CHAPTER XIII.

RACES AND PEOPLES OF AMERICA.

The four ethnic elements of the New World--_Origin of the Americans_--/Ancient Inhabitants of America/--Problem of palæolithic man in the United States--Palæolithic man in Mexico and South America--Lagoa Santa race; Sambaquis and Paraderos--Problem of the Mound-Builders and Cliff-Dwellers--Ancient civilisation of Mexico and Peru--_Present American Races_--_American languages_.

/Peoples of North America/--I. _Eskimo_--II. _Indians of Canada and United States_: _a._ Arctic--Athapascan group; _b._ Antarctic--Algonquian-Iroquois, Chata-Muskhogi, and Siouan groups; _c._ Pacific--Northwest Indians, Oregon-California and Pueblo groups--III. _Indians of Mexico and Central America_: _a._ Sonorian-Aztecs; _b._ Central Americans (Mayas, Isthmians, etc.)--Half-breeds in Mexico and the Antilles.

/Peoples of South America/--I. _Andeans_: Chibcha, Quechua, and other linguistic families; the Araucans--II. _Amazonians_: Carib, Arawak, Miranha, and Panos families; unclassed tribes--III. _Indians of East Brazil and the Central Region_: Ges linguistic family; unclassed tribes (Puri, Karaya, Bororo, etc.); Tupi-Guarani family--IV. _South Argentine_: Chaco and Pampas Indians, etc.; Patagonians, Fuegians.

At the present day about six-sevenths of the population of the two Americas are composed of Whites and Half-breeds of all sorts. The remainder is made up almost equally of Negroes and natives, the latter improperly called Indians.[578] Notwithstanding the relatively small number of these last (about 10 millions), I shall deal almost exclusively with them in this chapter, as they are especially interesting from the ethnological point of view, besides having been the best studied from this point of view. A few words will suffice in regard to the Whites and Negroes. The white colonists and their uncrossed descendants belong for the most part to Anglo-Saxon or Germanic peoples in North America, and to Neo-Latin peoples in South America. Nine-tenths of the population of the United States owe their origin to the Anglo-Scotch, to the Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians, the fusion of which with other European types and with half-breeds tends to produce the _Yankee_ type, which, if not a physical, is at least a social type. In Canada two-thirds of the white population are Anglophones, and the rest Francophones. In Mexico, in the Antilles, and in South America, nearly all the “white” population is made up of Neo-Latins--in Brazil descendants of the Portuguese, in Argentine of Italo-Spaniards, and elsewhere of Spaniards. The Latins have also contributed to form the half-breeds of America, of which several varieties exist. Half-breeds are especially numerous in Mexico and in the countries where the three elements, White, Indian, and Negro come together, as in the Antilles, in Columbia, Venezuela, and in Brazil. I shall give some particulars of the Half-breeds in connection with the populations of these lands (pp. 542 and 545). As to the Negroes of America, they are the descendants of slaves imported, during more than three centuries, almost exclusively from the West African coast, and particularly from Guinea. (See p. 452.) The Negroes are especially numerous in the south of the United States and in the Antilles, as well as in the north and on the east coast of South America, as far as Buenos Ayres.[579]

_Origin of the Americans._--To-day the existence of an _American race_, or rather a _group of American races_ (p. 291), is generally conceded, a group to which all the native populations of the New World belong; but as to the origins of these races unanimity of opinion is far from being reached. According to some authorities, the New World is a special centre of the manifestation of species, the _Homo Americanus_ having developed on the spot; according to others, the ancestors of the present Indians came from neighbouring countries--a few from everywhere: from Siberia and China (by Behring’s Straits), from Polynesia (driven by currents), from Europe (failing Atlantis, by the table-land which in the quaternary period probably stretched between England and Greenland). Unfortunately, almost all these hypotheses are based on a confusion both of time and space. It may without difficulty be conceded that occasional Chinese and Japanese junks may have been driven towards America, although the existence of this continent remained unknown both to China and Japan till quite recent times. We know positively that the Northmen visited the shores of North America long before Christopher Columbus. And there is reason to suppose that the Polynesians, who are excellent navigators, may have ventured, urged forward by currents, as far as the South American coast. But all these occurrences would be too recent, and such migrations would be in fact both too insignificant and too isolated, to account for the peopling of a vast continent. The origins of American man are much more distant in the past, and the migrations, if migrations there were, must have taken place in the quaternary epoch, and probably as much from the coast of Europe as from the coast of Asia.

ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF AMERICA.

Just as is the case with Europe, it is not certain that man existed in America during the tertiary period,[580] but it is certain that he appeared there during the quaternary age. This period, in the New World as in the Old, had its glacial epochs. According to Dawson, Wright, and Chamberlin, there were two or three great movements of invasion and withdrawal of the American glaciers. It is not known if these movements were synchronous with those of Europe, but it is established that, as in Europe, the first invasion of glaciers was also the more widespread.[581]

Chipped argilite tools, similar to the quaternary quartz tools of sub-Pyrennean countries, have been found by Abbott in the gravels of the Delaware, near Trenton (New Jersey), side by side with quaternary animals (probably of the second glacial period, notably the fragment of a jaw-bone). Other implements have been gathered on the spot by Haynes in New Hampshire; by Dr. Metz in the gravels of Little Falls (Minnesota), regarded by W. Upham as more recent than those of Trenton; by Cresson at Medora (Indiana), and at Claymont (mouth of the Delaware), in a more ancient deposit than the Trenton one; by Wright and Volk at Trenton (in 1895); without reckoning the thousands of finds either on the surface or in lesser-known beds, which have been enumerated in a special memoir by Wilson. If I dwell on these details, it is because all these finds have latterly been vigorously attacked in the United States, since Holmes, who had studied the ancient quarries of the Indians, pointed out the great resemblances between the spoiled or waste argilite axes and arrowheads which he had found in these quarries, and the supposed palæolithic implements, particularly those of Trenton. Several authorities, such as Chamberlin, MacGee, Brinton, have, like Holmes himself, come to the conclusion that all the so-called palæolithic tools of America, and perhaps even those of Europe, are only spoiled or waste tools of the same kind, and relatively modern. This conclusion seems to overshoot the mark, seeing that specialists like Wilson, Boule, etc., are almost unable to distinguish undoubted quaternary tools of Europe from those of Trenton, and that the beds of many American prehistoric tools have been perfectly well ascertained not to have undergone any rehandling, and have been established as quaternary by competent geologists.[582]

Outside the United States palæolithic finds in the New World are not very numerous, and often are questionable.

Palæolithic tools of the Chellean and Mousterian type have been found in Mexico by Franco and Pinart;[583] other quaternary tools, together with a fragment of a human jaw-bone, have been described in the valley of Mexico by S. Herrera.[584]

In Brazil, on the shores of Lake Lagoa-do-Sumidoro (province of Minas Geraes), Lund exhumed human skeletons and flint objects, together with remains of animals which, if not quaternary, at least exist no longer in the country. Ameghino[585] also has collected in quaternary layers of the Pampas of the Argentine Republic remains of primitive human industries. I will only mention the numerous neolithic objects found almost everywhere in America. Among these objects it is necessary to give special attention to the “grooved axes” which are entirely characteristic of the New World (Wilson).

As to prehistoric human bones, investigation reduces them to little. I have already said that the tertiary or quaternary skull of Calaveras (brachycephalic) is classed as doubtful. The skeleton of Pontimelo (with dolichocephalic skull), found by Roth under the carapace of the glyptodon, an enormous armadillo of the Pampas regions of the Rio Arrecifes, a tributary of Rio de la Plata, also inspires but a limited confidence in many authorities. Lastly, the skulls and bones of Lagoa Santa, if not quaternary, at least very ancient, afford special characters (dolichocephaly, short stature, third trochanter), on the strength of which De Quatrefages has established a special race,[586] whose probable descendants constitute my _Palæ-American sub-race_. (See p. 292.)

Side by side with finds of stone objects and bones in very ancient strata, it is necessary to note also the shell-heaps and kitchen-middens scattered along all the coast of both Americas, from Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Louisiana to Brazil, to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. In this last country the present inhabitants, who subsist especially on molluscs, contribute to the piling up of these heaps or to the formation of new ones. This is enough to indicate that all the kitchen-middens are not synchronous; and if there be some which go far back into antiquity, on the other hand there are some which are quite modern. The “Sambaquis,” for instance, of the mouth of the Amazon and of the province of Parana must be very ancient; some of the skulls which have been found in them recall the Palæ-American or Lagoa Santa race.[587] The _paraderos_, or elongated hillock graves, discovered in the province of Entre Rios, in the valley of the Rio Negro (Argentine Republic), by Moreno and R. Lista, enclose flint tools (neolithic?) and numerous skulls, among which a certain number also exhibit likenesses to those of Lagoa Santa.[588]

In North America, the _Mounds_, fortified enclosures or tumuli of the most varied appearance, round, conical, and in the shape of animals, have also for long attracted the attention of archæologists. But if the discoveries and excavations made in these monuments have been many, an exact explanation of their meaning was lacking till recent times. The groups of mounds are scattered over an immense tract of country, from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean; but they abound particularly in the valley of the Mississippi, along its left tributaries, in Arkansas, Kansas, etc., as well as in the basin of the Ohio. Farther west, towards the Rocky Mountains, as well as towards the Atlantic coast, they become less frequent. Till recently, the construction of these hillocks was attributed to one and the same people, called by the not very compromising name of “Mound-Builders.” This people, tillers of the soil and relatively civilised, must have lived from the most remote antiquity in the region planted with these mounds, and must have been destroyed by the nomadic and wild hordes represented by the present Indians. Such, at least, was the prevailing hypothesis. However, an attentive study of these mounds and the objects they covered has led little by little the most competent authorities (Cyrus Thomas, Carr, H. Hale, Shepherd, and the numerous members of the “Mound Exploring Division”) to distinguish several “types” of mounds, the geographical distribution of which would serve to indicate the settlements of diverse tribes. E. Schmidt, in a comprehensive work, has brought together all these investigations, and, by the light of linguistic data furnished by Hale, Brinton and others, has been able to state precisely who these various tribes were.[589]

It may be said at once that these investigations have by no means confirmed the great antiquity of the mounds; on the contrary, objects of European origin (iron swords, etc.), found in certain mounds, the tales of the early explorers which tell us that the Indians raised these mounds, and the traditions of the natives themselves, all force us to the conclusion that the builders of these funereal monuments or fortified enclosures were no other than the various Indian tribes whose remaining descendants exist to-day in the reservations. These tribes were tillers of the soil at the period of the discovery of America, as indeed the tales of contemporary explorers bear witness, as do also the traces of irrigation canals and other agricultural operations around these mounds. But the invasion of the country by Europeans from the seventeenth century onward, and the introduction of the horse, hitherto unknown, brought so much confusion into the existence of these tribes, that such of the Indians as survived the wars of extermination changed their mode of life and became hunters or nomadic shepherds. If the distribution of the mounds be studied, three parallel archæological zones may be distinguished, extending from west to east, between the Mississippi and the Atlantic Ocean, each such zone presenting great differences in regard to the type of mound it circumscribes.[590] On comparing this distribution with the ancient settlements of the tribes the following result is arrived at: the mounds of the north have been built by the Iroquois and Algonquians, except the mounds of animal shape, which are due to Dakota-Siouan tribes; the mounds of the south may be attributed to tribes of the Muskoki or Muskhogi family; and, as regards the numerous monuments of the basin of the Ohio, there is a strong presumption in favour of their having been raised by the Shawnies and the Leni-Lenaps in the south, and by the Cherokis in the north. The study of these mounds, in connection with historic data, suffices to determine very satisfactorily the migrations of all these tribes, to which I shall refer later.

West of the Rocky Mountains no more mounds are met with. Their place is taken by other monuments, structures of stone erected among the rocks and along the cañons. A large number of these are found in the valley of San Juan, in that of Rio Grande do Norte, of the Colorado Chiquito, etc. These monuments are still more modern than the mounds. The peoples who erected these structures, the “Cliff-Dwellers,” are still represented by the Moqui, Zuñi, and other tribes who inhabit the high table-lands of Arizona and New Mexico.

Tribes probably related to the Cliff-Dwellers erected in Central America those immense phalansteries in stone or adobe of several storeys, constructed to shelter the whole clan, which the conquering Spaniards called pueblos.[591] Adobe pueblos are still occupied by Zuñi people, descendants of the Cliff-Dwellers.

While in North America among the Mound-Builders only rude attempts at civilisation are found, in Central America and Mexico there flourished up to the period of the conquest a relatively advanced civilisation. Various peoples, whom many authors have sought to identify with the Mound-Builders, formed more or less well-organised states in Mexico. Such were the Mayas in the Yukatan peninsula; the Olmecs, and, later, the Aztecs, on the high table-land. And on the west of South America there developed a corresponding civilisation, that of the Incas of Peru. The Incas were none other than one of the tribes of the Quechua people, who, after having brought into subjection the Aymara aborigines founded in Peru a sort of communist-autocratic state. To the north, in present Columbia, lived the Chibchas, who have equally attained a certain degree of civilisation. Lastly, to the south flourished the civilisation of the Calchaquis.

_Existing American Races._--The natives of America, cut off from the rest of the world probably since the end of the quaternary period, form, as we have already seen, a group of races which may be considered by themselves, in the same way as the Xanthochroid or Melanochroid groups of races (see Chap. VIII.). It must be borne in mind that there exists but a single character common to these American races, that is the colour of the skin, the ground of which is yellow. This appears to conflict with the current opinion that the Americans are a _red race_, and yet it is the statement of a fact. None of the tribes of the New World have a red-coloured skin, unless they are painted, which often is the case. Even the reddish complexion of the skin, similar, for example, to that of the Ethiopians, is met with only among half-breeds. All the populations of America exhibit various shades of yellow colouring; these shades may vary from dark-brownish yellow to olive pale yellow.[592] By the yellow colour of the skin, as well as the straight hair common to most, but not to all, Americans, they have affinities with the Ugrian and Mongol races; but other characters, such as the prominent, frequently convex nose, and the straight eyes, separate them widely from these races.

As to the characters peculiar to the five races which I adopt provisionally for the New World: Eskimo, North American, Central American, South American, and Patagonian, with their sub-races, they have been given in Chapter VIII., to which I refer the reader.

_American Languages._--Several authors are of opinion that, as regards America, a more satisfactory classification of the peoples may be obtained from linguistic than from ethnic and somatological characters; they even think that these linguistic characters afford indications as to the _races_ of the New World.[593] But opinions are divided on this point, as well as on the question whether all the American dialects belong to one and the same family. Brinton affirms that there exists, in spite of diversity of vocabulary and superficial differences of morphology, a common bond of union among all the American languages. This bond is to be looked for in the inner structure of the dialects, a structure characterised especially by the development of pronominal forms, the abundance of generic particles, the more frequent use of ideas based on actions (verbs) than of ideas of existence (nouns), and as a consequence the subordination of the latter to the former in the proposition.[594] The latter feature characterises the process called _incorporation_, all American languages being polysynthetic (see p. 131). Does the similarity of structure of the American languages (which might further extend to other groups of agglutinative languages) warrant the opinion that they all have sprung from a single stock? Competent philologists like Fr. Müller and L. Adam think it does not, and Powell,[595] attributing much more importance to similarity of vocabulary than to similarities of grammatical form, arrives at the conclusion that the tribes of North America do not speak languages related to each other and springing from a single original stock; on the contrary, they speak several languages belonging to distinct families, which do not appear to have a common origin.

The number of languages spoken by the natives of both Americas certainly exceeds a hundred, even without counting the secondary dialects. Brinton estimates the number of linguistic families known in the New World at 150 to 160; this figure is probably not far short of the truth, for Powell admits, merely for that part of the continent north of Mexico, 59 linguistic families, some of which comprise several dialects.[596]

PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA.

The greater part of the native population of North America is composed of tribes called _Indians_ or _Red-skins_ of the United States and Canada. They touch on the north the Eskimo and Aleuts, and on the south the Mexican and Central American Indians. I shall briefly review these three great divisions, going from north to south.

I. The _Eskimo_,[597] or _Innuit_ as they call themselves (about 360,000 in number), afford the remarkable example of a people occupying almost without a break more than 5000 miles of seaboard, from the 71st degree N. lat. (north-east of Greenland) to the mouth of the Copper river or Atna (west of Alaska). A section of this people has even crossed Behring’s Strait and inhabits the extreme north-east of Asia (see p. 370). Over the whole of this extent of country nowhere do the Eskimo wander farther than thirty miles from the coast. It is supposed that their original home was the district around Hudson’s Bay (Boas) or the southern part of Alaska (Rink), and that from these regions they migrated eastward and westward, arriving in Greenland a thousand years ago, and in Asia barely three centuries ago. Their migrations northward led them as far as the Arctic Archipelago.[598]

Physically, the pure Eskimo--that is to say, those of the northern coast of America, and perhaps of the eastern coast of Greenland--may form a special race, allied with the American races, but exhibiting some characteristics of the Ugrian race (short stature, dolichocephaly, shape of the eyes, etc.). They are above average stature (1 m. 62), whilst the Eskimo of Labrador and Greenland are shorter, and those of southern Alaska a little taller (1 m. 66), in consequence perhaps of interminglings, which would also explain their cranial configuration (ceph. ind. on the living subject, 79 in Alaska, against 76.8 in Greenland), which is less elongated than among the northern tribes (average cephalic index of the skull, 70 and 72). Their complexion is yellow, their eyes straight, and black (except among certain Greenland half-breeds); their cheek-bones are projecting, the nose is somewhat prominent, the face round, and the mouth rather thick-lipped. The Eskimo language differs little from tribe to tribe. Fishers and peaceful hunters, the Eskimo have no chiefs, and know nothing of war; they cultivate the graphic arts, are always cheerful, and love dancing, singing, story-telling, etc.

I have already given, however, in the preceding pages (see especially pp. 137, 151, 160, 245, 263 _et seq._) several characteristics of Eskimo life.[599]

The Aleuts, about 2000 in number, inhabiting the insular mountain-chain which bears their name, speak an Eskimo dialect, but differ from the true Eskimo in some respects, having brachycephalic heads and several peculiarities of manners and customs. Besides, the majority of them have adopted the habits and religion of the Russians.[600]

II. The _Indians_, improperly called _Red-skins_,[601] occupy a territory of such vast extent that, in spite of a certain common likeness, considerable differences are noticeable among them, according to the countries they occupy, the climate, configuration, and fauna of which vary in a marked degree. We can in the first place distinguish the _Indians of the Arctic and Atlantic slopes_ of Canada and the United States, belonging to a taller and less brachycephalic race than that which predominates among the _Indians_ in the northern part of the Pacific slope. In the southern part of the Pacific slope we note the appearance of the Central American race, short and brachycephalic, and in the Californian peninsula perhaps the Palæ-American sub-race.[602] Each of the slopes in turn afford several “ethnographic provinces,”[603] the boundaries of which approximately coincide with those of the linguistic families now about to be rapidly passed in review.

_a. The Indians of the Arctic slope_--that is to say, of the low-lying country watered by the Mackenzie and the Yukon--belong to one and the same linguistic family, called Athapascan.

The best known tribes are the _Kenai_ in Alaska, the _Loucheux_ on the lower Mackenzie, the _Chippewas_, the numerous Tinné clans between Hudson’s Bay and the Rocky Mountains, the _Takullies_ to the west of these mountains, etc. All these _Athapascans_, of medium height (1 m. 66), and mesocephalic, are skilful hunters; they traverse the immense forests of their country hunting fur-bearing animals in winter on their snow shoes, in summer in their light beech-bark canoes. The Athapascan linguistic family is not, however, confined to the wooded region of Alaska and western Canada. Members of this tribe have migrated to a far distant part of the Pacific slope, where they have settled in two different districts. The Athapascans of the West, or the Hupas who dwell in southern Oregon and northern California, differ but little physically from the Athapascans properly so called, but they are already Californians in ethnic character. The _Athapascans of the south_--that is to say, the _Navajos_ or _Nodehs_ and the _Apaches_ (Fig. 161), taller (1 m. 69), more brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84) than their northern kinsfolk[604]--live in the open country of the Pueblo Indians (Arizona, New Mexico), from whom, however, they differ in regard to manners and usages. They are husbandmen relatively civilised, fierce warriors and bold robbers, whose name has been popularised by the novels of Gustave Aimard and Gabriel Ferry. They are more numerous (23,500 in the United States)[605] than the Athapascans of the north (8,500) and the Hupas (scarcely 900).[606]

_b. The Indians of the Atlantic slope_ are divided into three great linguistic families: Algonquian-Iroquoian, Muskhogean-Choctaw, and Siouan or Dakota.

1. The _Algonquians_ and _Iroquoians_ occupy the “ethnographical province” which bears their name and extends over the east of Canada and the north-east of the United States, between the Mississippi and about the 36th degree of N. latitude. This province is characterised by a temperate climate, abundance of prairies, and broad water-ways; it affords facilities for the chase and the gathering of wild rice and tobacco; certain usages are common to all the tribes inhabiting it (tattooing, colouring the body, moccasins similar to those of the Athapascans, etc.).

