CHAPTER XII

Chapter 1210,816 wordsPublic domain

BURIAL-PLACES AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES

REFERENCES: Marquardt, 340-388; Voigt, 319-322, 396, 455; Göll, 480-547; Guhl and Koner, 580-595, 857-863; Friedländer, III, 125-137; Ramsay, 479-482; Pauly-Wissowa, _cenotaphium_, _columbārium_; Smith, Harper, Rich, _columbārium_, _fūnus_, _sepulcrum_; Lübker, _Bestattung_, _sepulcrum_; Baumeister, 308-311, 604-609, 1520 f.; Mau-Kelsey, 399-428; Gusman, 44-54; Egbert, Latin Inscriptions, 230-242; Lanciani, Ancient Rome, 64, 129 f.

§419. Importance of Burial.--The Romans' view of the future life explains the importance they attached to the ceremonial burial of the dead. The soul, they thought, could find rest only when the body had been duly laid in the grave; until this was done it haunted the home, unhappy itself and bringing unhappiness to others. To perform the funeral offices (_iūsta facere_) was, therefore, a solemn religious duty, devolving upon the surviving members of the family (§28), and the Latin words show that these marks of respect were looked upon as the right of the dead. In the case of a body lost at sea, or for any other reason unrecovered, the ceremonies were just as piously performed, an empty tomb (_cenotaphium_) being erected sometimes in honor of the dead. And these same rites the Roman was bound to perform, if he came anywhere upon the unburied corpse of a citizen, because all were members of the greater family of the commonwealth. In this case the scattering of three handfuls of dust over the body was sufficient for ceremonial burial and the happiness of the troubled spirit, if for any reason the body could not actually be interred.

§420. Interment and Cremation.--Burial was the way of disposing of the dead practiced most anciently by the Romans, and even after cremation came into very general use it was ceremonially necessary that some small part of the remains, usually the bone of a finger, should be buried in the earth. Burning was practiced before the time of the Twelve Tables, for it is mentioned together with burial in them, but we do not know how long before. Hygienic reasons had probably something to do with its general adoption, and this implies, of course, cities of considerable size. By the time of Augustus it was all but universal, but even in Rome the practice of burial was never entirely discontinued, for cremation was too costly for the very poorest classes, and some of the wealthiest and most aristocratic families held fast to the more ancient custom. The Cornelii, for example, always buried their dead until the dictator required his body to be burned for fear that his bones might be disinterred and dishonored by his enemies, as he had dishonored those of Marius. Children less than forty days old were always buried, and so, too, slaves whose funeral expenses were paid by their masters. After the introduction of Christianity burial came again to be the prevailing use, largely because of the increased expense of burning.

§421. Places of Burial.--The most ancient place of burial, at least for the head of the house, was beneath the hearthstone in the _ātrium_ of his house, later in the garden behind his house, but this had ceased to be the custom long before history begins, and the Twelve Tables forbade the burial or even the burning of the dead within the walls of the city. For the very poor, places of burial were provided in remote localities outside the walls, corresponding in some degree to the Potter's Field of modern cities. The well-to-do made their burial-places as conspicuous as their means would permit, with the hope that the inscriptions upon the monuments would keep alive the names and virtues of the dead, and with the idea, perhaps, that they still had some part in the busy life around them. To this end they lined the great roads on either side for miles out of the cities with rows of tombs of the most elaborate and costly architecture. In the vicinity of Rome the Appian way as the oldest (§385) showed the monuments of the noblest and most ancient families, but none of the roads lacked similar memorials. Many of these tombs were standing in the sixteenth century, a few still remain. The same custom was followed in the smaller towns, and an idea of the appearance of the monuments may be had from the so-called "Street of Tombs" in Pompeii (Fig. 195). There were other burial-places near the cities, of course, less conspicuous and less expensive, and on the farms and country estates like provision was made for persons of humbler station.

§422. The Tombs.--The tombs, whether intended to receive the bodies or merely the ashes, or both, differed widely in size and construction with the different purposes for which they were erected. Some were for individuals only, but these in most cases were strictly public memorials as distinguished from actual tombs intended to receive the remains of the dead. The larger number of those that lined the roads were family tombs, ample in size for whole generations of descendants and retainers of the family, including guest-friends (§185), who had died away from their own homes, and freedmen (§175). There were also the burial-places of the _gentēs_ (§21), in which provision was made for all, even the humblest and poorest, who claimed connection with the _gēns_ and had had a place in its formal organization (§22). Others were erected on a large scale by speculators who sold at low prices space enough for an urn or two to persons too poor to erect tombs of their own and without any claim on a family or gentile burying-place. In imitation of these structures others were erected on the same plan by burial societies formed by persons of the artisan class, and others still by benevolent men, as we have seen baths (§373) and libraries (§402) erected and maintained for the public good. Something will be said of the tombs of all these kinds after the public burying-places have been described.

§423. The Potter's Field.--During the Republic the Esquiline Hill, or at least the eastern part of it, was the place to which was carted all the refuse of the city that the sewers would not carry away. Here, too, were the gravepits (_puticulī_) for the pauper class. They were merely holes in the ground, about twelve feet square, without lining of any kind. Into them were thrown the bodies of the friendless poor, and along with them and over them the carcasses of dead animals and the filth and scrapings of the streets. The pits were kept open, uncovered apparently even when filled, and the stench and the disease-breeding pollution made the hill absolutely uninhabitable. Under Augustus the danger to the health of the whole city became so great that the dumping grounds were moved to a greater distance, and the Esquiline, covered over pits and all with pure soil to the depth of twenty-five feet, was made a park, known as the _Hortī Maecēnātis_.

§424. It is not to be understood, however, that the bodies of Roman citizens were ordinarily disposed of in this revolting way. Faithful freedmen were cared for by their patrons, the industrious poor made provision for themselves in coöperative societies mentioned above, and the proletariate class (§411) was in general saved from such a fate by gentile relations, by patrons (§181), or by the benevolence of individuals. Only in times of plague and pestilence, it is safe to say, were the bodies of known citizens cast into these pits, as under like circumstances bodies have been burned in heaps in our own cities. The uncounted thousands that peopled the Potter's Field of Rome were the riffraff from foreign lands, abandoned slaves (§156), the victims that perished in the arena (§362), outcasts of the criminal class, and the "unidentified" that are buried nowadays at public expense. Criminals put to death by authority were not buried at all; their carcasses were left to birds and beasts of prey at the place of execution near the Esquiline gate.

