Part 15

When the vineyards are threatened by the invasion of the army-worms, or by the striped _Deilephila_ caterpillar, the best remedy consists in trenching. A narrow trench, say one foot or more wide and two feet deep, with perpendicular sides, should immediately be dug around the vineyard. If water is at hand, fill the trench with water, on which some coal-oil may be poured,--enough to cause a film on the surface. If no water can be had, a log or scantling may be continually dragged up and down the furrow or trench, so as to crush the caterpillars before they can crawl out. In many places, however, the trench alone will do the work, as the caterpillars will generally not be able to get up the other side of the trench. What few crawl up can easily be kept down by hand-picking.

If certain attractive flowers, such as honey-suckles or petunias, are planted on a small bed in the vineyard, say near the house, the moths will come to them to feed from all the surrounding neighborhood. Only one small bed should be planted on every vineyard. A boy with a butterfly net, posted at each flower bed at sundown, can catch hundreds of moths every evening, and considerably reduce their number and prevent them from breeding.

BLACK-KNOT.

_Characteristics._--The woody or spongy excrescences which appear on the vines, and which are known as black-knots, are really only a wart-like growth, the origin of which is entirely unknown. It is supposed that an insufficient outlet for the sap in the spring caused by too close pruning is the chief cause. Certainly closely pruned vines are more subject to the black-knot than long pruned vines, but on the other hand neglected vines which have had no cultivation, and which accordingly could hardly have had too rapid a flow of sap, suffer more than any others. The woody warts appear quite frequently on the ends of the spurs of the old wood, or on places of last year’s growth which have been wounded or injured in some way, but never on the green wood. They vary in size from that of a pea to that of lumps weighing several pounds. When present in small quantities, the warts cause no injury, but when they become larger the vines may even die. These black-knots always die with the year, and never survive to the next season. At the end of the season, they burst open and then often display black spores of fungi, which, however, are only parasitical growths on the already decayed wood, and not the cause of the disease. As I said, it is generally supposed that the flow of sap is during spring time so great that it ruptures the cells of the vine and causes the warts to form. Under the microscope, however, there are no such ruptured cells visible. It is more natural to suppose, that through the accumulation of sap an irritating poison is originated, which causes the warty growth to form in a manner similar to the formation of galls. On sandy soil the black-knot is the most common, probably on account of the earliness and the natural warmth of this kind of soil.

_Remedies._--So far no decidedly successful remedy has been found. Some growers advise leaving plenty of spurs on the vine, so as to give a sufficient outlet to the sap, but it remains to be seen if this will mitigate the evil. If the black-knot should be very destructive, a cutting out of the same in summer time while they are forming would be beneficial. This could best be done in June and July. Mixtures of coal-oil and lime, etc., have been used during the winter after the vines were already pruned, but, as the black-knot is then already dead, no advantages can result from this remedy.

GRASSHOPPERS.

_General Notes._--While grasshoppers cannot be considered as a common pest in the vineyard, still they are at times greatly destructive. There has been during the last sixteen years two such invasions of grasshoppers in the California raisin districts. The grasshoppers are of many species, some seventeen kinds having been recognized one season. They all breed in the waste or unplowed ground outside the vineyard, and when full-grown invade the vines. This fact can be taken advantage of to destroy them.

_Remedies._--The waste lands for a half mile at least all around the vineyard should be plowed and harrowed in the early spring. This will destroy the eggs of the grasshoppers, and the fallow land will serve as a barrier over which the grasshoppers do not readily pass.

If the vineyards are so situated that the weeds or natural vegetation on the land surrounding the vines can be burned for half a mile or more, this will also prove a certain barrier for the hoppers.

A mixture of fifteen pounds of white arsenic with eighty pounds of bran and twenty pounds of middlings, moistened with enough water to make a paste, will be eaten by the grasshoppers. The paste is spread on bits of shakes or shingles and distributed all around the vineyard, and later on in the vineyard. It may also be smeared on fences or trees. The grasshoppers will eat it readily, and can thus be successfully destroyed. If this method is used in time, the advancing army of the pest can be kept back or destroyed at the very entrance of the vineyard. As another remedy, a spray is recommended consisting of one ounce of Paris green, one hundred gallons of water, and two pounds of paste. This is sprayed on the trees or vines, and is said to kill the grasshoppers effectively without injuring the fruit.

THE RAISIN VINEYARD.

PLANTING.