The original home of the Algonquians was the region around Hudson’s Bay, where the _Cree_ tribe, which speaks the purest Algonquian language, still exists. Leaving this region, they spread as far as the Atlantic, the Mississippi, and the Alleghany Mountains, driving back the Dakotas into the prairies of the right bank of the Mississippi. The _Abnakis_ of Lower Canada, the _Micmacs_ of Acadia and Newfoundland, the _Leni-Lenapé_ of the Delaware, who fought so valiantly against the European immigrants; the _Mohicans_, idealised by Cooper; the warlike _Shawnees_, the _Ojibwas_ or _Chippewas_ (Fig. 30), who, together with the Lenapé, are alone among the Red-skins in possessing a rudimentary writing; the _Ottawas_, the _Black Feet_, the _Cheyennes_, and so many other tribes besides belonged to this great Algonquian people. It has left traces of its existence in the “mounds” as well as in a great number of the geographical names of the region which it formerly occupied. It is estimated that at the present day there are not more than 95,000 Algonquians, of whom two-thirds inhabit Canada. The most numerous tribe is that of the Chippewas (31,000), while the “last” of the Mohicans were only 121 in the census of 1890. Among the Algonquians ought probably to be included a tribe which became extinct in 1827, that of the Beothucs of Newfoundland, whose affinities with other tribes have not yet been definitely established.[607]

At the time when the Algonquians held a large part of modern Canada and the United States, an isolated portion of their territory was peopled with Iroquoians around Lakes Erie and Ontario, as well as on the lower St. Lawrence. The Iroquoians, sprung from the same common stock as the Cherokis, the ancient mound-builders of the Ohio basin, have dwindled down to a few thousand families in the upper valley of the Tennessee (H. Hale). They are divided into _Hurons_ (between Lakes Ontario and Huron) and _Iroquois_ or _Iroquoians properly so called_. The latter formerly comprised five nations: _Mohawks_, _Oneidas_, _Onondagas_, _Senecas_, and _Cayugas_, united into a democratic confederacy by the famous chief Hiawatha, of whom Longfellow has sung. At a later date the _Tuscaroras_, who dwelt farther to the south-west in Virginia, were also admitted into the confederacy.[608]

The wars in which the Iroquoians have been engaged have singularly reduced their number; to-day there are only about 43,000, of whom 9000 are in Canada.

2. The _Muskhogean group_ comprises several tribes: _Apalachi_, _Chata-Choctaw_, _Chicasaws_, _Creeks_ or _Muskhogis_, who formerly dwelt between the lower Mississippi, the Atlantic, the Tennessee River, and the Gulf of Mexico. To these we must add the _Seminoles_ who formerly occupied the Florida peninsula.[609] The habits of the Muskhogean tribes, of which Hernando de Soto drew so vivid a picture in 1540, were those of husbandmen somewhat advanced in civilisation; they had a hieroglyphic writing (Brinton), but were unacquainted with the use of metals, gold excepted. The southern portion of the United States which these tribes occupied is a region with a sub-tropical climate, favourable to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, maize, and tobacco. The ancient Muskhogis wore garments of special texture, and daubed their bodies like the Algonquians, but were unacquainted with tattooing. At the present day they have dwindled down to 25,500 individuals. Certain tribes, like the _Yamasis_, have completely disappeared; in 1886 there were only three _Apalachi_ women left. We include among the Muskhogis the tribes who formerly lived in the lower valley of the Mississippi, and whose dialects have not been classified: the _Natchez_, idealised by Chateaubriand, a score of whom still dwell among the Creeks and Cherokis; the _Atacapas_, reduced in number to a dozen individuals, in the Calcasieu Pass (Louisiana), etc.

3. The _Siouans_ or _Dakotas_ (Figs. 158 and 159) occupied at the time of the discovery of America the whole country extending to the west of the Mississippi, between the river Arkansas on the south and the Saskatchewan on the north, as far as the Rocky Mountains. For a long time this was believed to be their original home; but it has been found necessary to modify this opinion since the discovery by Hale and Gatschet of tribes speaking a Siouan tongue with archaic forms east of the Mississippi. These tribes are the _Tutelos_ of Virginia, of whom but a score of individuals are left; the _Biloxis_ of Louisiana, and the _Winnebagos_. It is now admitted that the original home of the Siouans was the Alleghany Mountains and the surrounding country; thence they were doubtless forced back by the Algonquians into the prairies to the west of the Mississippi, where they became buffalo-hunters.

The principal Siouan tribes are: the _Assinaboins_ on the Saskatchewan, the _Minnetaris_ on the Yellowstone river, the _Ponkas_ and the _Omahas_ in Nebraska, the _Osages_ of the borders of Arkansas, the _Hidatsas_ of Dakota, the _Crows_ of Montana, the _Siouans_ or _Dakotas_ properly so called (Figs. 26, 158, and 159) in the upper basin of the Missouri, etc. The total number of the Siouans is estimated at 43,400 individuals, of whom 2,200 are in Canada.[610]

The Indians of the four groups just enumerated all resemble each other in physical type: stature very high (from 1 m. 68 among the Cherokis of the east, to 1 m. 75 among the Cheyennes and Crows), head sub-dolichocephalic or mesocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., from 79.3 among the Iroquoians to 80.5 among the Cheyennes), face, oval.[611] Near the Siouans, in the same ethnographic region of the plains of the Great West, dwelt the _Pawnees_ or _Caddoes_, one of the tribes of which, the _Aricaras_ or _Rikaris_ (450 individuals at the present day), emigrated north towards the sources of the Mississippi. As to the _Pawnees properly so called_ they were established in the valley of the Plata, whence they were transferred in 1878 into the Indian Territory; they numbered 820 individuals in the census of 1890. The rest of the nation, the _Wichitas_ (Fig. 160), the _Caddoes_, etc., have abandoned the predatory habits of the true Pawnees and become good husbandmen distributed over different reservations.

The _Kiowas_ form a small linguistic group by themselves. The neighbours formerly of the Comanches and the Shoshones, these ex-robbers are at the present day installed, to the number of 1,500, in the Indian Territory.

The Pawnees and Kiowas are tall and mesocephalic, with a tendency towards brachycephaly.

_c. Indians of the Pacific slope._--The coast tribes of the Pacific might be united into a single group in spite of the great diversity of language existing among them.[612] In fact, most of these Indians belong to one and the same sub-division of the North American race, the _Pacific sub-race_. They are above medium height (from 1 m. 66 among the _Utes_ to 1 m. 69 among the _Chahaptes_), sub-brachycephalic (mean ceph. ind. from 82.7 to 84.7, except the Utes, whose index is 79.5), with rounded face (Tsimshians and Haidas), or elongated (Kwakiutls); they have straight eyes and their pilous system is well developed (Boas). It is only in the region of the Pueblos that we can detect the admixture of the short, brachycephalic Central American race.[613] Ethnic characters enable us to divide the Indians of the Pacific into three groups: Indians of the north-west, Indians of Oregon-California, and Pueblo Indians.[614]

1. _The Indians of the north-west_[615] are divided into two slightly distinct groups by their ethnic characters. In the north, on the indented coast of Alaska and British Columbia, as well as in the innumerable rocky islands lying off it, dwell tribes of fishers and hunters who form a very characteristic group by their ethnic traits, of which the following are the principal: garments of woven wool or of bark (before the arrival of the Whites); communal barracks, near which are raised “totem posts,” usually of slate, ornamented with anthropomorphic sculptures, grotesque or horrible, representing totems; plated armour, composite bow of wood and bone, tattooing, etc. The Pacific coast to the south of Vancouver and the Columbia drainage area is occupied by another group of populations, which, while having some traits in common with the former (communal barracks but without “totem post,” cooking by means of heated stones, zoomorph masks, etc.), exhibits a multitude of characters (garments of raw hides, cranial deformations, absence of tattooings, plain bow, etc.) which keep them widely separate.

The first group comprises the following tribes, beginning at Cape St. Elias and going towards the south: the _Tlinkits_ or _Kolushes_ as far as the 55th degree of N. lat. (6,437 individuals in 1880, according to Petroff); the _Haidas_ or _Skittagets_ of the Queen Charlotte Islands (2,500), skilful carvers in wood; the _Tsimshians_ of the coast situated opposite to these islands; the _Wakashes_, sub-divided into _Nootkas_ of Vancouver Island and _Kwakiutls_ of the adjacent coast. The second group is composed of the remnants of the _Salishans_, _Selish_, or Flat-heads (12,000 in Canada, 5,500 in the “reservations” of the United States); of the _Shahapts_ or “_Nez-percés_” (300), to the south of these; and lastly, the _Chenooks_, well known for their cranial deformations (p. 176).

2. _The seaboard of Oregon and California_ is a succession of short, isolated valleys, abounding in fibrous plants, fruit, and fish. These are excellent conditions for the formation of little isolated ethnic groups; thus it happens that the Indians of this coast are divided into twenty-four or twenty-six distinct linguistic families.

Of these the principal, as we go from north to south, are: the _Copehs_ of the right bank of the Sacramento; the _Pujunnas_ or _Pooyoonas_ of the left bank of the same water-way; the _Kulanapans_ to the north of San Francisco; the _Costanos_ to the south of that town; the _Salinas_, who formerly inhabited the valley bearing the same name, but of whom there remain but a dozen individuals; the _Maripos_ or _Yokuts_ (145 individuals) to the east of the last-named tribe; the _Chumashes_ around the mission of Santa-Barbara, 35° N. latitude, of whom scarcely two score individuals still speak the language of their fathers; the _Hupas_, very primitive in their habits. Among most of these populations are found vestiges of the ancient custom of tattooing and the use of garments fashioned from vegetable fibres.

It is probably in this group that we must include the _Yumas_ of the lower valley of the Colorado (Arizona) and of the Californian peninsula, of whom the principal tribes are as follows: the _Mohaves_ (Fig. 4) and the _Yumas_ properly so called, in the valley of the Colorado; the _Maricopas_ of the valley of the Gila; the _Soris_ or _Seris_ in Mexico, opposite to the Californian peninsula; lastly, in this peninsula itself the _Cochimis_ in the north and the _Periquès_, now extinct, at the southern extremity of the peninsula; there is not, however, any direct evidence that these last spoke a _Yuma_ tongue; further, they burnt their dead while all the other Yumas buried theirs. The population of lower California was very scattered (10,000 individuals in all); they gained a miserable existence from hunting and fishing, and could not even make canoes. To-day but few are left. To judge from the bones gathered at the extreme end of the Californian peninsula, the Indians who dwelt there (the ancestors of the Periquès?) were if anything of short stature; by this characteristic, as well as by their dolichocephaly, they would appear then to be allied to the Palæo-American sub-race.[616]

3. The name _Pueblo Indians_ is sometimes given to the populations inhabiting the caves hollowed out of the sides of the deep cañons and the “pueblos” of the warm and arid table-lands of Arizona, New Mexico, and the adjacent parts of Utah, California, and Mexico.

Some of these populations, the _Moquis_ (2000) for example, belong to the Shoshone linguistic family,[617] others perhaps to the _Pima_ stock (see p. 535); but there are three small groups of these cliff-dwellers whose languages present no analogy with one another nor with any other dialect. These are the _Keres_ (3,560 individuals) and the _Tanos_ (3,200 individuals), both in the upper basin of the Rio Grande, and the _Zuñis_, who to the number of 1,600 occupy the “pueblo” of the same name in the west of New Mexico.

In spite of the diversity of their dialects all the cliff-dwellers have certain physical characters in common, such as stature above the average, brachycephaly, etc.[618] It must not be forgotten that the cliff-dwellers are surrounded on all sides by immigrant populations of the Athapascan stock (see p. 524).

III. _The Indians of Mexico_[619] _and Central America_ may be divided, from the ethnographical point of view, into two great groups: the Sonoran-Aztecs, inhabiting the north of Mexico or what is improperly called the Anahuac plateau; and the Central Americans of Southern Mexico and the states situated more to the south as far as the Costa Rica republic.[620]

_a._ The _Sonoran-Aztecs_ are allied by language to the Shoshones, and by manners and customs to the true Pueblo Indians of the United States, while they exhibit some divergences as regards physical type. Physically the Sonorans are allied to the North Americans of the Atlantic slope, while the peoples of the Aztec group show a great infusion of Central American blood.

The _Pimas_ and their congeners the _Papajos_ constitute one of the principal tribes of the Sonorans. They dwell in pueblos or “casas grandes,” and expend a prodigious amount of labour in drawing their subsistence from the infertile soil of the Gila valley. However, they are fine tall men (mean height 1 m. 71, according to Ten Kate), slim and nimble, having the head a trifle elongated (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., 78.6), the nose prominent, etc. Their neighbours the _Yakis_ and the _Mayas_, included in the _Cahita_ linguistic group, 20,000 strong, have the same type as the Pimas. They inhabit the sterile regions through which flow the rivers Yaki and Mayo, and have preserved their racial purity almost intact,[621] unlike their kinsmen the _Opatas_ and the _Tarahumaras_ of Chihuahua and Sonora, in whom there is a powerful strain of Spanish blood.[622]

Under the collective name of _Aztecs_ or _Nahua_ are comprised several peoples and tribes who formerly occupied the Pacific slope from Rio de Fuerte (26th degree of N. lat.) to the frontiers of Guatemala, with the exception of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; their colonies even extended farther into Guatemala and Salvador (example, the _Pipils_). On the other side, on the Atlantic slope the Nahua tribes inhabited the regions around Mexico. There they had formed, probably two or three centuries before the arrival of the Europeans, three confederate states: _Tezcuco_, _Tlacopan_ and _Tenochtitlan_, under whose dominion were ranged tribes of the same origin scattered along the coast, among the _Totonac_ people in the existing province of Vera Cruz; one of these tribes, the _Nicaraos_ or _Niquirans_, migrated into Nicaragua.[623]

At the present day the Aztecs, about 150,000 in number, are dispersed over the whole Mexican coast from Sinaloa in the south to Tepic, Jalisco, Michoacan on the west. Very peaceful, sedentary, with a veneer of civilisation, they are nominally Catholics, though at bottom they are animists, and full of superstition. In many of the Aztec villages the ancient Nahua language is still spoken.[624]

Side by side with the Aztecs there exist in Mexico three other ethnic groups which may be designated by the name of _Mexicans properly so called_. These are:--

1st. The _Otomis_, presumably the aboriginal inhabitants of the Mexican table-lands, now settled in the state of Guanajuato, and the basin of the upper Moctezuma between Mexico and San Luis de Potosi. They afford a unique example of an American people speaking an almost monosyllabic language. They are below the average height, brachycephalic as a general rule, with a tendency towards mesocephaly.[625]

2nd. The _Tarascos_, formerly spread over the whole of the state of Michoacan, in Guanajuato and Queretaro,[626] have been absorbed by the half-breed population. Lumholtz, however, states that nearly 200,000 uncrossed Tarascos are still living (1896) in the mountains of Michoacan. They had a form of pictography peculiar to themselves, and must have come, according to their traditions, from the northern regions, like the Nahuatlans.

3rd. The _Totonacs_ of the province of Vera Cruz, formerly very civilised, resemble physically their neighbours on the north-east, the _Huaxtecs_; the latter, however, belong to the Maya linguistic group (see below).

_b. The Central Americans._--They may be divided into three geographical groups, the Indians of Southern Mexico, the Mayas, and the Isthmians.

I. Among the numerous aboriginal peoples of Southern Mexico the _Zapotecs_ of the state of Oajaca are the most numerous (about 265,000 individuals). These are the descendants of a once powerful people who had attained to nearly the same degree of civilisation as the Aztecs.

The _Miztecs_ (Figs. 163 and 164), who occupy the eastern part of the state of Oajaca and the adjacent regions of Guerrero, have dwindled to a few thousand individuals. They appear to be of fairly pure Central American race, are very short, brachycephalic, and have a dark brown skin and projecting cheek-bones.[627]

In the east of Oajaca and in Chiapa, on the frontier of Guatemala, are found the _Zoques_, the _Mixes_, and the _Chapanecs_, with whom it is customary to connect the _Chontals_ and the _Popolucas_. But these two vocables signify in Nahuatlan merely “stranger” and “one who speaks badly or stammers.”[628] Among the tribes of Oajaca and Tabasco, described under the name of Chontals, some speak a dialect peculiar to themselves, the Tequistlatecan, allied to the Yuma language (Brinton), while others speak the Maya dialects.[629]

II. The peoples composing the _Maya group_ appear to have come in post-quaternary times (by sea?), and in a state of civilisation already well advanced,[630] into the Yucatan peninsula. Thence they spread into Guatemala and the surrounding regions of Salvador and Honduras, where at the present day they form the bulk of the population. The ancient Maya civilisation resembled that of Mexico, the sanguinary creeds of the latter excepted; their writing was of a perfect hieroglyphic type. Besides the _Mayas properly so called_ of Yucatan, the principal tribes of this group are: the _Tsendals_ or _Chontals_ of Mexico, already mentioned above; the _Mopans_ of Northern Guatemala; the _Koïtches_ or _Quichés_ farther south, the only Indian people possessing an aboriginal written literature; the _Pokomams_ of the district around the town of Guatemala; the _Chortis_ on the territory where the ruins of Copan stand; and a long way off, isolated from the rest of their kinsmen, in the Mexican province of Tamaulipas, the _Huaxtecs_ (p. 537). In spite of linguistic differences, all the Guatemalans or Indians of Guatemala resemble each other physically; they are short, thick-set, with high cheek-bones, prominent and often convex nose.[631] Some characteristic habits, as for instance geophagy, are common to all these populations.

III. _The Isthmians._--We include under this name the native populations of Central America, scattered between Guatemala and the Isthmus of Panama, whose dialects do not fit into any group of American languages.[632]

These are the _Lenkas_ of the interior of Honduras; the _Xicaks_ or _Sihahv_ in the north of this country; the _Chontals_ of Nicaragua, formed from the _Matagalpes_, speaking a language peculiar to themselves; and the tribes adjoining the _Lenkas_, the _Guatusos_ or _Huatusos_, who inhabit the forests surrounding San Juan. The latter were formerly classed, without adequate reason, with the Nahua, and they were represented as having dark complexions, whereas they are as yellow as the rest of Americans. In number they scarcely exceed 600 individuals.[633]

To all these peoples there must be added certain uncivilised tribes of the _Ulva_ group (Soumoo of the English),[634] on the coast of Mosquito, who are sometimes called Caribs, although they have nothing in common with the true Caribs (p. 552); then the _Micas_, the _Siquias_ of the Rio Mico, the _Subironas_ of the Rio Coco, etc., who are all distinguished by the colour of their skin, which is darker than that of Indians in general.

The _Moscos_ or _Mosquitos_ who inhabit the neighbourhood of the Blewfields lagoon (Mosquito reservation) are still darker, indeed, almost black like Negroes, without, however, exhibiting other points of resemblance with the latter. They are short in stature, having a fine, prominent nose, etc., and it is not difficult to distinguish those who are the offspring of Mosquitos crossed with true Negro blood. About 6000 in number, the Mosquitos are relatively civilised, and make use of the Latin alphabet, introduced by missionaries, for writing their mother-tongue. In an island of the Blewfields lagoon, between the Rio Mico and the Rio San Juan, have been found the _Rumas_, of very high stature, but their language is as yet unknown.

_Half-breeds of North America._--In the United States and Canada the half-breeds of Indians and Whites, as well as Mulattos, form but a very slight portion of the population. This is not the case in Central America and Mexico. The aboriginal populations of Central America are reduced to a few thousand individuals; on the other hand, the half-breeds, produced by the crossings between them and the Europeans, form almost the whole of the population.

In Mexico the half-breeds form a little less than the half of the population, and in a general way they increase in number as we go from north to south and from west to east. Their nomenclature is somewhat complicated.[635] On the other hand, Negroes and Mulattos are not very numerous in Mexico and Central America. The Negro element exhibits a marked predominance only in the Antilles. The population of the island of Haiti is almost wholly Negro or Mulatto; that of the other islands has sprung from the manifold crossings between the ancient Carib or Arawak aborigines (see p. 552), and between Negroes and Europeans. The children of a white man and a mulatto woman are called Quadroons in the Antilles, but most of the half-breeds among whom European blood predominates prefer the name of _Creoles_. The Creole type of the Antilles is indeed very fine, especially among the women (Fig. 162), who sometimes have a vivacious look and a bewitching smile unique of their kind.

PEOPLES OF SOUTH AMERICA.

Accepting, with Brinton, the northern political frontier of Costa Rica as the ethnological limit of South America, I propose to pass in review the native populations of the continent, grouping them according to the four great natural regions: the Cordillera of the Andes; the plains of the Amazon and the Orinoco, with Guiana; the table-lands of eastern and southern Brazil; lastly, the Pampas of the southern part of the continent, with Tierra del Fuego.

This division corresponds pretty well with the distribution of races, languages, and ethnographic provinces.[636] In fact, the substratum of the Andean populations is formed of the Central American race, while that of the Amazonians and Guianas is composed of the South American race with its two sub-races, South American properly so called, and Palæo-American; the latter predominates also in east Brazil and Tierra del Fuego, while there are mingled with it Patagonian and other elements in the south of Brazil and among the Pampeans.

As regards language there is the same difference. In the Andean dialects the pronominal particles are suffixes, while in the Amazonian dialects these particles are prefixes, but both groups allow of a limitative form of the personal pronoun in the plural. As to the Pampean dialects, they are without the limitative form in most cases, and sometimes make use of prefixes, sometimes of suffixes.[637]

The ethnological differences of the three groups are manifold. This subject will be briefly dealt with further on. For the present let us observe that, in a general way, the Andeans are husbandmen, and have had a highly-developed native civilisation, while the Amazonians and the Brazilians of the east are for the most part fishers or hunters, often in the lowest scale of civilisation. As to the Pampeans, they are typical pastoral nomads. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Andeans were acquainted with the weaving of stuffs; they worked in gold, silver, and bronze, manufactured fine pottery, had houses of stone and fortified towns, and employed as their chief weapons clubs and slings. The Amazonians and their congeners, on the other hand, still go almost naked, and adorn themselves with feathers; they were unacquainted with metals on the arrival of the Europeans, and some are ignorant even now of the art of pottery; they dwell in shelters or huts of branches and leaves, and their weapons are the blow-pipe and poisoned arrows. The Pampeans, before being influenced by the Andean or European civilisation, clothed themselves with skins, were acquainted neither with metals nor pottery, dwelt in huts, and used the _bollas_ as their principal weapon.