§425. Plan of Tombs and Grounds.--The utmost diversity prevails in the outward form and construction of the tombs, but those of the classical period seem to have been planned with the thought that the tomb was to be a home for the dead and that they were not altogether cut off from the living. The tomb, therefore, whether built for one person or for many, was ordinarily a building inclosing a room (_sepulcrum_), and this room was really the important thing. Attention has already been called (§189) to the fact that even the urns had in ancient times the shape of the house of one room. The floor of the _sepulcrum_ was quite commonly below the level of the surrounding grounds and was reached by a short flight of steps. Around the base of the walls ran a slightly elevated platform (_podium_, cf. §§337, 357) on which were placed the coffins of those who were buried, while the urns were placed either on the platform or in niches in the wall. An altar or shrine is often found, at which offerings were made to the _mānēs_ of the departed. Lamps are very common and so are other simple articles of furniture, and the walls, floors, and ceilings are decorated in the same style as those of houses (§220 f.). Things that the dead liked to have around them when living, especially things that they had used in their ordinary occupations, were placed in the tomb at the time of burial, or burned with them on the funeral pyre, and in general an effort was made to give an air of life to the chamber of rest. The interior of a tomb at Pompeii is shown in Fig. 198, and sections of another in Fig. 197, §423.

§426. The monument itself was always built upon a plot of ground as spacious as the means of the builders would permit, sometimes several acres in extent. In it provision was made for the comfort of surviving members of the family, who were bound to visit the resting-place of their dead on certain regularly recurring festivals (§438). If the grounds were small there would be at least a seat, perhaps a bench. On more extensive grounds there were places of shelter, arbors, or summer houses. Dining-rooms, too, in which were celebrated the anniversary feasts, and private _ūstrīnae_ (places for the burning of bodies) are frequently mentioned. Often the grounds were laid out as gardens or parks, with trees and flowers, wells, cisterns or fountains, and even a house, with other buildings perhaps, for the accommodation of the slaves or freedmen who were in charge. A plan of such a garden is shown in Fig. 199. In the middle of the garden is the _ārea_, the technical word for the plot of ground set aside for the tomb, with several buildings upon it, one of which is a storehouse or granary (_horreum_); around the tomb itself are beds of roses and violets, used in festivals (§438), and around them in turn are grapes trained on trellises. In the front is a terrace (_sōlārium_, cf. §207), and in the rear two pools (_piscīnae_) connected with the _ārea_ by a little canal, while at the back is a thicket of shrubbery (_harundinētum_). The purpose of the granary is not clear as no grain seems to have been raised on the lot, but it may have been left where it stood before the ground was consecrated. A tomb surrounded by grounds of some extent was called a _cēpotaphium_.

§427. Exterior of the Tombs.--An idea of the exterior appearance of monuments of the better sort may be had from Figs. 193-196. The forms are very many, those of the altar and temple are the most common, perhaps, but memorial arches and niches are often found, and at Pompeii the semicircular bench that was used for conversation out of doors occurs several times, covered and uncovered. Not all of the tombs have the sepulchral chamber, the remains being sometimes deposited in the earth beneath the monument. In such cases a tube or pipe of lead ran from the receptacle to the surface, through which offerings of wine and milk could be poured (§§429, 438). In Fig. 193, §420, is shown the round monument at Caieta of Lucius Munatius Plancus, one of Caesar's marshals (_lēgātī_) in Gaul, the inscription[1] on which recounts the positions he had filled and the work he had done. In Fig. 194, §420, is shown the pyramid erected at Rome in honor of Caius Cestius by his heirs, one of whom was Marcus Agrippa. According to the inscription on it the monument was completed in 330 days. The most imposing of all was the mausoleum of Hadrian (Fig. 205, §438) at Rome, now the castle of St. Angelo. A less elaborate exterior is that of the "tomb with the marble door" at Pompeii, given in Fig. 196, §422.

[Footnote 1: Inscription on the tomb of Plancus: "Lucius Munatius Plancus, son, etc. (§39), consul, censor, twice imperator, member of the board of seven in charge of sacrificial feasts. He celebrated a triumph over the people of Raetia. From the spoils of war he erected a temple to Saturn. In Italy he assigned lands about Beneventum. In Gaul he planted colonies at Lugdunum and Raurica."]

§428. The Columbaria.--From the family tombs were developed the immense structures mentioned in §422 intended to receive great numbers of urns. They began to be erected in the time of Augustus and seem to have been confined to Rome, where the high price of land made the purchase of private burial-grounds impossible for the poorer classes. An idea of their interior arrangements may be had from the ruins (Fig. 200) of one erected on the Appian way for the freedmen of Livia, the wife of Augustus. From their resemblance to a dovecote or pigeon house they were called _columbāria_. They are usually partly underground, rectangular in form, with great numbers of the niches (also called _columbāria_) running in regular rows horizontally (_gradūs_) and vertically (_ōrdinēs_). In the larger _columbāria_ provision was made for as many as a thousand urns. Around the walls at the base was a _podium_, on which were placed the sarcophagi of those whose remains had not been burned, and sometimes chambers were excavated beneath the floor for the same purpose. In the _podium_ were also niches that no space might be lost. If the height of the building was great enough to warrant it, wooden galleries ran around the walls. Access to the room was given by a stairway in which were niches, too; light was furnished by small windows near the ceiling, and walls and floors were handsomely finished and decorated.