_Distances for Muscat Vines._--An examination of the various vineyards in any or in all the different raisin districts will not help us much in deciding upon how far apart the vines should be set, as most vineyards have been planted by men of no previous experience in the raisin business, and when that experience was at last acquired the vineyards were already established and could not easily be changed. In planting, we are too apt to do as other people do without first inquiring from them if their experience has not taught them anything else, and if they would not do otherwise if they had to commence over again. For years the standard distances between raisin-vines have been eight by eight feet. Of late years this distance was considered too small, as our soil was supposed to be so rich, that all that was required, in order to get large crops, was to give the vines plenty of room. Many vineyards have been set nine by nine, nine by ten, ten by ten, or even ten by twelve and twelve by sixteen feet. The effect has, however, been different from that which was expected. Instead of producing larger crops, those vines which were given more room produced only more wood and more leaves. They followed that law of nature, which causes any animal or vegetable to grow luxuriantly when overfed, and which, on the contrary, causes seed and fruit to form when the vegetable system is restricted to certain proportions, which, of course, we can only determine by actual experience. By giving the vines less space, some inconvenience will be experienced in working the soil, and in drying the crop between the rows. On that account some vineyards have been planted with the vines closer one way than the other, thus giving plenty of room in which to work the soil, while on the other hand sufficiently confining the vines in order to cause them to bear well. I therefore now recommend that the vines be set four and a half by eleven, five by ten and a half, or five by eleven feet. The first would probably be my choice. I claim for this system many advantages, and beg intending growers to carefully consider the following points:

It gives us more vines to the acre, which means more grapes to the acre, as long as the land is of the best quality, and no raisin grapes should ever be planted on inferior soil, or at least the soil should be sufficiently rich to supply plant food to the greater number of vines.

It makes the working of the soil cheaper, and fully one-third more of the work can be done by two-horse plows. The single-horse work can be confined to plowing a furrow on each side of the vines, and to running a cultivator crosswise. As the number of rows in this system is less, it also follows that less single-team work is needed.

The vines protect themselves from the hot sun and hot winds which cause sunscald. The short distances should be in the direction of the hot wind, if any there be, or in the direction of east and west if there are no hot winds in the district. The spaces between the rows will thus catch the morning sun, which is of importance when we dry on trays between the vines.

Less roads will be needed in the vineyard, as the larger distance is sufficient to enable any teams to pass between every row of vines, and distribute trays, boxes, etc., without interfering with the vines. The saving thereby of labor in carrying the boxes and trays is quite an item in vineyards where the vines are planted say eight by eight feet or closer.

The trimmings of the vines can be burned in the vineyard between the rows, and will thus help to fertilize the soil. Besides, the expense of hauling the trimmings away will be saved.

_The Marking Out of a Vineyard._--As any practical horticulturist knows how to stake out an orchard or vineyard, a minute description is not here needed. I will only indicate the most important points. Cut a large number of small pegs, one inch or so square and a foot or so long. Next get two lines of twisted wire, each say 150 feet long. Mark off on one wire every five feet by inserting a small, bright copper wire in the twist, and wind it around the iron wire three or four times, enough to show the place. On the other wire mark off similarly every ten or eleven feet, always supposing these are the distances decided upon. Now stretch one of the wires along one end of the future vineyard and call this line the base line No. 1. Set a peg close to every copper ringlet, on the side of the wire away from the vineyard. When done, stretch the other wire, No. 2, at a right angle with the former, and set pegs similarly. Remove wire No. 1 from base line No. 1 and stretch it at the end of wire No. 2, parallel to the base line. Call this base line No. 2. Set pegs as before every eight feet. It is now evident that, by stretching successively the wire No. 2 between the pegs set on the two base lines, and by setting cuttings or rooted vines close to the copper ringlets on the wire line, perfectly straight and even rows can be had in every direction.

Too much stress cannot be laid on this work. Remember that the vineyard is to last for a lifetime or more, and that any careless work will ever be an eyesore and a drawback. Unsightly vineyards, carelessly staked out, are never worth as much as those carefully planted, where every row is straight, and where plowing, cultivating and other farming and vineyard work can be performed without meeting any obstacles in the way of crooked rows, or of vines standing out of line. Only too frequently vineyard rows are plowed out, and the cuttings are “slapped” in anyway in order to get the work quickly done. In after years, when the proprietor’s taste and experience has improved, he finds that his reputation as a careless or ignorant grower cannot be changed; for the vineyard is there to last, and to tell the tale of early ignorance or neglect.