Before beginning a rapid review of the South American tribes, it must again be remarked that their nomenclature often leads to confusion. A great number of terms are only qualifications applied by Europeans to the most different peoples, in no way akin one to the other. Such, for example, is the term “Bougres,” which is given in the east of Brazil to savages in general; or that of “Jivaros,” employed in the same sense in Peru; such also are the appellations of _Coroados_ (crowned or tonsured), of _Orejones_ (pierced ears), of _Cherentes_, _Caribs_, etc., without taking into account those relating to the half-breeds.[638]

I. _The Andeans._[639]--By this name we shall describe the principal populations which are stationed in the Cordilleras, and on the high table-lands shut in by these mountains from Costa Rica to the 45th degree of S. latitude. Most of them belong to the Chibcha and Quechua linguistic families; but there are also several whose linguistic affinities have yet to be determined.

1. _Chibcha Linguistic Family._--The _Talamancas_ of Costa Rica, sub-divided into several tribes (_Chirripos_, _Bribris_, etc.), form the most northern tribe of this group; they dwell partly on the Atlantic slope, partly on the Pacific. By certain ethnic characters (feather ornaments, use of the blow-pipe) they are related to the Amazonians.[640] Farther away the _Guaymis_ inhabit the region of Chiriqui (Panama), where such beautifully ornamented ancient pottery (Figs. 63 and 64) has been found in the tombs of a still mysterious population. They are short, thick-set, and flat-faced, resembling the Otomis of Mexico. There may be about 4000 of them, according to Pinart; but some of their tribes had dwindled to such an extent, that of the _Muoi_, for example, there were only three individuals in 1882. They organise feasts among the tribes, to which invitations are sent by means of a staff sent round (a portion of a liana-stem, having as many knots as there are days remaining before the feast). With their bodies daubed with red or blue, the Guaymis give themselves up during these feasts to drinking and the game of _balza_, which consists in throwing a sort of club at the legs of their adversaries. There are also lesser feasts, feasts of initiation called here _urotes_.[641] The _Chibchas_ of Columbia, whose civilisation is no whit behind that of the _Nahuas_,[642] have been under Spanish influence since the conquest, and to-day but a few tribes are met with who still speak their mother-tongue or who have preserved their ancient customs.

Such are the _Chimilas_ of the Sierra-Perija; the _Tunebos_, true cliff-dwellers, eastward of Bogota; the _Arahuacos_, dwelling to the number of 3000 in the Sierra-Nevada of Santa Marta. The latter have nothing in common with the true Arawaks, unless it be their name, which, however, they repudiate as an insult; the name they give to themselves is _Cöggaba_, that is to say, “Men.”[643] As to the _Chibcha_ or _Muisca_ Indians of the Rio Magdalena, who were the most civilised of all the peoples speaking the Chibcha tongue, no survivors are to be found.

2. _The Quechua Linguistic Family_ is one of the most far-reaching of South America. The Quechua dialects are still spoken to-day on the coast, and along the chain of the Andes from Quito to the 30th degree S. latitude. This is practically the extent of the ancient empire of the _Incas_, the best known nation among the Quechua peoples. But the influence of the Inca civilisation and the Quechua language extended even farther, to Columbia, the borders of Ucayale, and the Bolivian table-land on the north, to the edge of the Pampas on the south (among the Calchaquis). For the western part of South America the Quechua tongue was the _lengua general_, as the Tupi-Guarani tongue was the _lingua geral_ for the east (Brazil, Paraguay, etc.). This language is not at all superseded by Spanish; on the contrary, the Whites learn it, and several Quechua words: _guano_, _pampa_, _condor_, _quina_, have found their way into the languages of all civilised nations.[644] The principal tribes are: the _Huancas_ to the north-east of Lima, the _Lamanas_ near Trujillo, the _Incas_ in the vicinity of the Rio Apurimac, the _Aymaras_ of the high table-lands of Bolivia (600,000 individuals, of whom two-thirds are of pure blood).

In spite of the diversity of dialects all the Quechuas and Aymaras present a remarkable uniformity of physical type. They are of low stature (1 m. 60 according to D’Orbigny, 1 m. 57 according to Forbes), thick-set, and very strong. The chest is broad, the head massive and globular, the nose aquiline, forehead retreating. This last peculiarity should however be attributed to the custom of deforming the head, very widespread among all the Quechuas and neighbouring peoples; this deformation is still practised in the same way as in the days of the Inca civilisation. It is very unlikely that the frequent occurrence of the “Inca bone” (p. 67) in Peruvian skulls has any connection with this deformation. The greatest part of the population of Peru is composed of Quechuas and Aymaras, or of Quechua-Spanish half-breeds.[645]

The _Calchaquis_,[646] the ancient inhabitants of the modern south-west provinces, Argenton, Catamarca, Rioja, Santiago, etc., probably also spoke a Quechua dialect. It was a very civilised population; the only one in the South American continent which knew how to construct buildings of freestone. Although partly borrowed from the Peruvians, the Calchaqui civilisation has a character of its own, and in several respects recalls that of the Pueblo Indians, particularly the Zuñis (arrangement of their cities in a series of seven, copper tools and weapons, etc.).

The last Calchaqui tribe, the _Quilmes_, was transported in 1670 by the Spaniards near to Buenos Ayres, where it forms the village of this name.

3. _Unclassified Tribes._--In Columbia let us note the following tribes:--

The _Cuna_ Indians, also called _Tula Dariens_, etc., of southern Panama. They are people of low stature (1 m. 50, according to Brinton), thick-set, of light yellow complexion, very brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 88.6, according to Catat), with broad faces, somewhat resembling the Guaymis, their neighbours in the east (p. 545). It is asserted that individuals with grey eyes and chestnut or reddish hair are not rare among them. They are not numerous; the tribe of the _Changuina Dorasks_, which formerly numbered 5000, had dwindled down in 1883 to a dozen individuals, still speaking their mother-tongue; the _Sambu Chocos_, who occupied the whole of the lower valley of the Atrato, and extended westward to the Pacific coast, are now scarcely 600 in number in southern Darien. They are short (1 m. 55), brachycephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., 84.1), very broad-faced.[647] To the eastward of the _Chibchas_ (p. 545) dwelt several families of the _Paniquitas_ and _Paezes_, included in a distinct linguistic group, of which the other representatives, _Colimas_ and _Manipos_, have entirely disappeared. In central Columbia (state of Antioquia) dwell the last remnants of the _Nutabehs_ and _Tahamis_, tribes resembling the Muisca Indians (p. 546) in their customs and social state.

As to the Ando-Peruvian region, several ethnic groups, using special dialects, are also found there, having no relation with the Quechuas. Such as the small tribe of the _Puquinas_ in the neighbourhood of Lake Titicaca, the _Yuncas_ or _Cuna-Yuncas_ (“inhabitants of the hot lands” in the Quechua tongue), settled on the Pacific coast between the 5th and 10th degrees of S. latitude; finally, the _Atacameños_, fishers of the Loa valley, and the _Shangos_ or _Changos_, more to the south, in the desert of Atacama. These two tribes are characterised by their low stature (1 m. 60, according to D’Orbigny).

It may be as well to class with the Andeans the _Araucans_, or _Mapu-che_ as they call themselves, whose linguistic affinities are still obscure, but whom we must connect with the Central American race by their physical characters; stature almost low (1 m. 61), sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., 82, skull 81), elongated face, with slightly projecting cheek-bones, straight or convex nose, etc., the general appearance recalling the Aymaras and the Quechuas;[648] certain ethnic characters (perfected weaving of stuffs, irrigation, hoe-culture, metallurgy, etc.) place them in the same category as the Andeans, and point to Peruvian influence. They are only found, in fact, to the north of the Bio-Bio river (37°-38° S. lat.)--that is to say, only in those places reached by the Inca civilisation. South of this line, with the exception of the coast, where European influence makes itself felt, the Araucans have remained until recent times hunters or nomadic shepherds, almost uncivilised. It is estimated that there are 40,000 Chilian Araucans. At a comparatively recent period some Araucan tribes migrated to the eastern slope of the Cordilleras (the Manzanieros)[649] and into the Argentine pampas, as far as the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres. In these parts they have been pushed back, firstly by the European colonists, then by the Argentine soldiers, farther and farther south, beyond the Rio Negro. This population is a very mixed one; we find in it Patagonian, Quechua, Chaco, and even European elements (see p. 574).

From the social point of view, all the Araucans have preserved their ancient organisation of hordes governed by a hereditary chief. Little is known about their religious ideas; it is understood that they hold in the highest reverence an evil spirit called “Pilgan” by the Andean Araucans, “Nervelu” (“bird with metal beak and claws”) by the Araucans of the Pampas. Formerly, the Araucan warriors were buried with their weapons, their horse was felled on the grave and consumed.[650]

Among the Andean populations we must also mention the _Yurucares_, to the west of the Rio Mamoré, of very high stature, their skin being, it is said, almost as white as that of Europeans.

II. _The Amazonians._--The vast plains and impenetrable forests, rich in birds and arboreal mammalia, watered by the great tropical streams, the Amazon and the Orinoco, are peopled by a large number of tribes who may be grouped to-day--thanks to the recent works of philologists--into four families. Two of these, the Carib and Arawak, or Maypure families, comprise the tribes of the eastern part of the country;[651] the two others, which are less important, the _Miranha_ and _Pano_ families, are composed of the tribes of the western part of the country.

1. _The Carib Family._--It was thought until recently that the peoples of this linguistic group had settlements only in the Guianas and the Antilles, but recent studies have shown that they extended much farther over the South American continent, as far as the source of the Yapura on the west, and the 14th degree of S. latitude on the south. As the speech of the southern Caribs is purer, less sprinkled with Arawak words than that of their northern brethren, philologists suppose that the original home of the Caribs in general should be found somewhere in the centre of Brazil, to the south of the Amazon. It is from there that they must have migrated into Guiana, whence their hordes moved towards the Antilles probably two centuries before the arrival of Columbus. There they found already the Arawak tribes (see p. 557), whom they supplanted in the lesser Antilles, and against whom they directed their maritime expeditions as far as the east coast of the island of Haiti. These _Antillian Caribs_ have been exterminated by the European colonists, and except in the islands in the vicinity of the Guianas, like Trinidad, there remain to-day but 192 individuals in the island of St. Vincent (census of 1881) and 200 individuals, of whom there are barely a dozen unhybridised, in the island of Dominica. Most of the Caribs of the island of St. Vincent were transported by the English in 1796 to Ruatan Island and Trujillo, on the north coast of Honduras. Their descendants, crossed with Negro blood, numbering about 6000, live in these places as well as in British Honduras, where they are known by the name of “Black Caribs.”

The most southerly tribes of the Caribs are the _Bakairis_ (Fig. 172), and the _Nahuquas_ of the upper Xingu, as well as the _Palmellas_ of the lower Guapore, a sub-tributary of the right of the Rio Madeira. The _Apiacas_ of the lower Tocantins, who must not be confounded with the Tupi tribe of the same name (p. 569), form the link between this distant branch and the bulk of the Caribs peopling Guiana. The latter are known as _Apotos_ and _Waywai_ in Brazilian Guiana; as _Roucouyennes_ and _Galibis_ in French Guiana; as _Kalinas_ in Dutch Guiana (Figs. 167 and 168). The Caribs of British Guiana belong chiefly to the _Macusi_ tribe, those of Venezuela are represented by the _Makirifares_ in the east, and farther away to the west, by the _Motilones_, who keep to the borders of Colombia (Ernst). The ancient Carib tribes of Venezuela called _Chaimas_ and _Kumanas_ are represented at the present day by the Indians of _Aguasai_ (87 miles north of Bolivar), who speak Spanish, but who have preserved the Carib type (Ten Kate). It is the same with the _Aborigines of Oruba Island_, to the north-east of the Gulf of Venezuela (Pinart). Lastly, in the upper basin of the Yapura, outside of Brazilian territory, there are likewise known members of the Carib family, particularly the _Uitotos_ or _Carijonas_, who live side by side with the Miranhas (p. 560) (Crevaux). To judge from some ethnographical analogies (similarity of tattooing, etc.), the _Araras_ or _Yumas_, who wander on the right bank of the Amazon, in the neighbourhood of the mouths of the Xingu, Tapajos, Madeira and Purus, belong also to the Carib family, but as yet nothing is known about their language.[652]

The physical type of the Caribs of Guiana and Venezuela differs slightly from that of the Caribs of the upper Xingu. The former are of low stature (1 m. 58 for men, 1 m. 45 for women), and mesocephalic (mean ceph. ind. in the liv. sub., 81.3), while the Caribs of the upper Xingu are below the average height and sub-dolichocephalic (1 m. 61 for men, 1 m. 52 for women; mean ceph. ind. on the liv. sub., 79.6).[653] What is characteristic of certain Carib tribes of the south (Bakairis, etc.) is the frequent occurrence of individuals with wavy or frizzy hair and convex nose, in the midst of the common type having straight hair, short and somewhat broad nose, etc. The ancient Caribs of the Antilles were short, somewhat light-skinned, and had the custom of deforming the head by flattening the frontal region of the skull.

From the ethnic point of view, the Caribs are distinguished by their acquaintance with the hammock; a plaited (not woven) texture; and a particular kind of cassava squeezer (p. 188); by their fondness for painting the body; by the practice of the “couvade” (p. 240), etc. The blow-pipe and poisoned arrows are not their “national weapons,” as has sometimes been said; the Caribs of the south are unacquainted with them, and, on the other hand, several non-Carib tribes of the Amazon basin make use of them. Their favourite weapon is or was the battle-axe of polished stone (basalt, diabase). The slight difference between the mode of life of the Caribs of the Antilles and that of the Caribs of the present day was due to the existence of anthropophagy, the presence of “communal houses” (_Carbets_), and to some other characteristics which denote their superiority over the modern Caribs from the social point of view.[654]

2. The Arawak linguistic family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of _Maypure_, has been called by Von den Steinen “_Nu-Arawak_,” from the prenominal prefix “nu” for the first person, common to all the Arawak tribes, scattered from the coast of Dutch Guiana and British Guiana to the upper basins of the Amazon and Orinoco. The principal tribes are: the _Aturai_ and the _Vapisiana_ of British Guiana; the _Maypures_ and the _Banivas_ of Venezuela; the _Manaos_ and the _Aruacos_ of the Rio Negro; the _Yumanas_ and the _Passehs_ of the left bank of the Solimães; the _Marauas_ more to the south; the _Paumary_ and the numerous _Ipurina_ tribes of the Purus basin; lastly the half-civilised _Moxos_ or _Mohos_ of the upper Mamoré, and the _Canopos_ or _Antis_ of the forests of the upper basin of the Ucayale (Peru), of average stature, brown-coloured skin, skilful hunters.[655] The tribes of the upper Xingu are the _Vaura_ and the _Mehinacu_. Let us also note the _Parecis_ of the region of the sources of the Tapajos, among whom we observe the influences of the Quechua civilisation (Pandean pipes) or the Peruvian (a particular head-dress of birds’ feathers and porcupine quills, cotton textiles, plaited hats, etc.). In upper Paraguay, as far as the 21st degree of S. latitude, are also found tribes speaking the Arawak tongue; the _Quinquinaos_, the _Layanas_, etc. (This is the Moho-Mbaure group of L. Quevedo) On the other hand, in the marshy island of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, there dwelt a few decades ago the _Aruan_ people, who spoke an Arawak dialect, while in the north of Venezuela, the peninsula of _Goajira_ is occupied by the _Goajires_ tribe, which also belongs to the same linguistic family. De Brette estimates its numerical force at 30,000 individuals (1890-95).[656]

The pre-Columbian aborigines of Porto Rico, Haiti, Jamaica, and Cuba were Arawaks, to judge from the toponymy of these islands. The authors of the eighteenth century speak of the _Ciboneys_ in Cuba, Bahama, and the west of Haiti, and of the “Aravagues” in the east of this latter island and in Porto Rico. These aborigines, although in a state of constant warfare with the Caribs, resembled them in certain characteristic customs (cranial deformation, colouring of the body, etc.). They were exterminated by the Whites, being reduced to 4000 in Cuba as far back as 1554. In 1848 there remained of these tribes but a few hybrid families in the Sierra Maestra of Cuba and the village of Boya to the north of the town of San Domingo.[657]

Physically the Arawaks present several types, as might have been expected from the wide diffusion of this group. Those of the Guianas, as well as the Ipurinas and their congeners are a little lower in stature (1 m. 55 and 1 m. 59 according to Ten Kate and Ehrenreich) and a little more brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 83.4) than the Caribs of the same regions. Those of the upper Xingu, on the contrary, are a little taller (1 m. 64) and more dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 78.2) than their Carib-speaking neighbours. Their face is somewhat broader and their eyes often oblique. The difference between the tribes of the north and those of the south is thus more pronounced among the Arawaks than among the Caribs. The Ciboneys, to judge from the skulls found in Cuba and Jamaica, were hyper-brachycephalic in consequence of deformations (Haddon). The occurrence of individuals with wavy or frizzy hair is also as frequent among the Arawaks as among the Caribs. From the ethnographical point of view there are some differences between the Arawaks of the north and the south. The use of the blow-pipe is very general among the Arawak tribes of the upper Amazon and its tributaries, but it is unknown among others. With the exception of tribes influenced by the Quechua-Peruvian or European civilisation, the Arawaks are unacquainted with the weaving of cotton, and are still in the stone, and especially the wood age. Their scanty garments are made with plaited fibres or with beaten bark; their ornaments are birds’ feathers and the teeth of mammalia.

3. The tribes composing the _Pano_ linguistic group, as established by R. de la Grasserie,[658] chiefly inhabited the north-west of eastern Peru, but they are likewise met with in the west of Brazil (the _Karipunas_ of the banks of the Madeira), and in the north of Bolivia (the _Pacaguara_), separated from their racial brothers by a series of tribes speaking the Arawak dialects. The principal Pano tribes in Peru are: the _Kassivo_, cannibals of the upper Ucayle who resemble the Fuegians; the _Conibos_ of the same river, very low in stature;[659] the _Panos_, of whom there remain but a few families.[660] The _Araunos_, of the region comprised between the two principal branches of the Madeira (Madre de Dios and Beni) speak a Pano language, but with a considerable admixture of Quechua elements.

4. The tribes of the banks of the Iça and the Yapura have received from their neighbours the name of _Miranhas_, which, it appears, means “rovers.” Ehrenreich employed this name to designate various tribes whose dialects presented a certain family likeness. Of these tribes, which are rarely visited by the Brazilian-Portuguese merchants, the following are the chief: the _Miranhas_ properly so called (Figs. 169 and 170), between the Iça and the lower Yapura, mentioned long ago by Martius; the _Kœrunas_ on the left bank of the Yapura; the _Tucanos_ and the _Jupuas_ to the east of the last-named, in the vicinity of the river Uaupes. The Miranhas have maintained their primitive condition. Of a very warlike disposition, they use as their principal weapon a particular kind of club, a sort of broadsword of hard wood. They employ the _drum language_ (see p. 134). Though living on the banks of fish-yielding rivers, they do not fish, but confine themselves to hunting, like the ancient Quechuas, by means of nets stretched out between trees, into which they drive, with cries and gestures, the terrified animals (Crevaux).

In addition to the tribes forming the four families just described, several others, _whose languages have not yet been classified_, should be mentioned.

It is in the basin of the Orinoco that we meet with most of these tribes who have as yet been little studied; the _Otomacs_ between the Apure and Meta rivers, geophagous and monogamous; the _Guamos_ of the Rio Apure, reduced to a few families; the _Piaroas_, whose sub-brachycephalic heads are often deformed; the _Chiricoas_ and the _Guahibos_, veritable “gypsies” of South America, who are encountered between the Meta, the Orinoco, and the Rio Branco; lastly, the _Guaraunos_ or _Warraus_ of the coast between the mouths of the Orinoco and the Corentin (Figs. 165 and 166), probably allied to the _Guayqueris_ of the country around Cumana in Venezuela. The latter, however, are sub-dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on five liv. subjects, 78.5 according to Ten Kate), while the Guaraunos are all mesocephalic (ceph. ind. 81.5 according to the same author). In the upper valleys of the numerous rivers which combine to form the Amazon, there are likewise dwelling tribes of undetermined linguistic affinities, whose names only are known. The most important, that of the _Zaparos_ or _Jeberos_ (about 15,000 individuals), is stationed between the Pastaza and Napo rivers, as well as along the Maranon from the mouth of the Zamora to that of the Morona. Farther north in the Cordilleras, in a state of complete independence, dwell the _Jebaros_ or _Jevaros_ (_Civaros_), fierce warriors, celebrated for their skill in preparing the heads of their vanquished enemies; these are hideous mummified and shrivelled objects with their long hair left on them.[661] To the east of the Jevaros are the _Maynas_, and on the Rio Javary, the _Yameos_ or _Lamas_. Farther east again, near the Rio Napo, wander the hunting tribes, the _Tecunas_ or _Triconnas_, and the _Orejones_, so named from their habit of inserting wooden plugs into the lobe of the ear, a practice which, however, is also found among several other peoples.

III. _The Indians of East Brazil and the Central Region of South America_ belong on the one side to the Ges or Ghes linguistic family (formerly called _Tapuyas_, _Botocudos_, etc.), and on the other form several tribes whose affinities are yet to be determined. Lastly, the _Tupi-Guarani_ linguistic family (see p. 567) is also represented in this region. From the ethnological point of view these three groups of population have felt the influence of environment and habitat; we must therefore consider separately the Indians of east Brazil and those of the central region, and lastly the _Tupi-Guarani_ family.