§429. The niches were sometimes rectangular in form, but more commonly half round, as shown in Figs. 200 and 203. Some of the _columbāria_ have the lower rows rectangular, those above arched. They contained ordinarily two urns (_ollae_, _ollae ossuāriae_) each, arranged side by side, that they might be visible from the front. Occasionally the niches were made deep enough for two sets of urns, those behind being elevated a little over those in front. Above or below each niche was fastened to the wall a piece of marble (_titulus_) on which was cut the name of the owner. If a person required for his family a group of four or six niches, it was customary to mark them off from the others by wall decorations to show that they made a unit; a very common way was to erect pillars at the sides so as to give the appearance of the front of a temple (Fig. 203). Such groups were called _aediculae_. The value of the places depended upon their position, those in the higher rows (_gradūs_) being less expensive than those near the floor, those under the stairway the least desirable of all. The urns themselves were of various materials (§437) and usually cemented to the bottom of the niches. The tops could be removed, but they, too, were sealed after the ashes had been placed in them, small openings being left through which offerings of milk and wine could be poured. On the urns or their tops were painted the names of the dead with sometimes the day and the month of death. The year is almost never found. Over the door of such a _columbārium_ on the outside was cut an inscription giving the names of the owners, the date of erection, and other particulars.

§430. Burial Societies.--Early in the Empire associations were formed for the purpose of meeting the funeral expenses of their members, whether the remains were to be buried or cremated, or for the purpose of building _columbāria_, or for both. These coöperative associations (_collegia fūnerāticia_) started originally among members of the same guild (§412) or among persons of the same occupation. They called themselves by many names, _cultōrēs_ of this deity or that, _collegia salūtāria_, _collegia iuvenum_, etc., but their objects and methods were practically the same. If the members had provided places for the disposal of their bodies after death they now provided for the necessary funeral expenses by paying into the common fund weekly a small fixed sum, easily within the reach of the poorest of them. When a member died a stated sum was drawn for his funeral from the treasury, a committee saw that the rites were decently performed, and at the proper seasons (§438) the society made corporate offerings to the dead. If the purpose of the society was the building of a _columbārium_, the cost was first determined and the sum total divided into what we should call shares (_sortēs virīlēs_), each member taking as many as he could afford and paying their value into the treasury. Sometimes a benevolent person would contribute toward the expense of the undertaking, and then such a person would be made an honorary member of the society with the title of _patrōnus_ or _patrōna_. The erection of the building was intrusted to a number of _cūrātōrēs_, chosen by ballot, naturally the largest shareholders and most influential men. They let the contracts and superintended the construction, rendering account for all the money expended. The office of the curators was considered very honorable, especially as their names appeared on the inscription without the building, and they often showed their appreciation of the honor done them by providing at their own expense for the decoration of the interior, or by furnishing all or a part of the _titulī_, _ollae_, etc., or by erecting on the surrounding grounds places of shelter and dining-rooms for the use of the members, like those mentioned in §426.

§431. After the completion of the building the _cūrātōrēs_ allotted the niches to the individual members. The niches were either numbered consecutively throughout or their position was fixed by the number of the _ōrdō_ and _gradus_ (§428) in which they were situated. Because they were not all equally desirable, as has been explained, the curators divided them into sections as fairly as possible and then assigned the sections (_locī_) by lot to the shareholders. If a man held several shares of stock he received a corresponding number of _locī_, though they might be in widely different parts of the building. The members were allowed freely to dispose of their holdings by exchange, sale, or gift, and many of the larger stockholders probably engaged in the enterprise for the sake of the profits to be made in this way. After the division was made the owners had their names cut upon the _titulī_, and might put up the columns to mark the _aediculae_, set up statues, etc., if they pleased. Some of the _titulī_ give besides the name of the owner the number and position of his _locī_ or _ollae_. Sometimes they record the purchase of _ollae_, giving the number bought and the name of the previous owner. Sometimes the names on the _ollae_ do not correspond with that over the niche, showing that the owner had sold a part only of his holdings, or that the purchaser had not taken the trouble to replace the _titulus_. The expenses of maintenance were probably paid from the weekly dues of the members, as were the funeral benefits.

L • ABVCIVS • HERMES • IN • HOC ORDINE • AB • IMO • AD • SVMMVM COLVMBARIA • IX • OLLAE • XVIII SIBI • POSTERISQVE • SVIS[2]

[Footnote 2: Titulus in Columbarium: "Lucius Abucius Hermes (has acquired) in this row, running from the ground to the top, nine niches with eighteen urns for (the ashes of) himself and his descendants."]

§432. Funeral Ceremonies.--The detailed accounts of funeral ceremonies that have come down to us relate almost exclusively to those of persons of high position, and the information gleaned from other sources (§12) is so scattered that there is great danger of confusing usages of widely different times. It is quite certain, however, that very young children were buried at all times simply and quietly (_fūnus acerbum_), that no ceremonies at all attended the burial of slaves (§420) when conducted by their masters (nothing is known of the forms used by the burial societies mentioned above), and that citizens of the lowest class were laid to rest without public parade (_fūnus plēbēium_). It is also known that burials took place by night except during the last century of the Republic and the first two centuries of the Empire, and it is natural to suppose that, even in the case of persons of high position, there was ordinarily much less of pomp and parade than on occasions that the Roman writers thought it worth while to describe. This has been found true in the matter of wedding festivities (§79). It will be convenient to take in order the proceedings at the house, the funeral procession, and the ceremonies at the place of burial.

§433. At the House.--When the Roman died at home surrounded by his family, it was the duty of his oldest son to bend over the body and call him by name, as if with the hope of recalling him to life. The formal performance of the act (_conclāmātiō_) he announced immediately with the words: _conclāmātum est_. The eyes of the dead were then closed, the body was washed with warm water and anointed, the limbs were straightened, and if the deceased had held a curule office a wax impression of his features was taken. The body was then dressed in the toga (§240) with all the insignia of rank that the dead had been entitled to wear in life, and was placed upon the funeral couch (_lectus fūnebris_) in the _ātrium_ (§198), with the feet to the door, to lie in state until the time of the funeral. The couch was surrounded with flowers, and incense was burned about it. Before the door of the house were set branches of pine or cypress as a warning that the house was polluted by death. The simple offices that have been described were performed in humble life by the relatives and servants, in other cases by professional undertakers (_libitīnāriī_), who also embalmed the body and superintended all the rest of the ceremonies. Reference is made occasionally to the kissing of the dying person as he breathed his last, as if this last breath was to be caught in the mouth of the living, and in very early and very late times it was undoubtedly the custom to put a small coin between the teeth of the dead with which to pay his passage across the Styx in Charon's boat. Neither of these formalities seems to have obtained generally in classical times.

