or less. It is generally better to pay the higher price and get the work done properly.

_Proper Time for Planting._--The time for planting cuttings depends greatly upon the season, the quality of the soil and the moisture. In wet seasons the dry land should be planted first, and cuttings might be started there as soon as the first frost allows us to make them with advantage. The moister the soil the later should the planting be begun, and on the contrary the drier the soil and the warmer, the sooner should the cuttings as well as the rooted vines be planted in the fall. December and January are the best months to plant, although with care cuttings as well as rooted vines may be set as late as in April or even in May. As a rule, early planting is better, as it gives the cuttings chance to root well before the hot weather causes the shoots to start. In very rainy seasons, or in wet places, cuttings should be planted later than rooted vines. Moisture in undue degree will cause cuttings to rot, while its influence on the roots of the vines is not as great. Rooted vines stand both moisture and drought better than cuttings do. On sandy, dry soil and in dry seasons I would wish my cuttings planted as early in December as possible; while, on wet places, I would delay planting until after the frost is over in February. The same rule applies to rooted vines, but we must remember that roots begin to send out rootlets almost as soon as they are dug, and that early planting will preserve these for the early use of the vine, while, in late planting, almost every one of these new roots will be destroyed in planting and must be produced over again. We might also say that both cuttings and rooted vines should be set as soon as the soil is in proper condition in the fall. Do not wait for anything after the soil is dry enough to permit planting. Early planted vines will have a good start.

_Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines._--The price of Muscat or raisin-grape cuttings generally varies from two dollars and fifty cents to five dollars per thousand, and have been sold as low as one dollar per thousand cuttings. Rooted vines again vary from ten to twenty dollars per thousand, according to the demand and supply. The cost of planting is, of course, different in different localities. In Fresno the ruling prices for vineyard planting with cuttings is one-half cent per cutting. The men board and lodge themselves for this sum. For rooted vines the price is from sixty cents to one dollar per hundred vines. The ground must be in a perfect condition, but the success of the work is never guaranteed, as so much depends upon after treatment. While the actual cost of planting the grapes is insignificant, it will be found that the many different expenses of a large vineyard of say 160 acres will be quite considerable, and few of our larger raisin vineyards in irrigated districts have cost less than fifty dollars per acre during the first year. This includes labor, buildings, tools, etc., but not the first cost of land. With experience and constant supervision, this cost may be reduced somewhat, and under very favorable circumstances from twenty to forty dollars even per acre may cover the cost of planting and maintenance during the first season. But estimates in this direction are not reliable, as one man will spend twice as much as another under similar circumstances.

PLOWING AND CULTIVATION.

_Winter Plowing._--The plowing and cultivation of a vineyard comprise different operations, both in the spring, winter and summer. Winter plowing should begin as soon as the vines are pruned, and should be finished before the buds begin to swell in the spring. The plowing should begin with a large plow and two horses, and the soil should be thrown from the vines towards the center of the land between them. As such a large plow cannot go too near the vines without breaking branches and injuring the buds, a smaller single-horse plow is used to follow after the double team, and to finish up by plowing a furrow nearest to the vines. The depth of this plowing should, if possible, be from six to eight inches in the center of the row, and from four to six inches nearest to the vines.

_Plowing Devices._--To enable the single plow to run as closely to the vines as possible without injury to the vines, several devices are used. The block device consists of inserting a block of wood two inches wide between the center of the clevis and the plow-beam. This throws the singletree out to one side and enables the horse to walk at a distance from the vine, while the plow follows as close to the latter as possible. In combination with this block, the singletrees should be so constructed as not to catch the branches of the vines. This is best accomplished by attaching to the outside end of the singletree a flat, doubled leather strap, to which is fixed a common, large snap, in which latter the traces of the harness are fixed. Such a singletree will glide by the branches without giving them a chance to catch anywhere. Similar singletrees, or even doubletrees, should be used wherever vineyard work is to be done, and they have the double advantage of being cheap, practical and easily made by any farmhand handy with tools.

_Cultivation._--The cultivation should always follow the plowing immediately, so as to prevent the soil from baking, and so as to tear up the roots of the weeds which have been partially dislodged. The first cultivation, which should always be in the same direction as the plowing, should be followed by cross-cultivation. The latter brings the soil back towards the vines, filling up the hollow formed by the throwing of the soil from the vines.

_Back-furrowing._--Later on, when the weeds have to some extent decayed, a double-shovel plow is by some growers used for turning a part of the soil back towards the vines. One round of this plow on each side of the vines is all that is required, as the repeated cultivation that should be carried on in a vineyard will generally suffice to bring the balance of the soil back from the center of the land towards the vines.