1. _East Brazil_ is composed of plateaux formed of friable rocks rising to the east of the Tocantins between the wooded _Sierras_. These plateaux do not afford so many resources as the Amazon region; thus it is that the tribes inhabiting them are more uncivilised, often more wretched than the Amazonians. The rarity of hard rocks suitable for the manufacture of tools causes many of them to be still in the wood age. The greater part belong to the _Ges_ or _Ghes_ linguistic family. This term, which comes from the syllable “ges” placed at the end of most of the tribal names, was adopted by Martius to designate the Botocudos and some neighbouring tribes. But of recent years Von den Steinen and Ehrenreich have widened the meaning of this word.[662] Henceforth it denotes a collection of tribes which, besides linguistic character, exhibit many other common features in their habits and mode of life (great phalansterial houses with private hearths for each family, absence of hammocks, ignorance of navigation,[663] use of “botocs” or ear and lip plugs, arrows barbed on one side, etc.). Among the tribes of the Ges tongue we must distinguish those which dwell on the right bank of the Tocantins in east Brazil and those who have migrated to the west of this river into the centre of Southern America. The former have retained much better their individual character, but they have been partly decimated by the European colonists, and are not very numerous at the present day. Of the ancient _Kamakans_, of the _Patacho_, and so many other tribes, there remain but the memory or a few hybrid descendants, but three tribes have yet preserved themselves more or less intact in the midst of their forests: the _Botocudos_, the _Kayapos_, and the _Cainguas_. The _Botocudos_ or _Aymoros_,[664] who call themselves _Burus_, dwell between the Rio Doce and the Rio Pardo (Minas Geraes Prov.). They are men of low stature (1 m. 59 according to Ehrenreich), dolichocephalic (mean ceph. ind. 74.1 on the skull, according to Rey, Peixoto, etc.; 78.2 on the liv. sub.), and their skulls recall very strongly those of the prehistoric race of Lagoa Santa and the “Sambaquis,” while the living subjects are closely allied to the Fuegians, as much by the size and form of the head as by the lines of the face, the prominent supraciliary ridges, the sunk nose narrow at the root, etc. I have given (pp. 160, 210, etc.) several characteristics of the ethnography of the Botocudos. The Kayapos,[665] who were believed to be an extinct race, and who, on the contrary, are one of the most important and warlike tribes of Brazil, are divided into three sections. The _Northern Kayapos_ occupy the middle Tocantins, and overflow on one side into the sterile “Sertaos” of the province of Maranon, and on the other into central Brazil, on the left bank of the lower Araguaya; the _Western Kayapos_, who keep in the upper valley of the Xingu, have been described by Ehrenreich and Von den Steinen under the names of _Suya_ and _Akua_ (the _Chavantes-Cherentes_ of the Brazilians). They differ from the Botocudos in physique, being brachycephalic, tall, and very light-skinned. As to ethnical characteristics, these are for the most part borrowed from their Carib and Arawak neighbours. The _Southern Kayapos_ (near the river Parana, 20° S. lat.) are merely known by name. The _Kaingans_ or _Kame_, wrongly called _Coroados_ (see p. 545), inhabit the mountains of the Brazilian provinces of São Paulo, S. Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul; they are tribes of uncivilised and nomadic hunters.

Besides the clans of the Ges family, we must also mention in the eastern region of Brazil the following tribes _whose languages have not been classified_, and whose affinities with the Ges are not very clear. The more important of these tribes are the _Puris_ or _Pouris_ and the _Kiriris_, wrongly called “Tapuyas” or “Coroados” (see p. 545). At the beginning of the century the _Puris_ in fairly large numbers still inhabited--together with the _Koropos_--the mountains between Rio de Janeiro and Uro Preto. There is but a small remnant left at the present day, consisting of a few individuals living together in the hamlet of San Laurenço and in the “aldeamento” of Etueto, near to the boundary line of the Minas Geraes and Spiritu Santo provinces. Formerly the _Puris_ comprised several tribes, hunters and fishers. They plaited their hammocks, had special ceremonies when their daughters arrived at the age of puberty, believed in a superior spirit, “Tupan,” having the form of a white bird, etc.

The _Kiriris_ or _Sabuyas_ of the province of Pernambuco formed, two centuries ago, a powerful and semi-civilised nation; there are now only 600 left, living under wretched conditions in the lower valley of the São Francisco.

2. _The central region of South America_ is formed of table-lands and wooded chains which cover the south-east of Bolivia and the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso (twice as big as France). Corresponding to the diversity of the elevations and climates there is a diversity of peoples inhabiting the country. We have already observed in this region tribes of Carib speech (Bakairi, etc.), of Arawak (Paressi, etc.), of Ges (western and southern Kayapos), and we may further notice tribes of Tupi speech (the Chiquitos, etc.). But outside of these classified peoples there are other ethnic groups occupying the table-lands of Matto Grosso, whose affinities are not yet well known, the more important of them being the Karayas, the Trumai, and Bororos.[666]

The _Karayas_ are divided into two sections which know nothing of each other. It was the northern Kayapos of Ges speech who thus separated the Karayas, driving them, on the one side, into the valley of the Xingu, and on the other, into the valley of the Araguaya. Like the Ges, the Karayas are unacquainted with the use of the hammock, but, unlike them, are good boatmen and draughtsmen. It has been observed that they have a special language for the women, which appears to be the ancient form of the present language of the men. They are fairly tall (1 m. 69) and dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 73), their nose is convex, and their hair sometimes curly.

The Trumai of the sources of the Xingu are, on the contrary, short (1 m. 59) and mesocephalic (ceph. ind. 81.1), and they have convex noses and retreating foreheads.

The _Bororos_ (Fig. 173), scattered from the upper Paraguay to the upper Parana, are hunters; they have great bows and arrows of bamboo or bone. Polygamy exists among them, and there are also cases of polyandry. They are tall (1 m. 74) and mesocephalic (ceph. ind. 81.5).[667]

In spite of the diversity of language and race, several of the tribes of the central region, living side by side, have the same manners and customs, and the same kind of existence, as a result of mutual borrowings.[668] The best example of this is furnished by the Caribs, Arawaks, Ges, Tupis, and Trumai of the upper Xingu. They all go naked, the women sometimes wearing the triangular palm-leaf which plays the part of the fig-leaf; their huts are grouped around the “house of flutes,” or the dwelling of the young men--a Carib importation--in which are preserved symbolic masks, which, like the pottery, are of Arawak invention. The tools are primitive, frequently of stone.[669] One might almost say that these tribes in ploughing imitate the movements of burrowing animals, for in this operation they make use of the long claws of the front paws of a great armadillo (_Dasipus gigas_), two of them attached together. The throwing-stick and blunt arrows are used by the Trumai, as by the Tupi tribes. They have no domestic animals, but keep some wild animals in captivity--parrots, lizards (to hunt insects), etc. The custom of the couvade and the existence of witch medicine-men are common to all these tribes.

3. _The Tupi-Guarani._--In South America there exist a great number of tribes scattered from Guiana to Paraguay, from the Brazilian coast to the eastern slope of the Andes, who speak the different dialects of the Tupi linguistic family.[670] They may be divided into two groups: on one side, to the east, the tribes speaking the ancient Tupi language, which, in imitation of Quechua, was a “lingua geral,” and on the other, the numerous tribes to the west, speaking different dialects which have only a vague resemblance to Tupi, according to L. Adam. At the time of the conquest the Tupi tribes, called _Tupi-namba Tanuyo_, who were cannibals, occupied not only the whole of the Brazilian coast from Para to Santos, but also the valley of the Amazon as far as Manaos. These primitive Tupis have mostly been exterminated by the Portuguese, but their language, which has become that of the converted Indians, has spread as far as the valley of the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Amazon, where there have never been any Tupi tribes.

_The Eastern or Guarani Tupis_, formerly so numerous in the Brazilian provinces of São Paulo and the Rio Grande do Sul, are reduced at the present time to a few families; on the other hand, they still form the bulk of the population of Paraguay, and the territory of Missiones in the Argentine Republic. The Guarani of Paraguay, “tamed” in the commanderies by the Jesuits, have intermingled their blood with that of the Spaniards, and adopted their mode of life. However, there still remain in the depths of the forest some tribes who have kept intact their type and manners. Among the more interesting of these we must note the _Cainguas_ or _Kaigguas_[671] of south-east Paraguay and Missiones (Argentine), scattered in little groups, obeying one cacique or chief. They are short (1 m. 60), mesocephalic (mean ceph. ind. of 12 men, 80.4), of bronzed complexion; their hair is lank or wavy, often reddish in the children; the nose is straight, the cheek-bones are prominent. From ten to twenty thousand Cainguas are estimated to be in Paraguay alone. Extremely fond of dancing and music, they like drawing as well, and possess as a rule a quick understanding. They are husbandmen, going almost naked, obtain fire by friction, are acquainted with weaving and pottery, have barbed and sometimes blunt-pointed arrows.[672] Other tribes, the _Jacunda_, the _Pacajas_, the _Tacunas_, keep to the lower valley of the Xingu. The _Mauhés_, stationed between this latter river and the Madeira, are at the extreme limit of the expansion towards the west of the pure Tupis. On turning again towards the south we come across the _Apiacas_ of Tapajos (who must not be confounded with the similarly named tribe of the Carib family), the _Camayuras_ of the upper Xingu, the _Chiquitos_ and the _Chiriguanos_ of Bolivia, now Hispanified.

The migrations of the Tupis from the south to the north, conjectured in D’Orbigny’s day, have now been absolutely demonstrated. Paraguay and the east of Bolivia were the starting-points of these migrations. The exodus of the Tupis took place at first towards the coast, then along the seaboard to the mouth of the Para, and thence further northward into French Guiana, where some Tupi tribes are still to be found, the _Emerillons_ of the valley of the Saï, a left tributary of the Inini, the _Ovampis_ of the upper Oyapoc, etc. The _Aramichaux_ (Fig. 172), who were believed to be extinct, and who dwell between the Uaqui and the Arua,[673] seem to be also of the Tupi stock. Another stream of migration may be traced straight towards the north-east; it passes through the upper basin of the Xingu, to terminate eastward of the Tocantins (the tribe of the _Guajajaza_). An isolated Tupi group exists far to the north-west of the territory occupied by the bulk of this family. It consists of the _Omaguas_ and the _Cocomas_, half-civilised tribes of the upper valley of the Maranon (Peru), to the eastward of the Jivaros. Individuals with wavy or frizzy[674] hair are not rare among these hybrid peoples.

The family of the _Western Tupis_, whose linguistic affinities are less clear, comprises, provisionally, the _Mundrucus_, or _Mundurukus_, of the middle Tapajoz, the _Yurunas_ of the lower Xingu, the _Anetö_ of the upper course of this river, etc.

Physically, the Tupis differ but little from the Caribs; those of the north, the Mauhés and the Mundurukus for example, studied by Barboza Rodriguez, are 1 m. 58 and 1 m. 60 in stature, whilst the _Kamayuras_ and the _Anetö_ of the upper Xingu are taller (1 m. 62 on an average); the cephalic index of the latter is 79 (Ehrenreich). The Guarani should be, according to D’Orbigny, more than 1 m. 66 in height.[675] But the anthropological study of the Tupis is still to be made.

If we consider the accounts of the different dialects of the four great linguistic families which we have just described: Carib, Arawak, Ges, and Tupi, we are bound to admit the following hypothesis as to the migrations of the peoples belonging to these families. There have been two movements, centrifugal and centripetal. From the centre of the continent the _Tupis_ have spread radially in all directions, and the _Caribs_ towards the north-east, reaching as far as the Antilles. On the other hand, towards this centre converge the migrations of the _Arawaks_ arriving from the north, perhaps from Columbia and the Antilles, and the migrations of the _Ges_ coming from the east. Did the centrifugal movement of the Tupis and the Caribs and the centripetal movement of the Arawaks and the Ges take place simultaneously or in some order of succession? We have not sufficient information as yet to solve this problem, but the first supposition appears to be more probable, for we still see in our own day both movements going on simultaneously.

IV. _The Pampeans and the Fuegians._--That portion of the American continent situated beyond the 30th degree of S. lat., between the Andes, the Atlantic, and the Strait of Magellan, is a vast plain which passes imperceptibly from the rich pasturage of Chaco to the monotonous Pampas, and from the latter to the bare plateaux of Patagonia.

This plain is occupied by various tribes who have nothing in common but the nomadic and pastoral mode of life determined by the environment since the introduction of the horse. Of the ancient peoples who occupied these regions as well as Uruguay at the time of the conquest, there remain but the _débris_, or descendants hybridised to the furthest extent possible.

The _Charruas_ and their congeners the _Minuanes_ and the _Yaros_, who fought so valiantly during the centuries of the Spanish domination, at first with their clubs and bows, then, becoming horsemen, with “bolas” and the lasso, were exterminated only in 1832. The four last representatives of the race were exhibited as curiosities in Paris in 1830. The _Charruas_ had a very dark-coloured skin and were of somewhat high stature (1 m. 68), like their neighbours on the other side of the Rio de la Plata, the _Chanases_, and especially the _Querandis_, whose bands were decimated at the end of the sixteenth century, after their last attack on Buenos Ayres.[676]

Their hybrid descendants, called _Talhuets_, were still fairly numerous in 1860 between Buenos Ayres and Rio Negro. The _Abipones_ to the west of the Paraguay, so well described by Dobrizhoffer,[677] were destroyed at the end of the eighteenth century, partly through conflicts with their congeners the _Mocovis_, of whom there are no survivors.

All these tribes probably belonged to the _Guaycuru linguistic family_, established by L. Quevedo, whose most numerous representatives are now the _Tobas_ of southern Choco to the north of Pilcomayo, and the _Matacos_ who wander about between the latter river and the Vermejo.[678] We must further add to this group the _Caduves_ or _Caduvei_ of the Brazilian bank of the Paraguay, between 20° and 23° S. lat., a hundred or so of unhybridised individuals, all that remain of the ancient _Mbaya_ people, and the _Payaguas_, an ancient warlike and plundering tribe thought to have disappeared, but of which there remain between two and three score representatives in the immediate neighbourhood of Assumption, peaceful basket-makers, potters, or fishers.[679]

The _Lenguas_ of the ancient authors (a term used by them to describe very different tribes), who lived side by side with the Tobas, and of whom there remain but a few individuals, seem to form, with the _Guanes_ of southern Chaco, the _Sanapanas_, the _Angaites_, and other tribes between the Salado and the Yababeri (tributaries on the left of the Paraguay), a separate linguistic family, which Boggiani proposes to call _Ennema_. Their neighbours, the _Samucos_ or _Chamococos_ of the Bolivian Chaco also constitute a special linguistic group, but their manners and customs approximate to those of the southern Arawaks.[680]

The _Guatos_ of the marshes which extend from the Paraguay to the Sao Laurenço also speak a special language. They are excellent boatmen, who fish with their great bows and bone-pointed arrows. They are also renowned as hunters of jaguars.[681]

Most of the _Guaycurus_ and their neighbours seem to be of high stature and to have a brownish-yellow skin; but almost nothing is known either as to the shape of their head or their other somatic characters.

To the south of the Choco, between the Rio Salado de Santa Fe and the Rio Chubut, in the Pampas and the north of the Patagonian table-land, the primitive population which spoke the Guaycuru language in the north and the Patagonian language in the south, has disappeared. It has been absorbed or modified by the invasions of the Araucans coming from the west, and by the encroachments of the Europeans coming from the east. The interminglings have given birth to new tribes like the _Puelches_, sprung from the Patagonians and the Araucans (p. 551), with a strain of Guaycuru blood, and the _Gauchos_, Guaycuru-European hybrids. The invasion of the Europeans increasing, the Puelches and the Araucans (_Pehuenches_, _Rankels_, _Huilitches_) have been pushed back farther and farther to the south. After the war of extermination waged by General Roca in 1881, the “Pampeans” migrated in a mass to the south of the Rio Negro, where they absorbed a portion of the Patagonians, driving away the remainder to the south of the Rio Santa Cruz.[682]

Cramped between this river and the Strait of Magellan, the _Patagonians_ or _Tehuelches_, who call themselves by the name of _Tsoon-ké_, are now reduced to 2000 individuals. Those dwelling far from the coasts, as well as the _Onas_ of Tierra del Fuego (the only Patagonian tribe that does not possess horses), have perhaps better preserved the characteristics of the Patagonian race. They are very tall (from 1 m. 73 to 1 m. 83 according to different authors), very brachycephalic (average ceph. ind. on the living sub., 85), have an elongated face, thinnish nose, eyes slightly oblique, projecting cheek-bones.[683]

The Fuegians (Figs. 48, 174, and 175) inhabit the southern and western coasts of Tierra del Fuego, as well as the archipelagoes which lie to the west and south of this great island. They form a population by themselves, divided into two tribes, the _Yahgans_ to the south of the chain running from Sarmiento to Mount Darwin, and the _Alakalufs_ to the north of this chain. I have mentioned several facts concerning the somatic characters (pp. 89, 108, etc.) and the ethnic ones (p. 146, note 2, pp. 181, 189, 214, etc.) of the Fuegians. Let me further add that the predominant type among them is that of the Palæo-American sub-race. Their language is not yet classified. The Alakalufs are at the present day reduced to 200 individuals. The Yahgans, who numbered about a thousand individuals in 1884, no longer exist to-day as an independent tribe. The last survivors of ravages caused by epidemics are gathered together in the two missionary stations called Ushuaia (Beagle Channel) and Tekenika; numbering about 90, they are dressed in the European fashion, speak English, and are employed in the various works at the mission.[684]

APPENDIX I.

AVERAGE HEIGHT OF MEN, 288 SERIES

(see p. 29).