§434. The Funeral Procession.--The funeral procession of the ordinary citizen was simple enough. Notice was given to neighbors and friends, and surrounded by them and by the family, carried on the shoulders of the sons or other near relatives, with perhaps a band of musicians in the lead, the body was borne to the tomb. The procession of one of the mighty, on the other hand, was marshaled with all possible display and ostentation. It occurred as soon after death as the necessary preparations could be made, there being no fixed intervening time. Notice was given by a public crier in the ancient words of style: _Ollus Quiris lētō datus. Exsequiās, quibus est commodum, īre iam tempus est. Ollus ex aedibus effertur._[3] Questions of order and precedence were settled by one of the undertakers (_dēsīgnātor_). At the head went a band of musicians, followed at least occasionally by persons singing dirges in praise of the dead, and by bands of buffoons and jesters, who made merry with the bystanders and imitated even the dead himself. Then came the imposing part of the display. The wax masks of the dead man's ancestors had been taken from their place in the _ālae_ (§200) and assumed by actors in the dress appropriate to the time and station of the worthies they represented. It must have seemed as if the ancient dead had returned to earth to guide their descendant to his place among them. Servius tells us that six hundred _imāginēs_ were displayed at the funeral of the young Marcellus, the nephew of Augustus. Then followed the memorials of the great deeds of the deceased, if he had been a general, as in a triumphal procession, and then the dead himself, carried with face uncovered on a lofty couch. Then came the family, including freedmen (especially those made free by the testament of their master) and slaves, and then the friends, all in mourning garb (§§246, 254), and all freely giving expression to the emotion that we try to suppress on such occasions. Torch-bearers attended the train, even by day, as a remembrance of the older custom of burial by night.

[Footnote 3: "This citizen has been surrendered to death. For those who find it convenient it is now time to attend the funeral. He is being brought from his house."]

§435. The Funeral Oration.--The procession passed from the house directly to the place of interment, unless the deceased was a person of sufficient consequence to be honored by public authority with a funeral oration (_laudātiō_) in the forum. In this case the funeral coach was placed before the _rostra_, the men in the masks took their places on curule chairs (§225) around it, the general crowd was massed in a semicircle behind, and a son or other near relative delivered the address. It recited the virtues and achievements of the dead and recounted the history of the family to which he belonged. Like such addresses in more recent times it contained much that was false and more that was exaggerated. The honor of the _laudātiō_ was freely given in later times, especially to members of the imperial family, including women. Under the Republic it was less common and more highly prized, and so far as we know the only women so honored belonged to the _gēns Iūlia_. It will be remembered that it was Caesar's address on the occasion of the funeral of his aunt, the widow of Marius, that pointed him out to the opponents of Sulla as a future leader. When the address in the forum was not authorized, one was sometimes given more privately at the grave or at the house.

§436. At the Tomb.--When the train reached the place of burial the proceedings varied according to the time, but all provided for the three things ceremonially necessary: the consecration of the resting-place, the casting of earth upon the remains, and the purification of all polluted by the death. In ancient times the body, if buried, was lowered into the grave either upon the couch on which it had been brought to the spot, or in a coffin of burnt clay or stone. If the body was to be burned a shallow grave was dug and filled with dry wood, upon which the couch and body were placed. The pile was then fired and when wood and body had been consumed, earth was heaped over the ashes into a mound (_tumulus_). Such a grave in which the body was burned was called _būstum_, and was consecrated as a regular _sepulcrum_ by the ceremonies mentioned below. In later times the body, if not to be burned, was placed in a sarcophagus (Fig. 203) already prepared in the tomb (§425). If the remains were to be burned they were taken to the _ūstrīna_ (§426), which was not regarded as a part of the _sepulcrum_, and placed upon the pile of wood (_rogus_). Spices and perfumes were thrown upon it, together with gifts (§425) and tokens from the persons present. The pyre was then lighted with a torch by a relative, who kept his face averted during the act. After the fire had burned out the embers were extinguished with water or wine and those present called a last farewell to the dead. The water of purification was then thrice sprinkled over those present, and all except the immediate family left the place. The ashes were then collected in a cloth to be dried, and the ceremonial bone (§420), called _os resectum_, was buried. A sacrifice of a pig was then made, by which the place of burial was made sacred ground, and food (_silicernium_) was eaten together by the mourners. They then returned to the house which was purified by an offering to the _Larēs_, and the funeral rites were over.

§437. After Ceremonies.--With the day of the burial or burning of the remains began the Nine Days of Sorrow, solemnly observed by the immediate family. Some time during this period, when the ashes had had time to dry thoroughly, members of the family went privately to the _ūstrīna_, removed them from the cloth, placed them in an _olla_ (Fig. 204) of earthenware, glass, alabaster, bronze, or other material, and with bare feet and loosened girdles carried them into the _sepulcrum_ (§425). At the end of the nine days the _sacrificium novendiāle_ was offered to the dead and the _cēna novendiālis_ was celebrated at the house. On this day, too, the heirs formally entered upon their inheritance and the funeral games (§344) were originally given. The period of mourning, however, was not concluded on the ninth day. For husband or wife, ascendants, and grown descendants mourning was worn for ten months, the ancient year; for other adult relatives, eight months; for children between the ages of three and ten years, for as many months as they were years old.

§438. Memorial Festivals.--The memory of the dead was kept alive by regularly recurring days of obligation of both public and private character. To the former belong the _parentālia_, or _diēs parentālēs_ (§75), lasting from the 13th to the 21st of February, the final day being especially distinguished as the _fērālia_. To the latter belong the annual celebration of the birthday (or the burial-day) of the person commemorated, and the festivals of violets and roses (_violāria_, _rosāria_), about the end of March and May respectively, when violets and roses were distributed among the relatives and laid upon the graves or heaped over the urns. On all these occasions offerings were made in the temples to the gods and at the tombs to the _mānēs_ of the dead, and the lamps were lighted in the tombs (§425), and at the tombs the relatives feasted together and offered food to their dead (§426).