_Cross-plowing._--Cross-plowing is not absolutely needed, and in many places not even possible, as where the vines are planted closer one way than the other. But wherever plowing can be done both ways, the land will be benefited by being plowed one way one year and the other way the next year, so that in course of time all the soil will be regularly broken up. When there is plenty of time and enough labor, cross-plowing the same season will greatly benefit the vines.

_Weed-cutters._--These are used to great advantage after the first plowing, and any cultivator may be rigged with one of them, or they may be made as separate tools. The cutter-bar is simply a flat bar, which is bent in the shape of a very wide U, and is fastened to the beams of the cultivator just behind the last shovels or blades. The horizontal part of this cutter-knife should be on the same level as the center of the cultivator blades, and stand as horizontal as possible, in order to be subjected to the least amount of friction. The effect of such cultivator cutters are that no growing weeds are left behind wherever they pass.

_Cutter-sled._--I have used with great advantage a combination of this cutter-knife and a sled, upon which the driver could stand and ride, and its use saved time, besides doing the required work well. Such a cutter-sled is, however, only useful in already well plowed and cultivated soil, and for summer work it is just the thing and can then not be surpassed by any other weed-cutting tool which I have ever seen used.

Various other tools are used, and different ones at that in each separate district. Each grower has his particular way to cultivate and plow, and not two vineyardists do the work alike. Each one has his favorite tools and instruments, which he often changes from year to year or replaces by new inventions of local mechanics or inventors. A description of these tools and the various methods of plowing, cultivating and bringing the land in proper condition would make a book of itself and would be merely a history of each individual vineyard in the land. An enumeration of them will be found later on.

The cultivation of the vineyard should be continued as long as it can be done without causing injury to the new growth of the vines. The exact number of times the vines should be cultivated is impossible to decide upon beforehand, as almost every vineyard requires a different method of working. It is safe to say that during the summer no weeds should be allowed to grow in the vineyard, and, as long as any of them are left, the soil should, if possible, be cultivated. Every weed acts like a chimney for the moisture in the soil, which it sucks out to the detriment of the vine, while weeds which grow in among the branches of the vines will also seriously interfere with the picking of the grapes.

_Hoeing._--Only little manual cultivation is needed. In the spring, after the first plowing and before the buds have started or have grown long enough to interfere with the work, the vines should be hoed. The object of hoeing is to loosen the soil nearest the vines, and to destroy all the weeds which cannot be turned under by the plow, and especially those which grow close to the vines. The best tool for this purpose is the common, heavy hoe with a long handle. A very useful hoe can be made of old shovels which are so worn and broken that they cannot be longer used for digging. The blade of the shovel is fixed to a new handle at a right angle, similar to a hoe handle, while the blade itself is left as it is. Such hoes are very useful in cutting heavy weeds, and work with great facility. Forked hoes are used by many vineyardmen, especially for stirring the hardened crust around the vine, but I believe the common, heavy hoe a more useful instrument, and if used in time will make the forked hoe unnecessary.

_Time for Cultivation._--Too early plowing or cultivation before the weeds have started is not always desirable, as it prevents the weeds from growing. Such weeds, if turned under, will yearly enrich the land, and in course of time form a heavy and humus-rich top soil, which will serve to keep the moisture in the soil below. I therefore advocate plowing as late as possible. The exact time must be decided for every particular season and for every separate locality, and no general rule can be given. Wet lands should be plowed earlier than dry lands; it is the latter which especially require the green weeds to be turned under, and which will be the most benefited by the accumulation of humus. Our vineyardists disregard this fact too much, and are generally too apt to plow their dryest lands first.

GRAFTING THE MUSCAT ON OTHER STOCKS.

_Time for Grafting Raisin-vines._--The best time for grafting grapevines, as well as for grafting anything else, is when the stock on which we graft has its sap in circulation, and when the scions or cuttings which we are to insert in the stock are yet dormant. This time occurs from the middle of January, when the sap first rises in the old vine, and continues to March or even April, February and March being generally the months best suited to the work. Grafting may also be done in the fall of the year after the grape crop has been gathered, while some growers have best succeeded still earlier, and advocate the month of August as being the most favorable time for this process. The sap at that time ceases flowing, and there is no danger of its being clogged. Grapevines can be grafted at almost any time of the year at which the weather is not too warm, as this will cause the cuttings to bud out before they have joined the stock. If grafting on resistant stocks is desired, the stocks, if small, must first be dug, and the grafting can then be performed in the workshop any time between December and March, the early winter months being preferable.