----------+-----------------------------------------------+--------- | | Height Number of | ETHNIC GROUPS. |in Milli- Subjects. | |metres. ----------+-----------------------------------------------+--------- | | | LOW STATURES (UNDER 1 M. 60, OR 63 INCHES). | | | | _Africans_. | | | 38 | Akka Negrilloes of the country of the | | Monbuttus | 1,378 64 | Kalahari Bushmen of Angra Pequena, etc. | 1,529 | | | _Asiatics_. | | | 42 | Aeta Negritoes of the Philippines | 1,465 115 | Andamanese | 1,485 28 | Black Sakais or Menings of Gunong-Inas | 1,490 36 | Jakuns and Mantras of Johor | 1,535 25 | Ostiaks of the Yenisei (Turukhansk) | 1,540 33 | Pure Veddahs of Central Ceylon | 1,554 99 | Samoyeds (of Asia and Europe) | 1,555 75 | Kurumbas of Wynaad (India) | 1,556 58 | Irulas (Nilgiri plains) | 1,560 33 | Malé (Nayar and Arrayan) of Southern India | 1,564 32 | Japanese (workmen and coolies) | 1,570 95 | Annamese of Cochin China | 1,571 29 | Paniyans of Malabar | 1,574 26 | Cherumas of Calicut | 1,574 200 | Mal Paharias (Dravidians of Bengal) | 1,577 100 | Dravidian Bhuiyas of Chota Nagpur | 1,577 155 | Veddhas of Ceylon generally | 1,578 300 | Trao Mois of French Indo-China | 1,579 210 | Ostiaks | 1,581 45 | Solorese of Flores and Solor | 1,582 359 | Annamese in general | 1,583 457 | Mois in general (French Indo-China) | 1,585 2,500 | Japanese (1,260 of them soldiers) | 1,585 125 | Islanders of Bavean (between Java and Borneo) | 1,587 100 | Munda Kols of Chota Nagpur | 1,589 1,100 | Japanese of the upper and middle classes | 1,590 76 | Annamese of Tonkin | 1,590 56 | Laotians of Lower Laos | 1,590 76 |Sundanese of Java | 1,591 90 |Bhumij (Bils of Chota Nagpur) | 1,592 100 |Chakamas (Araknese-Bengali half-breeds) | 1,596 29 |Timurians (of the western part of the Island) | 1,597 | | | _Americans_. | | | 28 |Caribs of the three Guianas and Venezuela | 1,572 26 |Eskimo of Labrador | 1,575 139 |Yahgan and Alakaluf Fuegians | 1,577 50 |Mauhe and Mundurucus (probably Tupis) | 1,588 | | | _Europeans_. | | | 259 |Lapps of Scandinavia | 1,529 25 |Lapps of Russian Lapland | 1,555 126 |Vogules | 1,591 | | | STATURES BELOW THE AVERAGE (1600-1649 MM.,| | OR 63-65 INCHES). | | | | _Asiatics_. | | | 105 |Teneggerese of Eastern Java | 1,604 58 |Battas of Lake Toba (Sumatra) | 1,605 27 |Rotti Islanders (south-west of Timur) | 1,605 30 |Siamese | 1,607 100 |Kurmis (Kols of Chota Nagpur) | 1,608 90 |Maghs or Arakanese of Chittagong | 1,608 45 |Sumba Islanders (south of Flores) | 1,609 31 |Bugis of Celebes | 1,609 27 |Kulu-Lahulis of Nepal | 1,610 45 |Dards of Ghuraiz, Hunza and Ghilgit | 1,611 58 |Tipperahs of Chittagong (Lushai-Kumis) | 1,611 83 |Baltis | 1,612 100 |Santals | 1,614 25 |Southern Chinese Long-Chow (Kwang-si) | 1,615 80 |Javanese | 1,616 100 |Kharvars (Dravidians of Chota Nagpur) | 1,617 149 |Malays of Sumatra and Malacca | 1,617 500 |Oraons of Chota Nagpur | 1,621 15,582 |Southern Chinese (principally Hakkas) | 1,622 45 |Singhalese of Colombo and Candy | 1,625 80 |Kling Tamils born at Sumatra | 1,629 25 |Kothas of the Nilgiris | 1,629 296 |Kalmuks or Mongol Torgots of Dzungaria | 1,629 695 |Hindus of the province of Behar | 1,630 82 |Brahmans of Southern India | 1,631 26 |Nicobarese | 1,631 685 |Dravidians N.W. prov. and Oudh (Chero, etc.) | 1,634 1,443 |Dravido-Hindu castes, N.W. prov. and Oudh | 1,634 1,616 |Malayalim of Southern India | 1,634 142 | Hindus of various castes, N.W. prov. | 1,635 40 | Singhalese in general | 1,635 387 | Kirghiz-Kazaks of the three Hordes | 1,638 25 | Uru-Kurubas of Southern India | 1,639 100 | Karens of Lower Burma | 1,640 92 | Derbete-Kalmuks of Astrakhan | 1,646 117 | Cambodians (Khmers) | 1,648 64 | Tamils of Ceylon | 1,649 37 | Chukchis | 1,649 231 | Burmese | 1,649 | | | _Europeans_. | | | 4,220 | Jews of Russian Poland | 1,612 3,313 | Chuvashes (3,076 of them conscripts) | 1,612 100 | Permiaks | 1,618 119 | Votiaks | 1,619 6,607 | Sardinians (soldiers) | 1,619 1,200 | Magyars of West Hungaria (conscripts) | 1,619 247 | Jews of Kuba and Kutais (Caucasus) | 1,621 167,677 | Poles of Russian Poland (conscripts) | 1,624 6,517 | Volga Tatars (principally conscripts) | 1,627 1,210 | Cheremisses (1,141 of them conscripts) | 1,627 31,707 | Conscripts of German Switzerland | 1,629 500 | Corsicans | 1,633 132 | Austrian Jews of Hungary | 1,634 25 | Lesgian Udes of Elizabetopol | 1,634 32,024 | Sicilians (soldiers) | 1,635 2,532 | Conscripts of Italian Switzerland | 1,635 382 | Rumanians of Hungary | 1,635 61 | Jews (Spaniol) of Bosnia | 1,636 961 | Bielorousses or White Russians | 1,636 800 | Portuguese | 1,637 292 | Hungarians (conscripts) | 1,637 4,894 | Spanish Basques | 1,638 1,955 | Bulgarians of Western Bulgaria | 1,638 2,252 | Mordvinians | 1,639 890 | Lithuanians of Russian Poland | 1,639 1,355 | Ruthenes of the Plains (Galicia) | 1,640 1,771,948 | Russians of European Russia (conscripts) | 1,642 437 | Karelians of Russia (conscripts) | 1,642 100 | Esthonians | 1,642 2,000 | Jews of the Ukraine | 1,642 4,701 | Lithuanians of Lithuania (conscripts) | 1,643 1,831 | Gruzin Georgians (mostly conscripts) | 1,644 344,371 | Italians in general (soldiers) | 1,645 7,396 | Spaniards | 1,645 77,579 | Magyars of Hungary (soldiers in 1868) | 1,646 447,172 | French in general (conscripts) | 1,646 9,456 | Conscripts of French Switzerland | 1,646 1,483 | Mingrelian Georgians | 1,646 33,541 | Piedmontese (soldiers) | 1,649 | | | _Americans_. | | | 90 | Salishans (Harrison Lake, British Columbia) | 1,613 30 | Salishans of the Frazer River delta | | (British Col.) | 1,618 28 | Guaranis (Kamayuras and Anetos) | 1,620 614 | Eskimo of Greenland | 1,621 73 | Zuñis of New Mexico | 1,623 54 | Moquis | 1,629 85 | Eskimo of Alaska | 1,630 55 | Kwakiutl Indians (British Columbia) | 1,639 | | | _Africans_. | | | 50 | Mzabites (Berbers of M’Zab, Algeria) | 1,620 36 | Batekes of the Congo | 1,641 | | | _Oceanians_. | | | 31 | Aborigines of the island of New Britain | 1,602 67 | Papuans of German New Guinea | 1,608 156 | Natives of the Solomon Islands | 1,616 38 | Melanesians of the archipelago of New Britain | 1,620 40 | Australians of Southern New South Wales | 1,630 142 | Papuans of New Guinea in general | 1,640 | | | STATURES ABOVE THE AVERAGE (1650-1699 MM., | | OR 65-67 INCHES). | | | | _Asiatics_. | | | 32 | Kols (of N.W. provinces and Oudh) | 1,650 108 | Hajemi Persians (principally of Teheran) | 1,651 792 | Armenians of the province of Tiflis | | (conscripts) | 1,652 40 | Badagas of the Nilgiri plains | 1,658 362 | Osmanli Turks (288 of them in Asia Minor) | 1,660 60 | Baluchis of Baluchistan | 1,662 60 | Khatris (Punjab caste) | 1,662 72 | Chuhras (do.) | 1,666 979 | Brahmans and other higher castes of the N.W. | | provinces and Oudh | 1,666 56 | Tamils of Southern India | 1,667 54 | Sartes of Russian Turkestan | 1,668 33 | Aissores of neighbourhood of Lake Urmia | | (Cauc.) | 1,668 74 | Kara Kirghiz of Russian Turkestan | 1,668 53 | Turkomans of the Transcaspian | 1,670 54 | Chinese of the north (Che Fu and Kuldja | | provinces) | 1,674 38 | Sibos (Manchu Tunguses) | 1,675 120 | Uzbegs of Russian Turkestan | 1,683 444 | Punjabi in general | 1,684 140 | Kurds of the Caucasus | 1,686 80 | Pathans (Punjab caste) | 1,687 155 | Tajiks and Galchas of Russian Turkestan | 1,692 192 | Armenians of Transcaucasia | 1,694 239 | Aderbaijanis of Persia and Transcaucasia | 1,698 | | | _Europeans_. | | | 59,761 | Rumanians of the kingdom of Rumania (soldiers)| 1,650 226 | Abkhasians of the Caucasus | 1,650 71 | Greeks of the kingdom of Greece | 1,651 140 | Meshtcheriaks of Perm and Orenburg | 1,652 2,012 | Saxons of the Halle-Mansfeld district | | (Prussia) | 1,653 61 | Gypsies of Hungary (soldiers) | 1,654 1,838 | Gruzin Georgians | 1,654 100 | Jews of Bukovina | 1,654 84,141 | Russians of Asiatic Russia | 1,654 35,416 | Belgians in general | 1,655 493 | Dutch of the province of Zeeland (conscripts) | 1,655 1,481 | Mingrelians | 1,656 2,865 | Imer Georgians | 1,656 1,003 | Lithuanian Jmudins (conscripts) | 1,656 31 | Gypsies of Crimea | 1,657 142 | Svane Georgian highlanders | 1,658 370 | Bashkirs of Orenburg and Ufa | 1,658 1,305 | French Basques | 1,658 231 | Crimeans of the south coast | 1,664 187 | Ruthenian highlanders (Galicia) | 1,666 20,509 | Venetians | 1,666 6,909 | Thuringians of the Saxon prov., Prussia | | (conscripts) | 1,667 60 | Slovens | 1,668 200 | Ukrainians or Little Russians of Kief | 1,669 200 | Ruthenes of the Bukovine (soldiers) | 1,670 200 | Rumanians of the Bukovine (soldiers) | 1,673 28 | Lesgians (Avars and Kazi Kumyks) | 1,676 22,979 | Karelians of Finland | 1,680 458 | Ossets | 1,680 1,220 | Swedes of the province of Kalmar (conscripts) | 1,681 80 | Tavastians or Western Finns | 1,682 44 | Kabards (Cherkesses) of the Caucasus | 1,684 9,345 | Dutch (conscripts) | 1,685 3,000 | Danes | 1,685 4,964 | Sleswickians (soldiers) | 1,692 89,021 | German emigrants to the United States | 1,693 741 | Inhabitants of Wales | 1,695 41 | Gypsies of Bosnia | 1,695 176 | Tatar (Kabard) highlanders (Caucasus) | 1,697 | | | _Africans_. | | | 32 | Arabs of Algeria | 1,656 28 | Mushikongos of the Congo | 1,658 1,103 | Berbers of Tunis | 1,663 29 | Abyssinians | 1,669 35 | Danakils of Tajura | 1,670 52 | Berbers of Biskra (Chauia tribe?) | 1,673 244 | Kabyles of Great Kabylia | 1,677 180 | Berbers of Algeria | 1,680 27 | Bashilange of the Kasai | 1,680 2,020 | Negroes of the United States | 1,681 863 | Mulattos of the United States | 1,682 28 | Bechuanas | 1,684 25,828 | Negroes and Mulattos of the United States | 1,693 | (conscripts) | | | | _Oceanians_. | | | 50 | Aborigines of Southern Australia | 1,657 65 | Australians in general | 1,667 233 | Australians of Central Australia | 1,670 52 | New Caledonians (Melanesians) | 1,673 72 | Papuans of British New Guinea | 1,674 58 | Australians of Victoria | 1,677 50 | Maoris of New Zealand | 1,680 | | | _Americans_. | | | 61 | Tinné of the S.W. (interior of British | | Columbia) | 1,658 32 | Hupa Indians (Tinné of Oregon) | 1,661 121 | Ute Indians | 1,661 26 | Bilkula Indians | 1,661 37 | Tsimshian Indians (Brit. Columbia) | 1,666 165 | Shushwap Indians (Salish) | 1,670 104 | Cherokis of the East | 1,677 74 | Comanches | 1,678 30 | Klamath Indians | 1,679 59 | Chicasaw Indians | 1,679 68 | Piute Indians | 1,683 57 | Cree Indians | 1,685 147 | Apaches and Navajos | 1,686 37 | Flathead Indians (Salishan Têtes plates) | 1,687 32 | Papagos of California | 1,695 71 | Sahaptin Indians (Nez percés) | 1,697 28 | Ottawa Indians | 1,699 | | | HIGH STATURES (1 M. 70, OR 67 INCHES AND | | UPWARDS). | | | | _Americans_. | | | 111 | Indians of the south of the State of | | California (Yuma?) | 1,700 260 | Choctaws | 1,700 100 | Pimas | 1,703 21,645 | Canadian soldiers (chiefly descendants of | | French) | 1,703 76 | Cherokis of the west | 1,712 198 | Ojibwas of the south | 1,712 41 | Pawnees | 1,713 92 | Delawares and Blackfeet | 1,715 79 | Micmacs and Abenakis | 1,717 315,620 | Citizens of the United States born in the | | country | 1,719 29 | Maricopas of California | 1,722 1,413 | Ojibwas of the east | 1,723 612 | Siouans | 1,726 94 | Iroquoians or Iroquois | 1,727 517 | Indians of the United States (chiefly | | Iroquois) | 1,730 91 | Omahas and Winnebagos | 1,732 213 | Crow Indians | 1,732 53 | Creek Indians | 1,735 35 | Mohaves of California | 1,740 50 | Cheyennes | 1,745 | | | _Africans_. | | | 31 | Mandingans in general | 1,700 25 | Bejas (called Nubians) | 1,708 72 | Kafirs (Ama-Xosa and Ama-Zulu) | 1,715 56 | Western Zandehs (Mandjas, Akungs, Awakas, | | etc.) | 1,717 56 | Somalis (Eyssa, Habis, Awals, etc.) | 1,723 30 | Toucouleurs or Torodos | 1,725 62 | Wolofs, Serers and Leybus | 1,730 25 | For Negroes of Darfur | 1,730 35 | Fulahs or Fulbés of French Sudan | 1,741 | | | _Asiatics_. | | | 33 | Awan (Ghazikhan tribe, Punjab) | 1,706 97 | Sikhs of the Punjab | 1,709 29 | Gypsies of Russian Turkestan (Lulis, etc.) | 1,719 | | | _Oceanians_. | | | 25 | Polynesians of the Samoan Islands | 1,726 414 | Polynesians in general | 1,730 32 | Polynesians of Tahiti, Pomotu, Tubuai | 1,733 202 | Polynesians of the Marquesas Islands | 1,743 | | | _Europeans_. | | | 605 | Dutch of the province of Overijssel | | (conscripts) | 1,701 61 | Cossacks of Kuban (Little Russians) | 1,701 68 | Letts of Esthonia | 1,704 232,367 | Swedes in general (soldiers) | 1,705 1,107 | Serbs of the Kingdom of Servia (conscripts) | 1,709 763 | Bosnian-Herzogovinians (soldiers) | 1,710 6,194 | English in general | 1,712 1,489 | Finns of Finland in general (682 of them | | soldiers) | 1,713 325 | Dalmatians | 1,715 9,979 | Swedes of the province of Helsinghe (soldiers)| 1,716 8,585 | Inhabitants of the United Kingdom of Great | | Britain and Ireland | 1,719 106,446 | Norwegians (soldiers) | 1,720 346 | Irish | 1,725 100 | Livonians | 1,736 1,304 | Scotch in general | 1,746 134 | Scotch of the north (Ayrshire, etc.) | 1,782 75 | Scotch agriculturists of Galloway | 1,792

APPENDIX II.

CEPHALIC INDEX, 336 SERIES (see p. 75).