_Relative Value of Cuttings and Rooted Vines._--Cuttings and rooted vines have their advocates, but the majority of vineyardists are now in favor of planting rooted vines, and I would myself choose the latter every time. As, however, rooted vines and cuttings are both likely to be used as long as vines are planted, a few words in regard to their respective merits may be of general interest. In planting cuttings, we are never sure that they will all grow. Cuttings if cared for generally do well, but sometimes, even with good care, they fail, and the loss and annoyance is then always great, and even in very careful planting seldom over ninety per cent live, while often twenty-five per cent die. The reason is often careless planting, when the season is favorable, but in unfavorable seasons the failure must be attributed to other causes. Those cuttings which grow, generally grow well and often make as good vines as those raised from previously rooted ones.

The replanting of the cuttings that failed to live is both expensive and troublesome. Every vineyardist knows how difficult it is to succeed in making cuttings, or even vines, grow on places in the vineyard where other ones have failed to grow before. Some attribute this difficulty to some poison in the soil, but I believe the cause will be found in the greater difficulty to attend to a few young vines in among the older ones. The older vines will naturally use up the moisture in the soil, and the cuttings, with their young and tender roots, will have but little chance in the general struggle for life. But even if we suppose that the replanted vines will do equally well, it will be found that the replanting of the cuttings is actually more expensive than the first planting. The reason why this is so lies in the greater work in getting the soil in first-class condition after the first planting failed. In the first planting, the soil has been put in order with the help of horses and plows, while, when we replant, the very spots where the vines are to be located cannot be reached by other means than by a pick or shovel, as, no matter how well the old vineyard is plowed, there will always be a hard spot around every vine, or around the place where the vine should be, and where it failed to grow. If only a few cuttings have taken root, it is better to plow up the whole vineyard and reset, and in so doing endeavor to do better work. I know of vineyards where the owners have not succeeded in replanting during ten years, every year spending money and labor with little success. There will always be a few cuttings that fail to live.

The causes of the uncertainty of cuttings are our inability to foresee the outcome of the season’s climatic conditions. More or less rain has a direct influence on our success. Thus in very rainy seasons the cuttings should be small or rather short, so as to be as much as possible in the upper, dryer and warmer soil. In dry seasons, again, the cuttings should be long, so as to be in the moist ground, but as we can never foresee what the season will be, we had better have a recourse to rooted vines, which, if in good condition, will be comparatively independent of weather and wind.

_The Making of Cuttings._--The making of cuttings is not a difficult process, but nevertheless it should be carefully done in order to insure final success. After the vines have been trimmed and the trimmings have been placed in small piles along the rows of the vineyard, the cuttings should be made as quickly as possible on the spot, the laborers moving from pile to pile as they finish up. The shears should be sharp and kept sharp, both to insure good cuttings and to hasten the work. A poor shear is worse than a poor farmhand, and it pays to keep the best kind of every tool that is used in vineyard work. The size of the cutting must be decided upon according to the conditions of the soil. If the land is very wet and is likely to remain so, an eight-inch, or even a six-inch, cutting, will do, and will grow better than a long one. Long cuttings will reach down into the wet soil and decay at the lower end before they take root. In dry and warm soils the cuttings may be from twelve to eighteen inches long, or even longer if it is desirable to bend them in a circular way in the holes in which they are to be planted, or if the soil is very warm and dry, when it is of importance that the cutting should reach the deeper moisture. A twelve or fourteen inch cutting is probably an average size cutting, and one that will answer most conditions, in case they are not previously known.

A nurseryman, or any one who can give his cuttings as much attention as they require, can use even the very tips of the vines and make them grow. But for general planting, especially direct in the field, seldom more than one or two cuttings can be made from a branch. The cutting should be cut immediately below an eye or joint. Such cuttings grow better, are easier to plant and are less apt to dry out. The more eyes a cutting contains the better is the cutting, as the roots mostly form at the joints. Many make the cuttings with a heel of old wood, but I do not believe such cuttings are in any way preferable to those made of only one season’s wood. The old wood does not grow any better than young wood, generally not so well, and, besides, such cuttings with heels are more difficult to plant and handle. When the cuttings are made, they should at first be placed in small piles, with the top ends all the same way, and as soon as possible afterwards tied up in bundles, with at least two strings to every bundle. For tying, any string will do, but split basket-willow twigs are probably the strongest and least apt to root. Still any stout twine will answer the purpose. From one hundred to two hundred cuttings may conveniently be put in each bundle, according to the size of the cuttings.