INDEX

References are to Paragraphs. An asterisk denotes a cut.

ā manū, 391.

abacus, reckoning board, 111*; panels in wall decorations, 220; sideboard, 227, 307*.

ABBREVIATIONS in names, 41.

ab epistolīs, 391.

abolla, cloak, 249*.

ab ovō ad māla, 308.

ACTORS, slave, men only, 324.

ad (malam) crucem, 174.

ADDITIONAL names, 51.

ADDRESS of letters, 392.

adfīnēs, blood relations, 26.

ADJUSTABLE tables, 227*.

adoptiō, see ADOPTION.

ADOPTION, two kinds, 29; of a fīlius familiās, 30; of a pater familiās, 30; name given adopted person, 52, 56.

adrogātiō, see ADOPTION.

adversitōrēs, 152.

ADVERTISEMENTS of gladiators, 361*.

aediculae, in columbāria, 429*.

AFFECTION for nurses, 101; for pedagogues, 123.

agger viae, 387.

agitātōrēs, drivers of chariots, 341. See aurīgae.

agnātī, related through males, 23.

AGRICULTURE, honorable occupation, 404.

ālae, in house, 191; later, 200.

aliēnō iūrī subiectus, 17.

alveus, in bath, 369*.

amictus, outer garments, 240*-249*.

AMPHITHEATER, meaning of word, 351; early at Rome, 352; at Pompeii, 353*, 354*, 355*; the coliseum, 356*, 357*, 358*.

amphitheātrum, see AMPHITHEATER.

amphorae, for wine, 297.

amurca, bitter fluid of olives, 291.

AMUSEMENTS, Chap. IX. See Table of Contents.

andabatae, blindfold gladiators, 359.

andrōn, formerly called faucēs, 192 note.

Andronicus, 113.

anteambulōnēs, outriders, 151.

antecēna, appetizer, 308.

ANTIQUITIES, public and private distinguished, 2; and history, 4; private defined, 1; in philology, 6, 7; recent interest, 8.

apodytērium, 366; makeshift for, 367; usually unheated, 368; one heated, 378*; in thermae, 376*, 377*.

APPIAN WAY, as burial-place, 421; construction, 385 f.

APPRENTICESHIP in education, 117.

arbiter bibendī, toast master, 313.

ārca, strong box, 188, 201, 230*.

Archias, name explained, 60.

ārea, ground for tomb, 426.

arēna, circus, 330*, 332; amphitheater (Pompeii), 354*, (Rome), 357*.

ARITHMETIC, in the schools, 111*.

armāria, cabinets, 231.

ARMY, as a career, (for nobles), 408, (for commons), 410.

ARRANGEMENT of hair, 263; of hair of bride, 78; of couches in dining-room, 304*.

ATHENS, university of Rome, 116.

ATHLETIC sports and games, 316*, 317*, 318*.

ātriēnsis, butler, 149.

ātrium, in primitive house, 188; meaning, 189; the developed ātrium, 196, 197, 198*; burial-place of Head of House, 421.

Atticus, 155, 300, 310, 399.

auctōrātī, volunteer gladiators, 347.

aulaea, portières, 216.

aurīgae, chariot drivers, (Figs. 138, 142), 341*, 342.

BAKERIES, 286*.

BAKERS, as a guild, 286.

BALL, played by children, 102*; by men, 318*.

balneae, meaning, 372. See BATHS.

balneāticum, bath fee, 373.

balneum, meaning, 372. See BATHS.

BANKING, as profession, 412.

BANQUETS, 315.

BARBER shops, 253.

BARRIERS, in circus, 330*, 333*.

basterna, litter drawn by mules, 382.

BATH, in early times, 365; public and private, 365; essentials for, 366; rooms combined, 367; heating, 368; caldārium, 369; frīgidārium, 370; ūnctōrium, 370; private bathhouse, 371*; public baths, 372; time opened, 374; fees, 373; for women, 375; thermae, 376*, 377*.

BATHHOUSE, in Caerwent, 371*; in Pompeii, 376*; in Rome, 377*.

BATHROOMS, in residences, 203, 367, 371*.

BEANS, considered heavy food, 275.

BEARDS, fashions in, 254.

BEEF, rarely used, 277.

Benoist, his definition of Philology, 6.

BETROTHALS, 70.

BEVERAGES, 298.

bibliothēca, 206, 402.

BILLS of fare, 308, 309.

BOOKS, ancient forms, 393; materials, 394, 395; making, 396; finish of, 397; size, 398; publishing, 399, 400; cost, 401; libraries, 402.

"BOOKS," divisions of literary work, 398.

BOXES, in theater, 327; in circus, 334; in amphitheater, 353.

BOY, named, 97; home training, 104, 106; athletics, 107; education, see SCHOOL; coming of age, 125; given citizenship, 128.

brācātae, wearing trousers, 239.

BRAZIERS, 218*.

BREAD, 286 f.; making, 287; kinds of, 288.

"Bread and the Games of the Circus," 322.

BREAKFAST, 302.

BREAKING promise of marriage, 71.

BRICKS, 212*.

bulla, 99*.

BURIAL-places and ceremonies, Chapter XII. See Table of Contents.

BURIAL SOCIETIES, 430.

BUSINESS rooms added to houses, 193; interests at Rome, 413.

BUTTER, not a food, 281.

CABINETS, 231.

calamus (scriptōrius), 395.

calceātor, 150.

calceī, 251*, 262; senātōriī, 251; patriciī, 251.

caldārium, 366; near furnace, 368; furniture, 369; other uses of, 369; in plans, 371*, 376*, 378*.

caligae, half-boots, 251.

calx, in circus, 331*.

camillus, 82*.

campus Mārtius, 317.

candēlābra, 229.

CANDIDATES' dress, 235, 246.

candidātī, 246.

CANDLES, ill made, 229.

CAP, of liberty, 175*, 252.

CAPITALISTS, their field, 409, 413.

capsa, 397*.

capsārius, 370.

Caracalla, hall in baths of, 365*.

cāra cognātiō, feast of, 25.

carcerēs, in circus, 330*, 333*.

carnifex, term of abuse, 174.

carpentum, traveling carriage, 383*.