---------------+------------------------------------+-------------- NUMBER. | | CEPH. IND. -------+-------+ +-------+------ Living| | ETHNIC GROUPS. |Living | Sub- | | Sub- | jects.|Skulls.| |jects. |Skulls. -------+-------+------------------------------------+-------+------ | | | | | | DOLICHOCEPHALS, BELOW 77 (75). | | | | _Oceanians_. | | | | | | -- |73 (S.)| Islanders of Viti-Levu (Fiji) | -- | 67.2 204 | -- | Natives of the Caroline Archipelago| 69.4 | -- -- | 52 | Natives of the smaller Fiji Islands| -- | 69.0 -- |148 | Papuans of Misore Island | -- | 70.2 -- |24 (S.)| Islanders of Mallicollo (New | | | | Hebrides) | -- | 70.4 -- | 71 | New Caledonians | -- | 70.7 10 |29 (S.)| Islanders of Lifu (Loyalty Islands)| 72.4 | 70.8 -- |118(S.)| Natives of the Duke of York Islands| | | | (New Britain) | -- | 71.7 -- |16 (S.)| Natives of Engineer Island | | | | (Louisiade Archipelago) | -- | 71.9 27 |82 (S.)| Various Australians | 74.2 | 71.2 -- | 10 | Australians of Queensland | -- | 72.2 -- | 20 | Natives of Ruck Island (Carolines) | -- | 72.8 -- | 51 | Maoris of New Zealand | -- | 73.6 20 | -- | Natives of the Solomon Islands | 76.3 | -- -- | 24 | Papuans of the Fly River | | | | (New Guinea) | -- | 74.2 -- | 25 | Tasmanians | -- | 74.9 23 |30 (S.)| Natives of New Britain Archipelago | 76.7 | 72.4 | | | | | | _Asiatics_. | | | | | | 95 | -- | Badagahs of the Nilgiris | 71.8 | -- 40 | -- | Cashmerians | 72.2 | -- 32 | -- | Kols of the N.W. Prov. and Oudh | 72.4 | -- 979 | -- | Brahmans, Rajputs, and other high | | | | castes of the N.W. Prov. | 72.6 | -- 685 | -- | Kolarians, N.W. Prov. | 72.7 | -- 80 | -- | Sikhs of the Punjab | 72.7 | -- 1,616 | -- | Hindus of various castes (N.W. | | | | Prov. and Oudh) | 72.8 | -- 103 | -- | Baltis | 73.6 | -- 1,443 | -- | Dravido-Hindus (N.W.Pr.& Oudh) | 73.8 | -- 45 | -- | Todas | 74.1 | -- 25 | -- | Kotas of the Nilgiris | 74.1 | -- 444 | -- | Punjabi (Hindus, Baluchis, etc.). | 74.2 | -- 54 | -- | Malayalim of the Shevaroy Hills . | 74.3 | -- 27 | -- | Kulu-Lahuli | 74.6 | -- 100 | -- | Malé or Assal (Dravid. of Bengal) | 74.8 | -- 90 | -- | Bhumij of Chota Nagpur | 75.0 | -- 55 | 43 | Veddahs of Ceylon | 75.1 | 71.5 58 | -- | Irulas of the E. slope of the Nilg.| 75.1 | -- 15 | -- | Gypsies of Lycia | 75.2 | -- 100 | -- | Kharvars (Dravidians of Chota | | | | Nagpur) | 75.6 | -- 45 | -- | Dardi (India) | 75.6 | -- 100 | -- | Kurmi of Chota Nagpur | 75.7 | -- 695 | -- | Hindus of the Prov. of Behar | 75.7 | -- 100 | -- | Mal-Paharia (Drav. of Beng.) | 75.8 | -- 25 | -- | Urur-Kurubas of Mysore | 75.8 | -- 100 | -- | Bhuiyas (Drav. of Beng.) | 76.0 | -- 20 | -- | Dums of Chota Nagpur | 76.0 | -- 100 | -- | Santals of Chota Nagpur | 76.1 | -- -- | 12 | Alfurus of Ceram | -- | 74.3 -- | 37 | Ainus of Saghalien | -- | 74.8 64 | -- | Tamils of Ceylon | 76.3 | -- 80 | -- | Pathans (Afghans) of Punjab | 76.5 | -- 33 | -- | Kanarese of Mysore | 76.8 | -- 1,570 | -- | Bengalese | 76.9 | -- 27 | -- | Islanders of Rotti (to the S. of | | | | Timur) | 76.9 | -- | | | | | | _Africans_. | | 14 | -- | Mushikongo and Bakongo | 72.5 | -- 36 | -- | Bateke (Congo) | 73.6 | -- 30 | -- | Toucouleurs | 73.8 | -- 30 | 30 | Jagga (Bantu of Kilimandjaro) | -- | 71.9 15 | -- | Hottentot-Orlans | 74.3 | -- 37 | -- | Fulahs or Fulbés | 74.3 | -- 35 | -- | Danakils of Tajura | 74.5 | -- 14 | -- | Duala or Dwala of the Cameroons | 75.1 | -- 27 | -- | Negro-Krus | 75.1 | -- 62 | 13 | Wolofs, Serer, and Leybus | 75.2 | 69.8 29 | 10 | Various Mandingans | 75.5 | 78.8 13 | -- | Kakongo | 75.6 | -- 47 | -- | Arabs of Algeria | 76.3 | -- -- | 56 | Kafirs (Ama-Zulus and others) | -- | 72.5 184 | -- | Betsimisaraka (Madagascar) | 76.3 | -- 13 | -- | Kabyles of Palestro | 76.4 | -- 27 | -- | Bashilanges of the Kasai | 76.8 | -- 13 | -- | Ashantis | 76.9 | -- | | | | | | _Americans_. | | 12 | -- | Karayas (Amazon Basin) | 73.0 | -- -- | 76 | Hurons | -- | 74.7 614 | 31 | Eskimo of Greenland | 76.8 | 72.4 -- | 152 | do. E. America | -- | 71.3 -- | 16 | do. W. America | -- | 74.8 10 | 33(S.)| Botocudos | 76.8 | 73.9 | | | | | | _Europeans_. | | -- | 417 | Portuguese | -- | 74.3 500 | -- | Corsicans | 76.6 | -- 502 | -- | Spaniards of Valencia | 76.8 | -- | | | | | |SUB-DOLICHOCEPH. 77-79.6(75-77.6). | | | | _Asiatics_. | | 12 | -- | Ladaki | 77.0 | -- 17 | -- | Inhabitants of Nagar, Hunaza, and | | | | Yasin | 77.0 | -- 20 | -- | Chinese of the North | 77.0 | -- 75 | -- | Kurumbas (to the E. of the | | -- | | Nilgiris) | 77.3 | -- 136 | -- | Tamils of the South of India and | | | | Ceylon | 77.4 | -- 360 | -- | Mois of French Indo-China | 77.5 | -- 17 | -- | Sikas (Central Floris) | 77.7 | -- 11 | 92 | Ainus of Yezo | 77.8 | 76.5 23 | -- | Turkomans of the Transcaspian | 77.9 | -- 18 | -- | Lio (Central Floris) | 78.1 | -- 208 | -- | Aderbaijanis | 78.1 | -- 168 | -- | Persians in general | 78.4 | -- 11 | -- | Disfulis of Susa | 78.4 | -- 332 | -- | Kurds | 78.5 | -- 78 | 64 | Japanese of all classes | 78.5 | 80.2 68 | -- | White and Yellow Sakais(Malay P.) | 78.7 | -- 30 | -- | Atoni of the west of Timur | 78.8 | -- 142 | -- | Singhalese | 78.8 | -- 20 | -- | Yuruks of Lycia | 78.9 | -- 28 | -- | Black Sakais of Gunong Inas | | | | (Malay Peninsula) | 79.5 | -- 29 | -- | Tates of the Transcaucasus | 79.0 | -- 106 | -- |Moormen of Ceylon | 79.1 | -- 45 | 44 |Sumbawa Islanders | 79.1 | -- -- | 37 |Nias Islanders | -- | 77.6 106 | 37 |Ostiaks | 79.3 | 74.3 16 | -- |Tatar-Tchern (Altaians) | 79.5 | -- 25 | -- |South Chinese of Lang-Choo | 79.5 | | | | | | | _Africans_. | | | | | | 50 | -- |M’Zabits of Algeria | 77.3 | -- 56 | -- |Western Zandeh (Mandja, etc.) | 77.9 | -- -- | 14 |Bushmen | -- | 75.9 -- | 139 |Negroes of Fernand-Vaz | -- | 75.9 -- | 13 |Hausas | -- | 77.3 | | | | | | _Americans_. | | | | | | -- | 62 |Half-caste Algonquians | -- | 76.2 -- | 315 |Natives of Santa Barbara Archip. | -- | 76.9 14 | -- |Arawaks of the Rio Xingu | | | | (Mehinaku, etc.) | 78.2 | -- 31 | -- |Indians of Arizona | 78.6 | -- 419 | -- |Pimas of New Mexico | 78.4 | -- 123 | -- |Ute Indians | 79.5 | -- 28 | -- |Tupis of the Xingu (Kamayuras | | | | and Anetos) | 79.1 | -- 114 | 37 |Eskimo of Alaska | 79.2 | 77.0 -- | 103 |Indians of the Californian coast | -- | 77.3 135 | -- |Iroquoians | 79.3 | -- 26 | 27 |Yahgan Fuegians | 79.5 | 76.8 570 | 42 |Indians: Algonquians, Abenaki, | | | | Cree, etc. | 79.8 | 77.4 261 | 136 |Siouans | 79.8 | 78.9 | | | | | | _Oceanians_. | | | | | | 163 | -- |Natives of Solomon Islands | 77.6 | -- -- |12 (S.)|Morioris of the Chatham Islands | -- | 76.2 -- | 30 |Natives of the Marquesas Islands | -- | 76.4 22(S.)|22 (S.)|Natives of the Gilbert Islands | | | | (Kingsmill) | 78.4 | 73.8 59 | -- |Various Polynesians | 79.7 | -- | | | | | | _Europeans_. | | | | | | 122 | -- |Catalans of the Balearic Islands | 77.7 | -- 6,579 | -- |Sardinians | 77.5 | -- 1,410 | -- |Castillians | 78.5 | -- 574 | -- |Catalans of Spain | 78.1 | -- 8,368 | -- |Spaniards in general | 78.2 | -- -- | 48 |Swedes of the central provinces. | 78.2 | 76.0 50 | -- |French Catalans of Roussillon | 78.6 | -- -- | 59 |Chuvashes | -- | 77.2 32,526 | -- |Sicilians | 79.0 | -- 325 | -- |Spanish Basques | 79.3 | -- 129 | 18 |Cheremisses | 79.2 | 76.8 362 | -- |Belgian Flemings | 79.5 | -- | | | | | |MESOCEPHALS, 79.7-81.9 (77.7-79.9). | | | | | | | | _Americans_. | | | | | | 10 | -- |Bakairis of Brazil | 79.0 | -- 84 | 10 |Pawnee Indians | 80.0 | 78.8 16 | -- |Yakis | 79.8 | -- 257 | 38 |Crow and Cheyenne Indians | 80.5 | 79.8 28 | -- |Southern Caribs of the Rio Xingu | 79.8 | -- 20 | -- |Bororos of the Amazon basin | 81.2 | -- 15 | -- |Nahuquas of Brazil | 80.6 | -- 30 | -- |Caribs of the four Guianas | 80.9 | -- 225 | 99(S.)|Omahas | 81.8 | 80.5 | | | | | | _Asiatics_. | | | | | | 130 | -- |Tenggerese of the east of Java | 79.7 | -- 60 | -- |Baluchis of Baluchistan | 80.0 | -- -- | 125 |Chinese in general | -- | 78.3 36 | -- |Nicobarese | 80.4 | -- 13 | -- |Dungans of Kuldja | 80.5 | -- 58 | -- |Tipperahs of Chittagong | 80.5 | -- 20 | -- |Achinese | 80.5 | -- 58 | -- |Battas of Lake Toba | 80.6 | -- 22 | -- |Jakuns of Johor | 80.9 | -- 61 | 84(S.)|Southern Chinese (princ. of Canton) | 81.2 | 78.2 19 | 24 |Andamanese | 81.4 | 81.6 90 | -- |Magh or Arakanese of Chittagong | 81.8 | -- 11 | -- |Teleuts or Telenghits (Siberia) | 81.8 | -- -- | 14 |Eskimo of Asia | -- | 79.0 | | | | | | _Europeans_. | | | | | | 35 | -- |Gypsies of Hungary | 79.9 | -- 37 | -- |Tatars of the Crimea | 80.0 | -- 55 | -- |Jews of Bosnia | 80.1 | -- 171 | -- |French of the dep. du Nord | 80.4 | -- 60 | -- |Letts of the Baltic provinces | 80.5 | -- 1,000 | -- |Limousins and Perigourdins | 80.7 | -- 463 | -- |Spaniards of the Cantabrian region | 80.3 | -- 30(S.)| 47(S.)|Dutch of the prov. of Gröningen | 81.0 | 77.6 1,000 | -- | Normans (Calvados, Seine-Inf., | 81.3 | | | etc.) | | -- | 87 | Dutch of the province of Friesland | -- | 78.1 -- | 206 | Inhabitants of the prov. of Prussia| -- | 79.2 -- |96 (S.)|Cherkess (Abkhazians, Chapsug, etc.)| -- | 79.4 -- | 159 | Franconians of N.W. of Bavaria | -- | 79.8 59,165| -- | Italians of the South (Abruzzi, | | | | Puglie, etc.) | 81.2 | -- 54 | -- | Magyar-Szeklers | 81.4 | -- 67 | -- | Georgian-Mingrelians, and Imers | 81.4 | -- 91 | -- | Provençals | 81.7 | -- 59 | -- | Meshtcheriaks | 81.8 | -- | | | | | | _Oceanians_. | | | | | | 14 | -- | Islanders of Fakaofu (Takelau | | | | Arch.) | 80.6 | -- 12 | -- | Natives of New Ireland | 81.0 | -- | | | | | | SUB-BRACHYCEPHALS, 82-85.2 | | | | (80-83.2). | | | | | | | | _Asiatics and Eurasians_. | | | | | | 22 | -- | Parsees of Bombay | 82.0 | -- 20 | -- | Kouïs of Cambodia | 82.0 | -- 97(S.)|51 (S.)| Kalmuks of the Volga | 82.1 | 81.4 11 | 14 | Coreans | 82.6 | 81.6 25 | -- | Man-Tien of Kaobang (Tong King) | 82.5 | -- 182 | -- | Annamese in general | 82.8 | -- 49 | -- | Malays of Sumatra and Penang | 82.8 | -- 231 | -- | Burmese | 83.1 | -- 139 | -- | Yakuts | 83.1 | -- 14 | -- | Tsiams of French Indo-China | 83.2 | -- -- |18 (S.)| Tunguse Reindeer-holders | -- | 81.2 21 | -- | Solorese (E. of Flores and Solor) | 83.4 | -- 56 | -- | Laotians of Lower Laos | 83.6 | -- 30 | -- | Cambodians | 83.6 | -- 76 | -- | Annamese of Tong King | 83.8 | -- 152(S.)|15 (S.)| Samoyeds | 83.8 | 82.4 13 | 13 | Takhtadji of Lycia | 84.2 | -- 26 | -- | Ansariehs of Antioch | 84.2 | -- 100 | -- | Chakama (Arakan-Bengali mongrels) | 84.3 | -- 197 | 14 | Kalmuks of Kuldja and Tarbagat | 84.5 | 83.3 12 |30 (S.)| Bugis of Mangkassar | 84.6 | 80.6 -- | 12 | Islanders of Madura (N. of Java) | -- | 82.6 66 |88 (S.)| Javanese | 84.6 | 83.0 18 | -- | Negrito Aetas (Philippines) | 84.7 | -- 107 | 27 |Uzbegs of Russian Turkestan | 84.8 | -- 74 | -- |Tajiks | 84.8 | -- | | | | | | _Americans_. | | | | | | 60 | -- |Arawaks of Dutch Guiana | 82.6 | -- 63(S.)| -- |Haidas | 82.7 | -- 77 | -- |Maricopas (Yuma Indians) | 82.9 | -- 129 | -- |Zuñi Indians | 83.0 | -- 16 | -- |Indians of S. Oregon | 84.0 | 82.2 -- | 22 |Navajos (deformed) | 84.2 | -- 26(S.)| -- |Bilculas | 84.5 | -- 74 | -- |Comanches | 84.6 | -- 16 | -- |Yucatecs of Mexico | 84.7 | -- 193 | -- |Moquis or Mokis | 84.9 | -- 18 | |Patagonians | 85.2 | | | | | | | _Africans_. | | | | | | 20 | -- |Saras of Shari | 82.4 | -- | | (Basin of Lake Chad) | | 14 | -- |Hovas of Madagascar | 84.0 | -- | | | | | | _Oceanians_. | | | | | | 10 | -- |Islanders of Fanafuti | 82.4 | -- | | (Ellice group) | | 23 | 19 |Islanders of Tonga Arch. | 82.6 | 84.2 -- | 177 |Hawaiians of Sandwich Islands | -- | 80.4 23 |13 (S.)|Samoans | 83.7 | 77.5 43 |52 (S.)|Polynesians of Tahiti, Marquesas, | | | | Pomotu, and Tubuai Islands | 85.1 | 76.0 | | | | | | _Europeans_. | | | | | | 126 | -- |Votiaks | 82.0 | -- 100 | -- |Permiaks | 82.2 | -- 36 | -- |Zyrians | 82.2 | -- 199 | -- |Belgian Wallons | 82.2 | -- 30,970 | -- |Italians of Liguria and Tuscany | 82.3 | -- 290 | -- |Bielorousses or White Russians | 82.4 | -- 775 | -- |Alsatians of Lower Alsace | 82.5 | -- 294 | -- |Italians in general | 82.7 | -- 261 | -- |Ossets | 82.6 | -- 3,000 | -- |Bretons (France) | 82.7 | -- 30 | -- |Tatars of Kassimov | 82.8 | -- 447 |421(S.)|Great Russians of the Central | | | | and N. provinces | 82.9 | 80.7 220 | -- |French Basques | 83.0 | -- 98 | -- |Wurtembergers | 83.1 | -- 168 | -- |Mordvinians | 83.3 | -- 416 | -- |Jews of Galicia and Western Russia | 83.4 | -- 1,355 | -- |Ruthenians of the Plain (Galicia) | 83.4 | -- 90 | -- |Georgian-Gruzins | 83.5 | -- 17 | -- |Veps or Chud of Olonetsk | 83.5 | -- 187 | -- |Ruthenians of the Mountains | | | | (Galicia) | 83.6 | -- 15,914 | -- |French in general | 83.6 | -- 170 | -- |Tatars of the Mountains (Caucasus) | 83.6 | -- 165 | -- |Cherkess-Kabards | 83.7 | -- 20 | -- |Russian Lapps | 83.8 | -- 19 | -- |Georgian-Svanes | 83.9 | -- 6,800 | -- |Inhabitants of Baden | 84.1 | -- 53,020 | -- |Italians (Lomb., Umbr., March.) | 84.1 | -- 226 |40 (S.)|Magyars in general | 84.5 | 82.3 78 | -- |Eastern Chechen | 84.5 | -- 200 | -- |Little Russians of Kiev | 84.6 | -- 52 | -- |Lesghi-Didos | 84.6 | -- 44 | -- |Kumyks of the Caucasus | 84.7 | -- 52,410 | -- |Italians of Venetia-Emilia | 85.1 | -- -- | 134 |Swiss of Untervalden | -- | 83.8 53 | -- |Jews of Akhaltsikh (Caucasus) | 85.2 | -- | | | | | | BRACHYCEPHALS, 85.3-86.9 | | | | (83.3-84.9). | | | | | | | | _Asiatics_. | | 56 | -- |Galchas (Russian Turkestan) | 85.5 | -- -- | 16 |Tunguse-Orochons | -- | 83.4 17 | 17 |Siamese | -- | 83.0 341 | -- |Armenians in general | 85.6 | -- -- | 13 |Burmese of Arakan and Talaing | -- | 83.7 21 | 18 |Sundanese (West Java) | 86.3 | 85.5 20 (S.) |35 (S.)|Giliaks | 86.3 | 83.4 16 (S.) | -- |Bicols of Luzon (Philippines) | 86.6 | -- 333 | -- |Taranchi of Russian and Eastern | | | | Turkestan | 86.6 | -- 270 | -- |Armenians of Transcaucasia | 85.6 | -- | | | | | | _Europeans_. | | -- |1000(S.)|Bavarians of old Bavaria | -- | 83.2 32,790 | -- |Piedmontese | 85.9 | -- 16 | -- |Tatar Nogai of the Caucasus | 85.8 | -- 130 | -- |Lesghi-Darghis of the Caucasus | 86.2 | -- 200 | -- |Rumanians of Bukovina | 86.3 | -- 25 | -- |Lesghi-Udes | 86.6 | -- 27 | -- |Georgian Lazes | 86.8 | -- 235 | -- |Savoyards | 86.9 | -- | | | | | | _Oceanians and Americans_. | | 20 | 20(S.)|Islanders of Tahiti | 85.5 | 76.6 -- | 36 |Aleuts | -- | 84.8 -- | 100 |Araucans of Argentine Republic | -- | 83.9 | | | | | | HYPER-BRACHYCEPHALS, 87 (85) | | | | AND ABOVE. | | | | | | | | _Europeans_. | | -- | 65(S.)|Romanches of Switzerland | -- | 85.0 30 | -- |Dalmatians | 87.0 | -- 19 | -- |Jews of Daghestan (Mountaineers) | 87.0 | -- 105(S.)| 41(S.)|Scandinavian Lapps | 87.4 | 85.0 69 | -- |Magyars of Rumania | 87.8 | -- 140 | -- |French (Haute-Loire, Lozère, | | | | Cantal) | 87.4 | -- | | | | | | _Asiatics_. | | 384 | -- |Kirghiz-Kasaks and Karakirghiz | 87.2 | -- 33 | -- |Aissors of Transcaucasia and Urmia | 88.7 | --

APPENDIX III.

NASAL INDEX OF LIVING SUBJECTS, 71 SERIES

(see p. 79).

---------+-------------------------------+------+----------------------- Number | | | of | ETHNIC GROUPS. |Nasal | Subjects.| |Index.| Observers. ---------+-------------------------------+------+----------------------- |_Leptorhinians (less than 70)._| | | | | 110 |Armenians | 60.4 |Pantiukhof 62 |Georgian Imers | 60.8 |Pan., Chantre, Erckert 1,969 |Brahmans, Rajputs and other | | | high castes, N.W. province | | | and Oudh | 63.0 |Crooke, Drake-Brocken 100 |French (fair type, dolicho.) | 63.0 |Collignon 41 |Georgian Mingrelians | 63.1 |Pan., Chantre, Erckert 49 |Georgian Gruzins | 64.5 |Pan., Chantre, Erckert 50 |Lorraines | 64.6 |Collignon 30 |French Catalans (Eastern | | | Pyr.) | 65.1 | „ 20 |Anglo-Scotch | 65.1 |Beddoe 23 |Arabs of Tunis | 65.2 |Collignon 50 |French dolichoceph. of the | | | South | 65.7 | „ 184 |Various Kabyles | 66.5 |Prengruber 160 |French of Normandy | 66.5 |Collignon 88 |Sardinians | 66.6 |Gilbert d'Hercourt 27 |Galchas of Turkestan | 66.8 |Ujfalvy 237 |Ossets | 66.8 |Ghiltchen., Ch., Erck. 168 |Mordvinians | 66.9 |Maïnof 21 |English | 67.0 |Beddoe 1,443 |Dravido-Hindus, N.W. Prov. | 67.0 | -- 1,000 |French in general | 67.3 |Collignon 70 |Bretons | 67.5 | „ 80 |Pathans of the Punjab | 68.4 |Risley 80 |Sikhs | 68.8 | „ 98 |Parisians | 69.1 |Collignon 60 |Baluchis of Baluchistan | 69.4 |Risley 120 |Tunisians (2nd Berber race) | 69.8 |Collignon | | | | _Mesorhinians_ (70-84.9). | | | | | 10 |Scotch | 70.0 |Beddoe 1,334 |Tunisians in general | 70.2 |Collignon 444 |Punjabis | 70.2 |Risley 865 |Dravidians(Kharvars, Korwas, | | | Cheros, Khunjas) of N.W. | | | Prov. | 71.0 |Crooke, Drake-Brock. 20 |Baltis of Cashmere | 71.4 |Ujfalvy 50 |Berbers (brachycephalic race ) | 72.5 |Collignon 29 |Singhalese | 74.9 |Deschamps, Manouv. 36 |Kalmuks of the Volga | 74.7 |Deniker, Erck., Chantre 40 |Kara-Kirghiz of Semiriechie | 74.9 |Seeland 27 |Todas | 74.9 |Thurston 40 |Badagas of Nilgiris | 75.6 | „ 23 |Siouans | 75.9 |Denik., Laloy, Manouv. 33 |Kanarese of Mysore | 76.8 |Thurston 40 |Tamil-Brahmans of Madras | 77.2 | „ 22 |Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills | 79.2 | „ 36 |Malayalim of the Chevaroy | | | Hills | 74.4 | „ 20 |Dums of Chota Nagpur | 79.1 |Risley 695 |Hindus of Behar | 80.0 | „ 1,616 |Hindus of the N.W. Provs. | | | and Oudh | 80.9 | „ 17 |Rhodias of Ceylon (both | | | sexes) | 81.3 |Deschamps 32 |Kols of the N.W. Provinces | | | and Oudh | 82.2 |Risley and Oude 100 |Kurmis of Chota Nagpur | 82.6 | „ 90 |Maghs or Arakanese of | | | Chittagong | 82.7 | „ 30 |Annamese of Cochin-China | 83.3 |Deniker, Laloy 34 |Irulas of the Nilgiris | 83.4 |Thurston 100 |Chakamas (Arakanese-Bengalis) | 85.4 |Risley 23 |Zuñis | 84.9 |Ten Kate | | | | _Platyrhinians_ (85-99.9). | | | | | 23 |Annamese of Tong King | 86.2 |Deniker, Laloy 90 |Bhumij of Chota Nagpur | 86.5 |Risley 27 |Bashilanges | 87.0 |}Maistre 21 |Bubangis | 87.2 |} „ 100 |Santals of Chota Nagpur | 88.8 |Risley 15 |Kurumbas of Wynaad | 88.8 |Thurston 100 |Munda-Kols of Chota Nagpur | 89.0 |Risley 13 |Polynesians | 89.8 |After Collignon 11 |New Caledonians and New | | |Hebridians | 93.8 |Collignon 17 |Fulahs or Fulbés | 95.3 |Deniker, Collignon 44 |Negroes of Tunis | 96.3 |Collignon 21 |Toucouleurs | 99.9 |Deniker | | | | _Ultraplatyrhinians_ | | | (_over_ 100). | | | | | 23 |Leybus and Serers |100.1 |Deniker, Collignon 52 |Negroes of Zambesi |101.5 |After Collignon 21 |Mandingans and Bambaras |101.6 |Deniker, Collignon 13 |Ashantis |107.5 |Deniker 11 |Australians |107.6 |After Collignon 14 |Angolese Negroes (both sexes) |107.9 |Deniker

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Abbott, 511

Adam, L., 552

Adrianof, 363

Amat, 432

Ambialet, 177

Ameghino, 512

Ammon, 74, 318

Anderson, G., 307

Anderson, J., 397

Andree, R., 109, 128, 198, 201, 206, 227, 250, 255, 274, 341, 425, 428

Anuchin, 262, 277, 373

Aranzadi, 348

Aubin, 140

Aymonier, 393, 394, 399, 400, 402

Baber, C., 400

Bachofen, 233

Baden-Powell, 247

Baelz, 51, 62, 64, 107

Bahnson, 520

Bain, 294

Balfour, H., 262, 272

Ball, 409

Bancroft, H. H., 249, 521

Bandelier, 536

Barcena, 292

Bartels, Max, 95, 227, 230

Barth, 446

Barthel, 429

Bastian, A., 460

Batchelor, 373

Bates, H., 159

Beddoe, 50, 314, 348

Bell, 23

Béranger-Féraud, 442, 447, 450

Bergaigne, 394

Bergemann, 146

Bernard, A., 497, 505

Berthelot, S., 431

Bertholon, 433

Bertillon, A., 80

Bertin, S., 435

Bertrand, 321

Betz, 134

Biart, 537

Biddulph, 415

Billet, 400, 401

Binger, 447, 449, 451

Bischoff, 18, 98

Blanchard, 97

Blandford, 362

Blumentritt, 490

Boas, 520, 531

Boggiani, 573

Bonaparte, Prince Roland, 351

Bordier, 121

Borlase, W., 312

Bouchereau, 469

Boulart, 15, 18, 94

Boule, M., 301, 309, 511

Bourne, 400

Bowditch, 106

Boyd, 18

Bremer, 335, 340

Breul, 46

Brigham, 183

Brinton, 122, 490, 514, 517, 518, 521, 527, 535, 536, 544, 547

Broca, 16, 48, 55, 57, 61, 62, 64, 72, 73, 83, 85, 98, 177, 348

Bruhl, 536

Buch, 263

Buchner, M., 134

Bunge, 145

Burrows, 454

Buschmann, 534

Butler, J., 396

Buttikofer, 451

Calori, 76, 100

Campbell, J. M., 115

Capart, 427

Capus, 415

Cardi, Comte de, 453

Cardoso, 413

Carol, J., 469

Carr, 514

Cartailhac, 300, 309, 314, 362, 364

Castelnau, 564

Castren, 366

Catat, 469, 549

Catlin, 521

Cauvin, 477

Cavendish, A., 387

Chalmers, 493, 494

Chamberlain, B., 373, 391

Chantre, 355, 423

Chapman, R., 475

Chastaing, 387

Chauvet, 362

Christian, F., 475

Chudzinsky, 95

Clercq, De, 420

Clozel, 458

Codrington, 497

Colini, 561

Collignon, R., 5, 79, 88, 334, 348, 427, 433, 435, 450, 470

Colocci, 425

Colquhoun, 381, 400

Comte, P., 441

Cooper, 273

Couillault, 427

Courant, 387

Crampel, 442, 454

Crooke, W., 231, 404, 408, 413

Cunningham, D., 15, 84

Curr, 223, 477

Cushing, 516, 534

Cuvier, 5, 69

Dall, 520, 531

Dalton, 380, 408, 409

D’Amelineau, 426

Danielli, 486

Danilevski, 101

Darwin, 6, 7, 23, 110, 115, 118, 146

David, A., 362

Davidson, C., 172

Davy, 117

Dawkins, Boyd, 307

Deblenne, 400

Delafosse, 451

Delage, Y., 6

Delisle, 177

D’Enjoy, 255

Deniker, 15, 18, 24, 64, 78, 94, 108, 109, 214, 215, 220, 223, 231, 242, 284, 292, 325, 358, 367, 373, 375, 377, 378, 399, 425, 435, 436, 450, 453, 454, 458, 468, 470, 486, 493, 494, 500, 512, 533, 555, 576