_The Care of Cuttings._--After the cuttings are made and bundled, they should be labeled with wooden labels and immediately taken to some place where they can be heeled in. The lead-pencil is the best for writing the names. The best place in which to heel in the cuttings is on the north side of some large building, under an open shed or under some large trees. In fact, any place which is partially shaded and cool will do. If the bundles are to be used soon or shipped, they might be placed on the wet ground, and only covered with sacks or with straw, but, if they are to remain any longer time, they must be placed in the ground and carefully covered. A trench should be dug half the depth of the cutting, but slightly wider. The bundles are placed in the trench upright, and after the trench is full the soil from the new trench, parallel with the first one, is thrown on and around the bundles so as to keep them moist. It is best not to keep the cuttings too moist, and on no account should they be wet, as they will then begin to root rapidly, and when they are again removed these roots will break or dry up to the great injury of the cutting. If unavoidably the planting is delayed longer than expected, the bundles of cuttings may be taken out and placed in dry air for a day or for a few hours, and then replaced in the soil. This may be done several times without any injury accruing to the cuttings, the only effect of the drying being to retard their rooting and sprouting, but it should of course not be done after they have once begun to callus or root. To place cuttings in water for any length of time is nearly always injurious, and especially so if the water is bad or contains manure. Manure water always kills cuttings readily. If the cuttings have sprouted, or begun to make roots, or form callus, a careful vineyardist will take his bundles to the field submerged in a barrel or bucket of water, or at least wrapped in wet sacks or blankets. If again the cuttings are dry and a fresh cut does not show a flow of sap, they may be freshened by soaking in fresh water over night. Even very poor and dry cuttings are easily revived this way, but a continuous immersion for several days will injure the cuttings and cause them to rot. It is also of importance that the water should be clear and cold, or at least not warm. Instead of immersing the cuttings in water, they may be set down in cool and moist soil for three or four days before being planted. The soaking in water is the simplest, quickest and most effective for slightly dried cuttings.

_Planting Cuttings._--Planting cuttings in the vineyard can be done in several different ways. They may be planted with a spade, with a flat planting bar, or with the “sheep’s-foot.” Each one of these tools will answer the purpose if properly used, but their selection must depend upon the quality of the soil, and upon the nature of the land generally. In all planting of cuttings, the following points must be observed as of importance in insuring success. The cuttings must be set in moist and cool soil. The lower end of the cuttings must lodge in solid ground, and there must be no air space at the bottom. Only one eye should be left above the surface of the soil. The soil must be tamped well around the cutting from the bottom to the top. All inferior cuttings should be thrown away, and every cutting should be examined before it is planted.

For a description of the tools used in planting, I beg to refer to the end of this chapter. I will now further consider the above points. Many failures are made by not planting in moist soil. If irrigation is needed, irrigate before planting, then plow and harrow, and then plant. When moist cuttings are planted in dry and warm soil, the latter will extract all the moisture from the cuttings, and the latter will fail to grow. I have seen parties first plow deep furrows through the vineyard, so as to air and dry the ground before planting the cuttings. This is not necessary and even harmful. Moist and warm ground is essential to the starting and growth of cuttings. The lower end of the cutting should be lodged in solid ground, or the cutting will fail to grow. This point is of the utmost importance, and should be carefully observed. If, when the cutting is pushed down in the soil, a small air chamber form at the lower end, the butt end of the cutting will mold, and the latter will be poisoned and die. Nine-tenths of all the failures in planting are caused by neglect in this respect. Care is especially needed when the sheep’s-foot is used. Only one eye should be left above ground, which is enough for all purposes. Any more eyes will exhaust the cutting before it is rooted, and the additional length of the cutting will expose it to the danger of being broken or otherwise injured. The soil must be tamped hard all along the cutting so as to cause the latter to attract the necessary moisture. Loosely set cuttings very often fail, especially in dry seasons. All inferior cuttings, especially those frosted or otherwise injured, should be thrown out before being brought to the field. A cutting costs so little that it pays to use only the strongest and best, when a much better stand will be the result. Frosted cuttings can be detected by their darker color. Fresh and healthy cuttings should have a green and fresh cambium or inner bark, and a fresh cut should show fresh sap oozing out.