CARRIAGES, for travel, 383*.

carūca, sleeping car, 383.

casa Rōmulī, 214*.

cathedra, easy chair, 226*.

catillus, outer part of mill, 284*.

Cato (234-149), treatment of slaves, 159; opinion of cabbage, 275; word for dinner, 312.

causia, hat, 252*.

cavea, in theater, 327; in circus, 337; in amphitheater (Pompeii), 353*, (Rome), 358*.

cavum aedium, 196.

CEILINGS, construction, 213.

cellae, servōrum, 207; vīnāriae, 297*; oleāriae, 292*.

cēna, in early times, 301; in the city, 303-311; hours, 303; importance in social life, 303; bills of fare, 308, 309; service, 310, 311; lībera, 362; nūptiālis, 85.

cēna, "dinner proper," 308.

cenotaphium, empty tomb, 419.

centēnārius, winner of 100 races, 340.

cēpotaphium, tomb with grounds, 426.

cēra, for sealing letter, 392.

cerasus, cherry, 274.

CEREALS for food, 282.

Cestius, tomb of, (420*), 427.

CHAIRS, 225*, 226*.

CHALKED FEET, 139.

CHARIOT RACES, 330 f.; number of chariots, 333; racing syndicates, 339; teams, 340; drivers, 341.

charta, paper, see papyrus.

CHEESE, 281.

CHESTS, 230*.

CHILDHOOD, see CHILDREN; end of, 125.

CHILDLESSNESS, a reproach, 28.

CHILDREN, rights of, see potestās; property of, see pecūlium; civil position of, 69, 94; acknowledgment of, 95; exposure of, 96; maiming of, 96; games, etc., 102, 103; home training, 104; punishment of, 120*, 124; in the dining-room, 304; burial of young children, 420.

Chrysogonus and Roscius, 408.

CHURCH, like Roman house, 191.

Cicero (106-43), number of his slaves, 155; names of his freedmen, 59; goodness to slaves, 158; his books, 399, 402; income, 407.

CINERARY urns, 189*, 428, 437.

ciniflōnēs, hairdressers, 150.

CIRCUS at Rome, 328 f.; plan, 330*; arēna, 332*; carcerēs, 333*, 334*; spīna, mētae, 335*, 336*; seats, 337*; capacity, 338; races in, 339 f.

circus Flāminius, 329.

circus Maxentiī, 329; plan of, 330*; arēna, 332; obelisk in, 336; seating capacity, 338.

circus Maximus, 328; missus in, 332; spīna in, 336; obelisk in 336*; seats in, 337, 338*; reconstruction, 338*.

cisium, two-wheeled cart, 384*.

CIVIL SERVICE, 414.

clepsydra, water-clock, 232.

clientēla, clientage, 177.

CLIENTS, Chap. V. See Table of Contents.

CLIMATE of Italy, 272.

CLOCKS, 232.

CLOTHING, Chap. VII. See Table of Contents; colors worn, 270; manufacture of, 271; cleaning, 271*.

codicillī, set of writing tablets, 391*.

coēmptiō, plebeian form of marriage, 63; implying manus, 66; ceremony of, 83.

COFFINS, 425, 436.

COGNATES, defined, 25; importance among plebeians, 65; degrees between, 25, 68.

cognātī, see COGNATES.

cognātiō, see COGNATES.

cognōmen, before nōmen, 40; marking family, 48; age of, 49; nickname, 49; indication of lineage, 50; ex virtūte, 53; differing in same family, 55; as fourth element in name, 55.

COLISEUM, date of, 352; plan, 356*; arēna, 357*; seats, 358*.

collegia, fūnerāticia, iuvenum, salūtāria, 430.

COLONIES, 411.

COLORS, of articles of dress, 270; of racing syndicates, 339.

columbāria, 428*-431*.

COMIC OPERAS, 323.

COMMERCE, 413.

comissātiō, drinking bout, 312*, 313.

COMMON PEOPLE, employments of, 410 f.

compluvium, 188, 191, 196, 198.

compōtātiō, drinking bout, 312*.

conclāmātiō, cry of farewell, 433.

CONCRETE, extensive use, 146; method of making, 211*; in roads, 387.

conductor, manager of baths, 373.

cōnfarreātiō, 61; religious aspect, 64; implying manus, 66; ceremony of, 81.

CONFISCATION of property, 408.

CONFUSION of names, 55.

CONSENT necessary to marriage, 74.

Constantius (Emperor 337-361 A.D.), 338.

CONSTRUCTION of house, 210* f.; mill, 284*; roads, 387*.

contubernia, unions of slaves, 138, 156.

conventiō in manum, 35; cum conventiōne, 61; sine conventiōne, 62.

convīvia, dinners, 312; convīvia tempestīva, 310.

COOKS, hired in early times, 299.

Cornelii, buried their dead, 420.

corōnae convīvālēs, 313.

CORRESPONDENCE, 391.

COST, of baths, 373; books, 401; meals (inns), 388; slaves, 140; tables, 227; wines, 298.

COTTON goods, 269.

COUCHES, sofas or beds, 224*; dining, 304*.

COVERINGS for the head, men, 252*; women, 263.

covīnus, two-wheeled cart, 384.

Crassus, in salvage business, 413.

crātēr, mixing bowl, 314*.

CREMATION, introduced at Rome, 420.

crepundia, child's rattle, 98*.

Crescens, famous driver, 342.

CRIMSON or purple, 270.

CRUCIFIXION of slaves, 173.

cubicula, bedrooms, 205.

cucullus, hood, 247, 248, 252.

culīna, kitchen, 203*.

cumerus, 82*.

cuneī, in theater, 327; circus, 337.

cūrātōrēs, of burial societies, 430.

Curius and his dinner, 299.

curriculum, lap in race, 331.

CURTAIN in later theater, 327.

CURULE chair, 225*.

cyathus, ladle, 314*.

CYPHER correspondence, 390.

CYPRESS, as emblem of death, 433.

DAIRY products, 281.

DANCERS, 153.

dator lūdōrum, giver of games, 334.