Deschamps, 408, 418

Desgodins, 380

Diguet, 535

Dodd, 391

Donaldson, H. H., 104

Dorsey, 530

Dourisboure, 392

Dubois, E., 18, 361

Duchenne, 93

Duerden, 557

Duval, Mathias, 110

Duveyrier, 434

Dybowski, 442, 454, 458

Ehrenreich, 73, 292, 517, 555

Elisiéef, 386

Ellis, Sir A. B., 451, 453

Ellis, A. J., 340

Ellis, Havelock, 51, 55, 56, 348

Ellis, W., 500

Emin Bey, 454

Erckert, 353

Erman, 521

Etheridge, 475

Evans, A. J., 142, 315

Evans, Sir J., 304

Faidherbe, 435, 449

Fawcett, Miss, 75

Finsch, 493, 497

Fison, 232, 233, 234

Flechsig, 103

Flower, Sir W. H., 13, 21, 61, 62, 64, 283, 454, 497

Forsyth, 416

Fournereau, 399

Fox, 451

Frazer, J. G., 248

Fritsch, 465, 467

Frobenius, 446, 463

Fuse, 262

Gaches-Sarraute, Mme., 176

Gaidoz, 336

Garnier, F., 381, 382

Garson, 72, 84, 85, 99, 351

Gatschet, 517, 527

Gautier, T., 145

Geer, G. de, 307

Geikie, J., 301, 511

Gibbs, 530

Giglioli, 280

Gilchenko, 100

Gillen, F., 477, 478

Giraud-Teulon, 230

Glaumont, 170

Godden, Miss, 396

Godron, 312

Goebel, 145

Gomme, G. L., 215, 247

Gonner, 74

Gooch, W., 427

Gosse, L. A., 177

Gottsche, 387

Gould, 50, 508

Grandidier, 469

Groos, 197

Gros, 500

Grosse, E., 124, 202, 209, 212

Guiral, 458

Guppy, 497

Haddon, A. C., 202, 204, 493, 494, 497, 557

Haeckel, 284

Hagen, 486, 497

Hahn, 192, 195

Hale, H., 135, 514, 527, 531

Hamada, 107

Hamy, 62, 91, 135, 313, 454, 467, 486, 495, 511, 535, 536, 537, 550, 561

Hanoteau, 432

Harmand, 135, 392, 393, 402

Hartmann, 431, 435, 436

Haxthausen, 236

Hedley, 500

Hellwald, 146, 159, 255

Henning, 84

Herrera, 511

Hervé, 96, 310, 313

Herzenstein, 111

Hettner, 120

Hiekisch, 374

Hirt, 320

Hoernes, 316

Holm, G., 520

Holm, S., 226

Holmes, 184, 509, 511

Holub, 465

Hösel, 163

Hosie, 400

Hough, 150, 269

Houssay, 422

Houzé, 83, 332

Hovelacque, 96, 131

Hovorka, 83

Howitt, A. W., 232, 233

Hoyer, 83

Hull, H., 482

Humboldt, A. von, 507, 517

Hunt, 497

Huxley, 119, 283

Hyades, 64, 108, 109, 215, 220, 223, 231, 292, 512, 576

Ihering, 513

Imbault-Huart, 391

Im Thurn, E., 552

Ino, 391

Inostrantsev, 314

Inuzuka, 362

Iokhelson, 370

Ivanof, 64

Ivanovsky, 92, 108, 230, 378

Jackson, 521

Jacobs, J., 424

Jacquard, 69

Jacques, V., 458, 461

James, H., 374

Jellinghaus, 408

Johansson, 74

Johnston, Sir H. H., 465

Jolly, A., 469

Jubainville, D’Arbois de, 317, 321

Junghuhn, 486

Junker, W., 440, 441, 454

Junod, 465

Karr, Seton, 427

Keane, A., 132, 280, 351

Kemp, D., 452

Key, Axel, 106

Kharouzin, 166, 376

Kidd, 23

Kingsley, Miss M., 453

Kochs, 116

Köganei, 64

Kohlbrugge, 14, 483, 490

Koike, 386

Koslowsky, 566

Kotelmann, 111

Kovalewsky, 247, 249

Krause, 226, 254, 531

Kropf, 465

Kubary, 271, 505

Kuhn, E., 394

Kulischer, 114

Kuznetsof, 361

Labarth, 400

Lacerda, 513

Lajard, 134

Laloy, 399, 450, 453, 454, 458, 486

Landor, A. H. S., 373

Lang, A., 223

Lang, L., 206

Langle, Fleuriot de, 451

Lapicque, 107, 397, 485

Lapouge, 318

Lartschneider, 95

Last, 469

Laveleye, 249

Leclerc, 469

Le Double, 96

Leitner, 413

Lenz, O., 454

Leroy-Beaulieu, 236

Letourneau, 159, 169, 231, 252, 271

Letourneux, 431

Lister, 500

Livon, 85

Lloyd, 527

Lubboch, Sir J., 231, 234

Lumholtz, 477, 535, 536

Luschan, F. von, 261, 423, 440, 451, 467, 497

Lydekker, 13

Macalister, 95

MacCauley, 528

Macdonald, 465

Macgregor, 493

Madrolle, 449

Maine, Sir H. S., 236, 247

Maïnof, 351

Maistre, 442, 446

Malief, 64

Mallery, G., 129, 138

Man, 397

Manolescu, 339

Manouvrier, 55, 56, 87, 90, 99, 100, 361, 555

Mantegazza, 64, 73, 110, 158, 351

Margaritof, 363

Marillier, 220

Markham, Sir Clements, 118

Markuse, 500

Marri, 84

Marshall, 411

Martin, 87

Martins, 274

Martonne, E. de, 446

Mason, Mrs., 395

Mason, Otis, 153, 154, 182, 184, 191, 225, 261, 262, 270, 275, 278, 284

Maspero, 278, 420

Mathews, R., 242

Maurel, 109, 394

McLennan, J. F., 233

Medlicot, 362

Meinecke, 500

Menant, D., 420

Mensé, 458

Metchnikof, 77

Metzger, 122

Meyer, A. R., 483

Meyer, E. H., 341

Middendorf, 547

Milne, 363

Mindeleff, 516

Möckler, 421

Modigliani, 216, 486

Mohnike, 391

Moloney, 453

Monnier, 228

Montano, 64, 483, 486

Montefiore, 351

Monteil, 446

Montelius, 314, 315

Mooney, 527, 530

Morel, 399

Moreno, 513

Morgan, De, 426, 429

Morgan, Lewis, 124, 234, 516

Morgen, 458

Morse, E., 264

Mortillet, A. de, 304

Mortillet, G. de, 184, 300, 304, 306, 309

Moser, 278

Moura, 399

Much, 315

Müller, F., 114, 131, 283

Müller, Max, 317

Munro, H. R., 16

Nachtigal, 444, 445, 446

Nadaillac, 511

Naegeli, 5

Nansen, 520

Nehring, 309

Neis, 169, 392

Niblack, 531

Niederle, 344

Nillsson, 272

Noetling, 359

Nordeck, C. de, 449

Nordenskiold, 367, 516

O’Brien, H. O., 122

Oliver, E., 420

Oppert, 411

Orozco y Berra, 535

Pagliani, 106

Pallas, 115, 378

Pantiukhof, 116, 353, 358, 422

Papillault, 169

Parker, L., 478

Paspati, 425

Paulitschke, 436, 438

Peacock, 98

Peal, S., 364, 396

Pearson, Karl, 75

Peary, 520

Peixoto, 513

Penka, 318

Petersen, 423

Petitot, 520

Petrie, Flinders, 427, 428, 435

Phillips, 262

Piette, 137, 308

Pinabel, 392

Pinart, 546

Pinto, Serpa, 461

Pleyte, 475, 488

Ploss, 97, 112, 240, 241

Poesche, 318

Pogge, 461

Pogio, 387

Poole, S., 435

Porcher, 399

Post, 230, 250, 252

Potanin, 363

Powell, 254, 519, 521, 524

Pozdniéef, 378

Prjevalsky, 380, 381

Pruner-Bey, 435

Pullé, 337

Pypine, 344

Quatrefages, De, 62, 214, 284, 313, 397, 454, 483, 505, 512

Quedenfeld, 432

Quevedo, L., 572

Quibell, 427

Rabentisch, 55

Radde, 116

Radlof, 363

Ramon y Cajal, 104

Ranke, J., 15, 341

Ranke, K. E., 517

Rasch, 122

Ratzel, 125

Ray, 494, 497

Read, 72

Reclus, Elie, 411, 416

Reclus, Elisée, 118, 383, 460, 463

Regalia, 77

Regibus, 101

Reid, 396

Rein, J. J., 391

Reinach, Salomon, 300, 309, 310, 315, 317, 321, 427

Retzius, 348, 516

Reuleaux, 187

Révoil, 438

Rey, P., 563

Richthofen, 385

Rigges, 530

Rink, 520

Ripley, 325

Risley, 381, 404, 408, 413

Rivett-Carnac, 362

Rockhill, 380

Roepstorff, 397

Rojdestvensky, 92

Rosenberg, 119

Rosenstadt, 113

Rohlfs, 434

Romanes, 5

Roth, Ling, 255, 482, 490

Roth, W. E., 477

Roux, 382

Royce, C., 527

Ruskikh, 116

Sachier, 336

Saint-Hilaire, J. G., 282

Santelli, 438

Sarasin, 62, 64, 418, 493

Sarzec, E. de, 420

Sasaki, 107

Schadenberg, 483

Schellong, 494

Schinz, 228, 456, 467

Schlegel, 149

Schlichter, 454

Schmelz, 226, 254

Schmidt, E., 10, 106, 290, 408, 416, 435, 514

Schrader, 366, 373, 374

Schramm, 225

Schrenck, 366, 373, 374

Schwalbe, 83, 361

Schweinfurth, 429, 441, 446, 454

Seler, 547

Sénart, 404

Sergi, 73, 330, 435, 438

Serurrier, 450

Shortt, 236, 411

Shevyref, 23

Shrubsall, 467

Sibree, 469

Siret, H. & J., 314

Sittig, 505

Smeaton, 395

Smirnov, 351

Smith, E., 248

Smith, Donaldson, 454

Smith, Worthington, 312

Smith, W. T., 140, 475

Smyth, Brough, 223, 226, 475

Sören Hansen, 51, 512, 520

Sommier, 351

Spalikowski, 74

Spassovitch, 344

Spencer, Baldwin, 477, 478

Stainier, 427, 428

Stanley, H. M., 454

Staudinger, 446

Stearns, 274

Steinen, K. von den, 170, 204

Steinmetz, 148, 220

Stevenson, J., 526

Stieda, 73

Stirling, E., 477

Stoddard, 552

Stolpe, H., 202

Strabo, 436

Studer, 195

Stuhlmann, 440, 446, 454

Tarentsky, 373

Tautain, 475, 500

Taylor, I., 317

Ten Kate, 62, 64, 68, 96, 450, 485, 493, 517, 524, 526, 533, 536, 547, 555, 569

Terrien de Lacouperie, 382

Testut, 95, 96

Thomas, Cyrus, 514

Thomson, J., 440

Thurston, 411

Török, 19

Topinard, 10, 18, 48, 64, 72, 73, 76, 91, 92, 97, 98, 99, 177, 280, 283, 432, 476, 477

Tourette, G. de la, 122

Tourtoulon, 335

Turner, Sir W., 16, 62, 64, 84, 85, 95, 103, 400, 477

Tylor, E. B., 135, 152, 161, 183, 184, 199, 210, 214, 217, 219, 220, 235, 240, 242

Ujfalvy, 416

Uvarof, 361, 363

Veckenstedt, E., 153

Verneau, 84, 431, 450, 513

Vierkandt, 126

Vierordt, 107, 108

Villot, 432

Virchow, 64, 435, 436, 490

Vogt, 142

Voit, C., 100

Waddell, 380, 416

Wallace, A. R., 5

Wallaschek, 209, 210

Wauters, 458, 461

Weber, Max, 493

Weeren, 186

Weigand, 339

Weisbach, 73

Weiss, 63

Westermarck, E., 231, 235, 236, 237, 238

Westermarck, F., 75

Weule, 263

Wilhelm, E., 83

Wilken, 145, 230, 475

Williams, 508

Wilson, T., 511

Windle, B., 306, 314

Windt, De, 242

Wirth, A., 391

Wissmann, 146, 148, 456

Wlislocki, H. von, 425

Wolff, 461

Woodthorpe, 215, 396

Wright, F., 511

Yadrintsef, 367

Zaborowski, 427

Zintgraff, 458

Zograf, 344, 351

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

Ababdeh, 436

Abnakis, 526

Abyssinians, 437, 438

Accredians, 452

Achango, 454

Achinese, 489

Aderbaijani, 294, 376, 419

Aduma, 459

Ægean civilisation, 315

Aetas, 397, 483

Afara, 438

Afiffi, 454

Africa, grouping of existing populations of, 431

Afridis, 420

Ainus, 44, 59, 68, 85, 110, 291, 365, 371-373

Akkas, 454

Alakalufs, 576

Albinism, 51

Aleuts, 521

Alfurus, 136, 491

Algonquians, 526, 527

Alimentation.--Geophagy, anthropophagy--preparation of foods--method of fire-making and cooking, pottery, stimulants and narcotics, 144-160

Amazonians, 552

American linguistic families, number of, 519

American Indians (North), 38, 80, 87, 133, 151, 204, 241, 248, 521

Andamanese, 56, 85, 91, 99, 159

Andeans, 545

Andean dialects, 544

Angolese, 461

Animistic religion, absence of moral element in, 220

Annamese, 98, 399

Antaifasina, 471

Antaimoro, 471

Antaisaka, 471

Antaisara, 472

Antambahoaka, 471

Antanosi, 472

Anthropology and ethnology, distinction between, 9

Anthropological classification, various, 280-284

Apaches, 525

Apalachi, 528

Apollonians, 451

Arabs, 87, 422, 432

Araucans, 550

Arawaks, 556

Arimichaux, 570

Armenians, 81, 422

Arts, the.--Primitive design, sculpture, dancing, music vocal and instrumental, musical instruments, poetry, 197-212

Aryan question, 317-320

Ashantis, 451

Asia, peoples of Anterior, 418-425; peoples of Central, 374-382; peoples of Eastern, 382-390; peoples of Northern, 366-374

Asiatic races, geographical distribution and principal characters of existing, 365-425

Asikuya, 460

Assinaboins, 529

Assinians, 451

Assyroid race, 290, 365

Athapascans, 524

Australians, 39, 44, 80, 109, 137, 151, 170, 204, 207, 220, 226, 232, 241, 248, 290, 476

Awekwom, 451

Aymaras, 547

Aztecs, 536, 537

Bacongo, 460

Badagas, 411

Bajaus, 490

Bakairis, 553

Bakalai, 459

Bakamba, 460

Bakoris, 458

Bakunda, 458

Balinese, 490

Ballali, 460

Baltis, 415

Baluba, 462

Baluchis, 420

Banga, 463

Bangi, 461

Banja, 440

Bantus, 159, 429, 456, 463

Barabra, 435

Basas, 458

Bashkir-Meshcheriaks, 376

Basques, 87, 99, 240, 348

Bateke, 460

Battas, 489

Batua, 454

Bayanzi, 463

Bechuana, 206, 465, 466

Bedouins, 422

Bejas, 436

Benin, 453

Berbers, 432, 433

Betsileo, 471

Betsimasaraka, 471

Bicols, 491

Biped attitude, condition of brain development, 16

Black Feet, 527

Bongo, 445

Bonjos, 461

Bororos, 566

Botocudos, 50, 147, 159, 170, 563

Bows, 262

Boyaeli, 454

Brahuis, 421

Brain weight among different races; relative weight of, in men and women; relation of stature and weight of body to weight of brain, etc., 97-104; brain weights of man and anthropoid apes, 17, 18; weight at different ages, 107

Bubuendi, 460

Bujis, 490

Buriats, 379

Burmese, 400

Bushmen, 41, 44, 56, 80, 94, 204, 206, 287, 467

Bushmen-Hottentots, 467

Cagayanes, 491

Cahitas, 535

Cainguas, 563, 568

Calchaquis, 547

Cambodians, 398

Caribs, 541, 552

Caste and class organisation, 249

Caste in India, 402

Cayugas, 527

Celts, 323, 347

Cephalic index, its numerical expression and nomenclature, 57-59; its relation to mentality, 76

Chapanecs, 538

Characterisation of races in author’s classification, 285-293

Charruas, 571

Chechen-Lesgians, 354

Che-hoan, 391

Chenooks, 532

Cherkess (Circassians), 354

Cheyennes, 527

Chibchas, 546

Chicasaws, 528

Children.--Voluntary limitation of, infanticide, rearing of children among primitive peoples, naming, education, etc., 239-241

Chinese, 38, 43, 47, 50, 109, 141, 382, 386

Chins, 413

Chippewas, 524, 526

Chontals, 538, 540

Chukchi, 149, 182, 191, 242, 367

Ciboneys, 557

Classification of ethnic groups, 293-298

Commerce, conduct of, in primitive societies, 270

Coreans, 386, 387

Corroborees, 207

Couvade, 240

Cranial capacity of different races, 56

Cranial characters, 53-55

Creeks, 528

Crees, 526

Crows, 530

Dagomba, 447

Dakotas, 530

Damaras, 466

Danagla, 436

Dardi or Dardu, 413

Death, conception of, among uncivilised peoples, 216

Denakil, 438

Dental formulæ of monkeys, anthropoid apes, and man, 13

Dental index of man, anthropoid apes, chimpanzee, orang, and gorilla, 21

Dinka, 445

Disease, primitive conceptions of, 227

Distinctive morphological characters of human races.--Stature, 25, 31; influence of environment on stature, 31, 32; difference of stature of men and women, 32, 33. Teguments: the skin, hair of head and body, 37. Four principal types of hair, 38, 46. Pigmentation: colouring of the skin, eyes, and hair, 46-52

Domestication of animals, 194-196

Dravidians, 44, 47, 99, 290, 365, 410

Dress and ornament: nakedness and modesty, adornment of the body, ethnic mutilations, adornment by objects attached to the body, making of garments, spinning and weaving, 170-184

Druzes, 423

Duala, 243, 458

Duk-Duk societies, 253

Dyaks, 45, 490

Endocannibalism and exocannibalism, 148

Eskimo, 137, 151, 160, 245, 263, 292, 365, 520, 521

Ethiopians, 288, 436

Eurasians, 81, 293

European ethnogeny, problem of, 299-300

European peoples, migrations during historic period, 320-325

European races, characters and geographical distribution of six principal and four secondary, 325-334; linguistic divisions, 335-358

Ewes, 453

Facial index, 70, 72, 76, 77

Family organisation, 248

Fans, 459

Fellaheen, 435

Felups, 449

Finns, 45, 80, 349

Fœtal likeness in man and apes, 23, 24

French, 87, 335

Fuegians, 81, 85, 87, 91, 146, 170, 181, 189, 214, 241, 571, 575

Fulahs, 45, 47, 439, 442

Funereal rites, burial of weapons, pottery, etc., mourning and funeral feasts, modes of sepulture, etc., 242-244

Furs, 445

Gabunese, 459

Gallas, 438

Games and recreations, sports and spectacles, 197-201

Ganguela, 461

Genital organs, differences of, according to race, 96

Germans, 87, 111, 323, 339

Ges, 562

Gesture language, 128, 129

Giliaks, 373

Goajires, 557

Gonds, 410

Gonja, 447

Group marriage: exogamy and endogamy, the matriarchate, filiation and relationship, 231-234

Guanches, 87

Guaraunos, 561

Guatos, 573

Guaycurus, 572, 573

Guaymis, 545

Gurkhas, 415

Gurma, 447

Gurunga, 447

Gypsies, 425

Habitation, primitive types of--huts, tents, villages; furniture, heating, lighting, 160-169

Hair of head and body, 37; four principal varieties of hair, straight, wavy, frizzy, woolly, 38-46

