Part 13

For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores, found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr. Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu type, for printing in these languages.

The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more information than any other work extant, on these countries.

Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which will contain an account of its general political divisions, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical features. The natural history of China; its government, laws, literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic life--History and Chronology--Religion; Christian missions; intercourse with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.

The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist; and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention of the reader is directed.

The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate, who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble, about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese inscription, which was translated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by Dalquie into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese, with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era 718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we believe it to be."[112]

Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would extend it beyond the bounds of the _resume_, which it is intended to give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia, but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.

The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.

China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc., etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.

Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.

Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.

Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.

War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.

The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.

Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.

The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.

Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israelites de France). 1844.

Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans l'Inde et a la Chine, dans le IXth siecle de l'ere Chretienne, par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.

Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo. London, 1847.

The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works in this department of learning. They embrace the following.

Sinico-AEgyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire des ecritures figuratives Chinoise et Egyptienne, etc. 8vo.

De l'origine des differents systemes d'ecriture. 4to.

Examen methodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.

Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine; traduits du Chinois. 8vo.

La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.

La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de Tsin; illustre par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.

La Chine et les Chinois, par le meme. 8vo. Paris, 1844.

Systema Phoneticum Scripturae Sinicae, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2 vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.

Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie. 12mo. London.

A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have also been published on China.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country, now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had begun its growth.

[2] This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.

[3] "Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"--as the "Mohawk flats."

[4] Second Note sur une pierre gravee trouve dans un ancien tumulus Americain, et a cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo. Paris, 1846.

[5] See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.

[6] Notes on Africa. p.

[7] The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "_Notice sur les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord_." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the United States.

[8] I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr. Jomard himself hints at their Phoenician origin.

[9] Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23

[10] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New Englander. p. 198.

[11] Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander. p. 180.

[12] Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.

[13] Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4 vols. 8vo.)

[14] Life and Travels in California. p. 372.

[15] Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon commenced a brisk business."

[16] Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the testimony of the missionaries of the _Collegio de Queretaro_, versed in the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.

[17] Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "_Relation du Voyage de Cibola en 1540_," published in the "_Relations et memoirs originaux_" of Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "_Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma_," is extracted from the journal of Father Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in 1775.

[18] Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.

[19] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.

[20] London Athenaeum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of this journey.

[21] Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.

[22] There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at Ghizeh.

[23] London Athenaeum, Nov. 9. 1846.

[24] Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.

[25] Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.

[26] London Athenaeum, March 7, 1846.

[27] Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.

[28] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846. p. 321.

[29] London Athenaeum, July 4, 1846.

[30] London Athenaeum, July, 1845.

[31] The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm. Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, London. Vol. xv.

[32] Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.--_Ibid._ Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.

[33] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.

[34] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.

[35] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.

[36] Notice sur le Progres des decouvertes Geographiques pendant l'annee, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, p. 245.

[37] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.

[38] Comptes-Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.

[39] Revue Archaeologique, Nov. 1845.

[40] The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja, who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of _romouz_.

Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he discovered at the top (_en vedette_) two groups of signs, which, from their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the Arab sacramental words, _Praise be to God_, with which all good Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters. Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.

Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by him, and the result is known.--_Revue Archaeologique_, November, 1845.

[41] See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.

[42] The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.

[43] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.

[44] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.

[45] Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.

[46] Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands, Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the Supreme Court of the United States.

[47] See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.

[48] Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.

[49] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.

[50] London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.

[51] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, 1846. Extrait d'une description de l'archipel des iles Solo, p. 311.

[52] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, for 1846, p. 365.

[53] Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.

[54] Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him with the medal.

[55] Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.

[56] p. 394.

[57] vol. 2. p. 10.

[58] London Athenaeum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.

[59] Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine, vol. 2, 1845.

[60] London Athenaeum. Nov. 3, 1846.

[61] Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.

[62] Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city, they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians, _the whole are foreigners_, eighty families excepted."--_Clio_, 176. See also _Clio_, 171-173.

Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of Mylians and Solymi.

Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy, assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are mentioned.--_Iliad_, b. v. and xii.

[63] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.

[64] Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.

[65] Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.

[66] Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of London, November 9, 1846.--London Ath.

[67] Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimee et la Russie meridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X. Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris, 1845.

[68] I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present state, seems therefore necessary.

[69] Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.

[70] The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A] and others, not only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least six centuries anterior to the Christian era.

The Zendavesta (from _zend_ living, and _avesta_ word, i. e. "the living word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions, and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five books. 1. The _Izechne_, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2. the _Vispered_, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the _Vendidad_, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the _Yeshts Sades_, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5. the book _Siroz_, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]

The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of the universe--Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful, active, benevolent,--in a word, the precise image of the Element; the centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]

"The first created man was composed of the four elements,--fire, air, water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of Surat."[D] The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.

Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur le Yacna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning, illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.

[A] Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.

[B] See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.

[C] Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.

[D] Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.

[71] The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, _Shah_, is at once recognised in the ancient name _Kshe_ or _Ksha_ of the monuments.

[72] Memoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvees pres d'Hamadan. Paris, 1836.

[73] Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn, exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on Oriental Philology and Archaeology published in Europe.

[74] While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.