DAY, a Roman's, 415.

dēclāmātiō, public speaking, 115.

DECORATION of houses, 220 f.; walls, 220*; doors, 221*; floors, 221*; of tombs, 425*, 428*, 430*.

decuriae, of slaves, 133.

dēfrutum, grape jelly, 296.

delphica (mēnsa), 227*.

dēsīgnātor, funeral director, 434.

dēstrictārium, in baths, 367, 376*.

dēsultōrēs, circus riders, 343.

DEVELOPMENT of the house, 188*.

dextrārum iūnctiō, in marriage, 81*.

DICE, gaming with, 321*.

diēs, lūstricus, 97; parentālēs, 75, 438; religiōsī, 75.

dimachaerī, gladiators with two swords, 359.

DINING-ROOM, 204, 304*.

DINNER, in the city, 303-311; early times, 301; hour, 310; bill of fare, 309; order of courses, 308; places of honor, 306.

Diocletian (Emperor 284-305 A.D.) baths of, 378*.

discus, throwing the, 316*.

dispēnsātor, steward, 149.

diurna cubicula, 205.

DIVORCE, 72, 93.

DOG, as pet, 103; in hallway, 195*.

dōlia, for oil, 292*; for wine, 297.

dominica potestās, 37.

dominus gregis, head actor, 324.

Domitian (Emperor 81-96 A.D.), 339.

domus, 186; see HOUSE.

DOORS, construction, 215* f.; names, 216.

dormitōria, 205.

dorsum, top course in road, 387.

dōs, dowry, 72.

DOWRY, 72.

DRAMATIC performances, 323 f.

DRESS, Chap. VII. See Table of Contents.

DRINKING bouts, 312*.

DRIVERS, chariot races, 341*.

ducēnārius, horse of 200 victories, 340.

DWARFS, kept for amusement, 153.

"EARLY DINNERS," 310.

EARLY FORMS, of marriage, 61; of names, 38, 57, 58; of table customs, 299; of toga, 245; of theater, 325; of baths, 365; of gladiatorial shows, 345.

EARLY HOURS at Rome, 79, 415.

EARS of slaves bored, 139.

EDUCATION, Chap. IV. See Table of Contents.

ELM TREE, for grapes, 295; for switches, 167; "essence of elm," 168.

ēditor mūnerum, giver of gladiatorial show, 362.

ELOCUTION in schools, 114.

EMANCIPATION, of a son, 18; of a slave, 175.

endormis, bath robe, 249.

ENGAGEMENTS, marriage, 71.

EPIGRAPHIC sources, 10.

epityrum, olive salad, 290.

equitēs, career of, 409.

ERRORS in manuscript books, 399.

Esquiline Hill, as burial-place, 423.

essedāriī, chariot fighters, 359; spelled assidāriī, 362.

ESSENTIALS for the bath, 366; for burial, 436.

EXAGGERATION in satire, 93.

ex cathedrā, official utterance, 226.

exedrae, reception halls, 207.

expōnere, "expose," of children, 95.

EXPOSURE of children, 32, 95; slaves, 157.

exta, of the sacrifices, 277.

EXTINCTION of the potestās, 34; of a family, 30. See ADOPTION.

f., abbreviation in names, 39, 57; for fugitīvus, 172.

fābulae palliātae, 323.

facēs, torches kept in doorways, 229.

factiōnēs, racing syndicates, 339.

familia, meanings, 17, 21; =stirps, 22; gladiātōria, 349; rūstica, 142, 145; urbāna, 149.

FAMILY, Chap. I. See Table of Contents; defined, 17; splitting up of, 19; cult, 27.

FANS, 266*.

far, early sort of grain, 282.

FARMING of revenues, 409.

FARM slaves, see familia rūstica; work, 148.

fasciae, wrappings of cloth, 239.

fascinātiō, evil eye, 98, 99.

fascis, a set of books, 397.

FASTENINGS for doors, 216.

FATHER, see pater familiās; as companion of his sons, 106.

faucēs, in a house, 192, note.

FEES, in schools, 109, 119; baths, 373.

fēlīciter, in congratulations, 82.

feminālia, wrappings for legs, 239.

fenestrae, windows, 217*.

fērālia, 438.

Fescinnīnī versūs, 87.

FESTIVALS, cāra cognātiō, 25; fērālia, 438; mātrōnālia, 91; līberālia, 127; rosāria, 438; Sāturnālia, 319; vīnālia rūstica, 296; violāria, 438.

FESTIVITIES, wedding, 80, 85, 86, 89; coming of age, 127.

FIREMEN, slaves as, 141.

FISH, as food, 280.

fistūca, heavy rammer, 213.

flābellum, fan, 266*.

flagrum, scourge, 167*.

flammeum, bridal veil, 77*.

Flāvium amphitheātrum, see COLISEUM.

FLOORS, construction, 213.

FLOWERS, at feasts, 313; at tombs, 438.

fōcālia, wrappings for throat, 239.

foculī, heating stoves, 218*.

follēs, balls filled with air, 318*.

FOOD, Chap. VIII. See Table of Contents.

FORBIDDEN DEGREES of kinship, 25, 68.

forēs, double doors, 195, 216.

FORKS, not used, 299.

forum, place of early shows, 351.

FOUNDLINGS, fate of, 96.

FOWLS, domestic, 279.

FREEDMAN, name, 59; relation to patron, 175.

frīgidārium, 366; other uses, 367; position, 368; furnishings, 370; shown on plans, 371*, 376*, 377*.

fritillus, dice box, 321.

frontēs, of papyrus rolls, 397.

FRUITS, known to Romans, 274.

frūmentum, grain, 282, and note.

fugitīvī, 172.

fullōnēs, as cleaners, 271*.

FUNERAL games, 344, 345; ceremonies, Chap. XII. See Table of Contents.

fūnus, acerbum, plēbēium, 432.

furca, as punishment, 169.

FURNACE for houses, 218; for baths, 368.

FURNITURE, 222 f.; modern lacking, 223; couches, 224*; chairs, 225*; tables, 227*; lamps, 228*; chests and cabinets, 230*; other articles, 232.