Hajemis, 419

Hamrans, 436

Hausas, 446

Hawaiians, 502

Head of living subject, measurements of, 68, 69

Hidatsas, 530

_Homo Americanus_, problem of, origin of, 509

Hottentots, 42, 94, 97

Hovas, 469, 470

Huaxtecs, 537, 540

Hunting, fishing and agriculture, primitive methods of, 185-194

Hupas, 525, 553

Hurons, 527

Hut, origin and development of primitive, 160-163

Idzo, 453

Igara, 453

Igbera, 453

Igorrotes, 491

Illyro-Hellenes, 346

Incas, 546

Indo-Afghan race, 290, 365

Indonesians, 47, 153, 365, 406

_Initiation_, ceremonies connected with, circumcision, etc., 241, 242

Ipurinas, 556

Iranians, 44, 80, 419

Iroquoians, 526, 527

Irulas, 411

Jakris, 453

Japanese, 42, 44, 51, 68, 87, 107, 170, 243, 387-391, 489

Javanese, 99, 489

Jews, 50, 80, 93, 118, 423-425

Kabards, 376

Kabyles, 87

Kafirs, 159, 163, 170, 211, 413

Kalinas, 553

Kalmuks, 50, 111, 375, 379

Kanaras, 411

Karayas, 565

Karens, 394

Kartvels or Georgians, 355

Kayapos, 563, 564

Kenai, 524

Kerepunu, 495

Khalkas, 379

Khands, 410

Khas, 415

Khonds, 219, 259, 410

Kiowas, 530

Kirghiz, 108, 376

Kizilbashes, 423

Kolarians, 408

Koriaks, 367

Kotas, 411

Kru, 450

Kuis, 392

Kulu-Lahuli, 415

Kurds, 422

Kumyks, 376

Kurumbas, 411

Kwakiutls, 532

Lampongs, 489

Lamuts, 373

Languages, monosyllabic, agglutinative, polysynthetic, inflectional, 130-133

Lapps, 80, 293

Latins, 235, 335

Leni-Lenapé, 526

Lenkas, 540

Levirate, 236

Linguistic characters: gesture and speech, divisions of language according to structure, optic and acoustic signals, handwriting, mnemotechnic objects, pictography, ideography, alphabets, 127-143

Lo-lo, 381

Loucheux, 524

Lunda, 402

Luri, 445

Lushai, 395

Lu-tse, 382

Macusis, 134, 553

Madurese, 490

Maghrebi, 434

Mahratis, 413

Makirifares, 553

Makua, 464

Malayalim, 411

Malays, 44, 47, 59, 63, 80, 83, 85, 87, 99, 107, 137, 288, 493, 497

Mampursi, 447

Manchus, 374

Mandingans, 447, 448

Mangars, 415

Mangbattus, 440

Manyuema, 465

Maoris, 503

Maricopas, 532

Maronites, 423

Masai, 440

Mashona, 466

Matrimonial customs, loan of wife, real and simulated abduction, marriage by capture, duration of union, etc., 237-239

Mayas, 539

Maypures, 556

Melanesians, 46, 59, 63, 80, 83, 85, 87, 99, 107, 137, 288, 493, 497

Melanism, 51

Melanochroids, 291

Melkits, 423

Metal age in Europe, 314-316

Metouali, 423

Miao-tse, 381

Micronesians, 504

Minkopis, 397

Minnetaris, 529

Miranhas, 560

Mixes, 538

Miztecs, 538

Modesty, conventionality of, 170

Mohaves, 533

Mohicans, 526

Mois, 392

Money, primitive standards of exchange, beads, cocoa-seed, cakes of tea, cowries, origin of modern money, etc., 271-274

Mongo, 463

Mongols, 38, 41, 44, 46, 49, 77, 80, 82, 87, 99, 112, 164, 241, 293, 365, 379

Monogenesis and polygenesis, 7

Mons or Talaing, 393

Moors, 434

Moquis, 524

Morality of the uncivilised, its utilitarian basis, 251-252

Morioris, 503

Moros, 491

Moscos, 541

Mossi, 447

Mosso, 382

Muskhogis, 528

Mycenian civilisation, 315

Myths, their intermediate position between science, poetry, and religion, 222

Nagas, 45, 395

Nahuas, 546

Nahuquas, 553

Nairs, 415

Nasal index, 63-64

Natchez, 528

Navigation, methods of--rafts, canoes, etc., 278-279

Nazareans, 423

Negrilloes, 454

Negritoes, 482, 490

Negroes, 63, 67, 80, 83, 89, 91, 96, 98, 107, 117, 135, 186, 220, 288

Nepalese, 415

Nestorians, 423

Nevajos, 525

Niam-Niams, 47, 147, 440

Nias, 216, 240

Nicobarese, 396

Niquirans, 536

Nubians, 436

Nuers, 445

Odour of Negroes, Chinese, etc., 109

Ojibwas, 526

Olchas, 373

Old men, the fate of, in primitive societies, their voluntary suicide, etc., 242

Omahas, 530

Oneidas, 527

Onondagas, 527

Oraons, 410

Orbital index, 61-63

Orochons, 374

Oroks, 374

Osages, 530

Ossets, 111, 356, 421

Otomis, 537

Ottawas, 527

Paharias, 415

Pai-pi-bri, 451

Palæ-American sub-race, 292, 512

Palenbangs, 489

Palkhpuluk, 415

Pampeans, 571

Panos, 559

Papajos, 535

Papuans, 483, 484, 493-497

Parsis, 419, 420

Pashtu, 420

Passumahs, 489

Patagonians, 574

Pawnees, 530

Pelvic index, 84

Pepo-hoan, 391

Persians, 419

Peruvians, 67, 85

Physiological characters, functions of nutrition and assimilation, respiration and circulation, reproduction, etc., 105-120

Pictography, 137-140

Pigmentation, race variations of, 46; ten principal shades of colour of skin, 47; pigmentation of the iris, 48; three fundamental shades of the iris, 49; colour of the eye in different races, 49; colouring of the hair, 49; four principal shades, 49; pigmentation at birth, 50; absence of pigment, 51

Pigmies, 455

Pimas, 535

_Pithecanthropus erectus_, 360

Politeness, rules of.--“Exchanging blood,” salutations, etc., 254-255

Polyandry, 235

Polygamy and monogamy, the patriarchate, 237

Polymorphism, 5

Polynesians, 47, 63, 85, 87, 91, 112, 204, 206, 500

Ponkas, 530

Pottery-making, modelling, moulding, and coiling methods of, 154, 155

Prehistoric “finds” in Africa, 427; in Oceania, 475

Promiscuity, 231

Property, systems under which held, collective, family, individual, 245-247

Psychological and Pathological characters, 121

Quaternary age in Europe, 301

Quaternary human remains in Europe, 309

Quaternary man in Asia, 361

Quechuas, 547

Race, in what manner term applied, 8

Rejangs, 489

Religion--animism, fetichism, worship of natural objects and phenomena, religion and morality, rites and ceremonies, priesthoods, 214-223

Respiration among uncivilised peoples and among Europeans, 108

Right and justice, the power of taboo, vendetta, ordeals, oath-taking, extra-legal judges, etc., 252-254

Russians, 111, 167, 344

Sakai, 397

Sakalavas, 470

Salishans, 532

Samarai, 495

Samoans, 504

Santals (Sonthals), 114, 409

Sartes, 376, 419

Savaras (Saoras), 409

Scandinavians, 47, 186, 220, 228

Scapular index, 85

Sciences, primitive--knowledge of numbers, calculation of time, calendars and clocks, geography and cartography, 223-228

Selungs, 396

Senecas, 527

Sexes, relation of, before marriage, 229

Shans, 401

Shawnees, 526

Shield, evolution of the, 266-269

Shiluks, 445

Shuvashes, 376

Siamese, 402

Sikanese, 492

Singhalese, 416

Siouans, 528

Skeleton of trunk and limbs, differentiative racial characters of, 83, 93

Skin, structure of the, 34; differences according to race, 36

Skull, comparison of human skull and that of anthropoid apes, 18, 19

Slavs, 59, 323, 343

Social groups, stages of, conditions of progress of, classification of “states of civilisation,” 123-127

Social organisation, under group marriage, totemism, clan rule, 247-248

Somalis, 438

Somatological units, 3

Soninké, 449

Sonoran-Aztecs, 535

Sonrhays, 447

Sonthals, 114, 409

Spaniols, 425

Species, what constitutes, 5-8

Spine, curvature of, in the _Cercopithecidæ_, in the anthropoid apes, in man, 13, 14

Staff messages, 135

“States of civilisation,” classification of, 127

Stature, variations of, at birth, 25; average heights of different populations, 25; limits of stature, giantism, dwarfism, 27-31; influence of environment on stature, 31, 32; stature of men and women compared, 33

Steatopygia, 93

Stone and metal ages in Asia, 362-365

Sundanese, 489

Swazi, 465

Syrians, 423

Taboo, 252

Tagals, 491

Tails, pretended existence of men with, 95

Tajiks, 419

Takhtaji, 423

Takullies, 524

Talamancas, 545

Tamils, 411

Taranchi, 375

Tarascos, 537

Tasmanians, 482

Tatars, 367, 375, 376

Tecunas, 561

Teguments, in man and apes, 22

Tehuelches, 574

Teleuts, 375

Telingas, 411

Tenggerese, 496

Tent, origin and development of, 163, 164

Territorial organisation, 249

Tertiary man in Europe, 300

Thai, 76, 400

Thibetans, 43, 380, 381

Thos-Muong, 401

Tinné, 524

Tlinkits, 110, 292, 532

Todas, 411

Toes and fingers of man and of anthropoid apes, 20, 21

Tombo, 447

Tonga, 465

Tools of primitive industry, methods of making stone implements, etc., 184-188

Totonacs, 536, 537

Toucouleur, 450

Transport and means of communication--primitive vehicles, sledges, chariots, etc., 275-277

Trumai, 566

Trunk and limbs of living subject, racial characters of, 93

Tsimshians, 532

Tuaregs, 434

Tubas, 444

Tula Dariens, 549

Tulus, 411

Tunguses, 246, 373

Tupi-Guarani, 562, 567

Turkomans, 376

Turks, 59, 293, 365, 377

Tyrolese, 59

Tziam, 394

Ugrians, 293, 365, 521

Ulvas, 541

United States, white population of, 508

Uzbegs, 376

Veddahs, 85, 87, 91, 145, 157, 159, 270, 417

Vei, 449

Wagogo, 464

Wahabits, 423

Wakamba, 464

Wakguro, 464

Wambutti, 454

Wapokompo, 464

Wataita, 464

Weapons of offence and defence, clubs, missile weapons, boomerangs, the bow and arrow, methods of arrow release, shields, protective armour, 257-269

Wichitas, 530

Yakuts, 375

Yamas, 554

Yasafzais, 420

Yeniseians or Tubas, 366

Yeshkhun, 413

Yezides, 423

Yolofs, 450

Yorubas, 453

Yukagirs, 370

Yumas, 533

Zaparos, 561

Zapotecs, 537

Zoques, 538

Zulus, 465

Zuñis, 155, 225, 534

THE END.

THE WALTER SCOTT PRESS, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE

Footnotes:

[Footnote 1: In these ethnic groups there may further be distinguished several subdivisions due to the diversity of manners, customs, etc.; or, in the groups with a more complicated social organisation, yet other social groups--priests, magistrates, miners, peasants, having each his particular “social type.”]

[Footnote 2: Naegeli, _Mechanisch-Physiol. Theorie der Abstammungslehre_, Munich, 1883.]

[Footnote 3: The most recent definitions of species given by Wallace and Romanes approximate closely to that of Cuvier. Eimer has suggested another, based solely on the physiological criterion. His definition has the advantage of covering cases of _polymorphism_, in which the female gives birth to two or several individuals so unlike that we should not hesitate to classify them in two species if guided only by morphology.]

[Footnote 4: See on this point, Y. Delage, _L’Hérédité_, pp. 252 _et seq._ Paris, 1895.]

[Footnote 5: The question is summed up by Darwin, _Descent of Man_, vol. i., p. 264, 2nd edition. London, 1888.]

[Footnote 6: In questions of hybridity, it must be observed, we often confound the notions of “race” and “people,” or “social class,” and we have to be on our guard against information drawn from statistics. Thus in Central America we consider “hybrids” all those descendants of the Spaniards and the Indians who have adopted the semi-European manner of life and the Catholic religion, without inquiring whether or not this physical type has reverted to that of one of the ancestors--a not infrequent occurrence.]

[Footnote 7: Darwin, _loc. cit._, vol. i., p. 280.]

[Footnote 8: Such is, for example, the scheme of Topinard, consisting of two double parts (_Elements d’Anthropologie_, p. 216, Paris, 1885), to which corresponds the system newly propounded by Em. Schmidt (_Centralblatt für Anthropologie, etc._, vol. ii., p. 97, Breslau, 1897). The last-mentioned admits in reality two divisions, Ethnography and Ethnology, in what he calls Ethnic Anthropology; and two others, Phylography and Phylology, in what he names Somatic Anthropology. The two last divisions correspond to the Special Anthropology and the General Anthropology of Topinard.]

[Footnote 9: If we include the Lemurs in the order of Primates, the five families just enumerated are all included in a “sub-order,” that of _Anthropoidea_. (See, for further details, Flower and Lydekker, _Introduction to the Study of Mammals Living and Extinct_, London, 1891.)]

[Footnote 10: J. H. Kohlbrugge, “Versuch einer Anatomie ... Hylobates,” _Zoolog. Ergeb. einer Reise in Ned. Ind., von M. Weber_, vols. i. and ii. Leyden, 1891.]

[Footnote 11: D. J. Cunningham, “The Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes,” _Cunningham Memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy_, No. II., Dublin, 1886.]

[Footnote 12: J. Ranke, “Ueber die aufrechte Körperhaltung, etc.,” _Corr.-Bl. der deutsch. Gesell. f. Anthr._, 1895, p. 154.]

[Footnote 13: The enormous development of the laryngeal sacs in the orang-utan is perhaps also in harmony with this protective function, as I have shown in a special work. See Deniker and Boulart, “Notes anat. sur ... orang-utans,” _Nouv. Arch. Mus. d’hist. nat. de Paris_, 3rd Series, vol. vii., p. 47, 1895.]

[Footnote 14: R. Munro, “On Interm. Links, etc.,” _Proceed. Roy. Soc. Edinb._, vol. xxi. (1896-97), No. 4, p. 349, and _Prehistoric Problems_, pp. 87 and 165, Edin.-Lond. 1897; Turner, Pres. Address Brit. Assoc., Toronto Meeting, _Nature_, Sept. 1897.]

[Footnote 15: Topinard, _L’homme dans la Nature_, p. 214. Paris, 1891.]

[Footnote 16: Deniker and Boulart, _loc. cit._, p. 55.]

[Footnote 17: Boyd, “Table of Weights of the Human Body, etc.,” _Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London_, 1861; Bischoff, _Das Hirngewicht der Menschen_, Bonn, 1880. The difference remains nearly the same if, instead of the weight of the body, we take its surface, as was attempted by E. Dubois (_Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, p. 337, 1897).]

[Footnote 18: For further details about this plane, see p. 59.]

[Footnote 19: See on this subject the interesting study of Dr. Török in the _Centralblatt für Anthropologie, etc._, directed by Buschan, 1st year, 1896, No. 3.]

[Footnote 20: Pfitzner, “Die kleine Zehe,” _Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys._, 1890.]

[Footnote 21: Bell, _The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 209, 1874; Shevyref, “Parasites of the Skin, etc.,” _Works Soc. of Naturalists_, St. Petersburg, 1891, in Russian.]

[Footnote 22: Walter Kidd, “Certain Vestigial Characters in Man,” _Nature_, 1897, vol. lv., p. 237.]

[Footnote 23: See for further details Deniker, _Recherches anatom. et embryol. sur les singes anthropoides_, Paris and Poitiers, 1886 (Extr. from _Arch. de Zool. experim._, 30 ser., vol. iii., supp., 1885-86).]

[Footnote 24: Deniker, “Les Races de l’Europe,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, p. 29, 1897.]

[Footnote 25: Joest, _Verh. Berl. gesell. Anthr._, p. 450, 1887; Topinard, _Elem. Anthr. gén._, p. 436.]

[Footnote 26: Manouvrier, _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, p. 264, 1896.]

[Footnote 27: B. A. Gould, _Investigations in the Milit. and Anthrop. Statistics of American Soldiers_, New York, 1869.]

[Footnote 28: Final Report of the Anthropometric Committee, Brit. Ass., 1883.]

[Footnote 29: Pagliani, _Lo sviluppo umano per età, etc._ Milan, 1879.]

[Footnote 30: These figures differ from those up to the present given in most works, according to Topinard (_Elem. Anthro. gén._, p. 462), who fixes the limits between 1 m. 44 (Bushmen of the Cape) and 1 m. 85 (Patagonians), but the first of these figures is that of a series of six subjects only, measured by Fritsch, and the second the average of ten subjects measured by Lista and Moreno. This is insufficient, and since the publication of Topinard’s work we have only been able to add a few isolated observations concerning those interesting populations the actual height of which is still to be determined.]

[Footnote 31: Topinard, _Elem. Anthr. gén._, p. 463.]

[Footnote 32: _Final Report Brit. Assoc._, 1883, p. 17.]

[Footnote 33: Beddoe, _The Stature and Bulk of Man in the Brit. Isles_, pp. 148 _et seq._ London, 1870.]

[Footnote 34: Houzé, _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Bruxelles_, 1887; Roberts, _A Manual of Anthropometry_, London, 1878, and _Jour. Stat. Soc._, London, 1876; Anuchin, “O geograficheskom, etc.,” _Geograph. Distrib. of Stature in Russia_, St. Petersburg, 1889; Erisman, _Arch. f. soz. gesetzgeb._, Tübingen, 1888.]

[Footnote 35: Collignon, “L’Anthropologie au conseil de révision,” _Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris_, 1890, p. 764.]

[Footnote 36: Ammon, _Die Natur. Auslese beim Menschen_, Jena, 1893; Vacher de Lapouge, _Les selections sociales_, Paris, 1896; Beddoe, _loc. cit._, p. 180; Ranke, _Der Mensch._, vol. ii., p. 109, Leipzig, 1887.]

[Footnote 37: Boas (_Zeit. f. Ethnol._, 1895, p. 375) found, however, in thirty-nine series of Indians the difference greater with tribes of high stature (13.5 centimetres) than with tribes of low stature (9.9 centimetres).]

[Footnote 38: Rollet, _Mensurations des os longs, etc._, Lyons, 1889 (thesis).]

[Footnote 39: Manouvrier, _Mem. Soc. Anthro._, 2nd ser., vol. iv., p. 347, Paris, 1893.]

[Footnote 40: Rahon, _Mem. Soc. Anthro._, vol. iv., p. 403, Paris, 1893.]

[Footnote 41: Bischoff, _Sitzungsber. Mat. Phys. Cl. Bayr. Akad._, Munich, 1882, pp. 243 and 356.]

[Footnote 42: Galton, _Finger Prints_. London, 1892.]

[Footnote 43: Haeckel, _Natur. Schöpfungsgeschichte_, 4th ed., p. 603. Berlin, 1873.]

[Footnote 44: Pruner-Bey, “Chevelure comme caracterist. des races hum.,” _Mem. Soc. Anthr._, vol. ii., p. 1, Paris, 1863; Latteux, _Technique microscopique_, p. 239, Paris, 1883; Waldeyer, _Atlas der Menschl. u. Thier Haare_, Lahr, 1894.]

[Footnote 45: Topinard, _Elem. Anthrop. gén._, p. 265; J. Ranke, _loc. cit._, vol. ii., p. 172.]

[Footnote 46: Baelz, “Körperl. Eigensch. d. Japaner,” _Mitth. Deut. Gesell. Nat. und Völkerk. Ostasiens_, vol. iii., fasc. 28, p. 330, and vol. iv., fasc. 32, p. 39, Yokohama, 1883-85; Montano, _Mission aux îles Philippines_, Paris, 1885 (Extr. from _Arch. Miss. Scient._, 3rd series, vol. xi.).]

[Footnote 47: P. S. Unna, “Ueber das Haar als Rassenmerkmal,” _Deutsche Med. Zeit._, 1896, Nos. 82 and 83.]

[Footnote 48: See Stewart, _Microsc. Journ._, 1873, p. 54; and T. Anderson Stuart, _Journ. Anat. Phys._, 1881-82, xvi., p. 362.]

[Footnote 49: B. A. Gould, _loc. cit._, p. 562.]

[Footnote 50: Breul, “Vertheil. d. Hautpigments bei verschied. Menschenrassen,” _Morph. Arb._, directed by G. Schwalbe, vol. vi., part 3. Jena, 1896.]

[Footnote 51: Broca, _Instructions génér. pour les rech. Anthropologiques sur le vivant_, 2nd ed., Paris, 1879.]

[Footnote 52: J. G. Garson and Ch. H. Read, _Notes and Queries on Anthropology_, edit. for the Anthro. Institute, 2nd ed., London, 1892.]

[Footnote 53: Fair hair with all its shades is met with especially among the European populations of the North; it is rarer in the South. There are, it is computed, 16 fair-haired individuals to every 100 Scotchmen; 13 to every 100 Englishmen; and 2 only to every 100 Italians (Beddoe). On the other hand, brown hair is met with in 75 cases out of 100 Spaniards, 39 out of 100 Frenchmen, and 16 only of 100 Scandinavians (Gould). The fair variety is rarer among straight-haired races; it is found, however, among the western Finns, among certain Russians, etc.]

[Footnote 54: Baelz, _loc. cit._, vol. iv., p. 40; Matignon, _Bull. Soc. Anthr._, p. 524, Paris, 1896; Collignon, _ibid._, p. 528; Sören-Hansen, _Bidrag Vestgrönl. Anthr._, Copenhagen, 1893; Extr. from _Meddel. om Grönl._, vol. vii., p. 237.]

[Footnote 55: Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, p. 223. London, 1897.]

[Footnote 56: These characters, in conjunction with several others--the small development of the lower jaw-bone, the frontal sinuses poorly developed, the much greater development of the cranial vault proportionately to its base, the persistence of the frontal and parietal bumps--make the feminine skull approximate to the infantile form. See the works of Broca, Manouvrier, and also Rabentisch, _Der Weiberschädel, Morpholog. Arb._, Schwalbe, 1892, vol. ii., p. 207; and H. Ellis, _loc. cit._, p. 72.]

[Footnote 57: H. Ellis, _loc. cit._, p. 89 and onwards; L. Manouvrier, article “Cerveau” in the _Dict. de Physiol. de Ch. Richet_, vol. ii.,