Gāius, meaning, 44, 81; as a nomen, 55, 81; in the marriage ceremony, 81, 88.

GAME, wild, for table, 279.

GAMES, of children, 103, 320*; public and private, see AMUSEMENTS. Chap. IX; of ball for men, 318*; of chance, 319*, 320*, 321*; funeral, 344, 345.

GARDEN, behind the peristyle, 202; produce, 275, 276.

GARLANDS worn by slaves, 134; by bride and groom, 78; by women, 264; at feasts by men, 313.

GEESE as pets, 103*.

gēns, theory of, 22; marked by nōmen, 38; burial-places of, 422.

gentīlēs, 22; at the confarreate ceremony, 81*.

"GENTLEMEN'S DINNERS," 310 f.

GIRL, named, 97; home training, 104, 105; married at early age, 67, 105; admitted to schools, 109.

GLADIATORS, 344 f.; in Etruria and Campania, 344; first shows at Rome, 344; in theory private shows, 345; numbers exhibited, 346; whence obtained, 347; innocent and guilty, 348; training, 349; fashions and tactics, 359; armor, 360; the fight, 362; rewards, 363; bravos and bullies, 346.

GLASS, for windows, 217; balls for hands, 266.

gradūs, rows of seats, 337; of urns, 428.

GRAMMAR schools, 112.

grammaticus, of a teacher, 112.

GRAPES, 293; where grown, 294; how grown, 295; jelly, 296.

GREEK, place in schools, 112; nurses, 101; teachers, 115; taught to children, 101, 116, 123.

GROUNDS, about tombs, 426*.

GUARDIANS, of women, 19, 70; of children, 22.

gustus, first course at dinner, 308.

Hadrian (Emperor 117-138 A.D.), tomb, 427, 438*.

HAIR, arrangement, men, 254; women, 263; of a bride, 78.

HANDBALL, 318.

HANDKERCHIEFS, 266.

HARD LABOR, as punishment, 170.

hasta, sign of auction, 134.

HATS, 252.

HEAD of the House, see pater familiās.

HEATING houses, 218; baths, 368*, 369.

HINGES of doors, 215*.

HISTORY, and antiquities, 4; not taught systematically in schools, 112.

HOLIDAYS, numerous, 322; school, 122; avoided as wedding days, 75; spent in country, 416.

HOME training, 104.

HONEY, used for sugar, 281.

hoplomachī, later name for "Samnites," 360, 344*.

Horace, (65-8 B.C.), his slaves, 133.

HORSES, in chariot races, 339, 340; in other shows, 343.

Hortī Maecēnātis, 423.

hospitēs, 183 f.

hospitium, 184.

HOURS, of the day, 417, 418; for meals, 301; for baths, 374; all semi-public functions, 415.

HOUSE, dwelling, Chap. VI. See Table of Contents; =familia, see FAMILY; Head of House, see pater familiās; house slaves, 149.

HOUSE of Pansa, 208*; of Sallust, court, 204*; of the poet, ruins, 199*.

HOUSEHOLD, translation of familia, 17.

HUMAN sacrifices, 344.

HUT, of Romulus, 214*; early Romans, 189*.

hymenaeus, marriage hymn, 86.

iānitor, chained to post, 150, 195.

iantāculum, breakfast, 302.

iānua, distinguished from ōstium, 216.

ientāculum, breakfast, 302.

imāginēs, kept in ālae, 200; in funeral processions, 434.

imbricēs, tiles for roof, 214*.

imperium paternum, 31.

impluvium, 188, 191, 196*.

INCOME, sources of, Chap. XI. See Table of Contents.

INDUSTRIAL employment of slaves, 143.

indūtus, clothing, 234.

INK, INKSTANDS, etc., 395*.

INNS, 388*.

INSCRIPTIONS, importance of, 10; of a fugitīvus, 172; of Crescens, 342; gladiatorial show, 361; of Hylas, 362; milestone, 386; in columbāria, 431; of Plancus, 427, note, 420*.

īnstita, flounce of stola, 260.

INSURRECTIONS of slaves, 132.

INTERMENT, see BURIAL.

iūdicium domesticum, 32.

-ius, original in nōmen, 46; in other names, 55.

iūs cōnūbiī, 64; ōsculī, 25; patrium, 31.

iūstī līberī, rightful children, 69.

JACKSTONES, 103, 320*.

JESTERS, 153.

JEWELRY worn by men, 255; women, 267.

JOINING hands in marriage ceremony, 74.

Juvenal (about 67-127 A.D.), on the toga, 244; "bread and games," 322.

KITCHEN, 203.

KNIGHTS, income of, 409.

KNIVES and forks, 299.

KNUCKLE-BONES, 320*.

l., abbreviation for lībertus, 59.

lābrum, basin in bath, 369, 376, 377.

lacerna, cloak, 247.

lacōnicum, dry sweat bath, 367, 371*.

laena, woolen cloak, 249.

LAMPS, 228, 229*.

LAND, travel by, 381.

lanista, trainer of gladiators, 349.

laqueatōrēs, gladiators with lassos, 359.

larēs, compitālēs, gods of crossroads, 87; of the house, 199.

LATER theater, 326 f.

laterēs coctī, 212*; crūdī, 210.

LATIN in schools, 113; best spoken by women, 92.

lātrīna, toilet room, 203*.

laudātiō funebris, funeral address, 435.

LAW, practice of, 407.

lectīca, and bearers, 151*; on journeys, 382.

lectus, see COUCHES; adversus, 199.

LEGAL status of children, 94; slaves, 156; women, 35, 36, 90.

lēnōnēs, 139.

LETTERS, writing of, 391; sending, 390; speed, 389; sealing and opening, 392; the address, 392.

lībera cēna, feast for gladiators, 362.

Līberālia, 127.

lībertīnī, in business, 412 f.

lībertus, opposed to lībertīnus, 175; relation to patron, 175.

LIBERTY, cap of, 175*.

libitīnāriī, undertakers, 433.

LIBRARIES, 206, 402.

librāriī, copyists, 391, 399, 401.

līmen, threshold, 195, 215; superum, 215.

LIMITATIONS of patria poteatās, 32, 33; of manus, 36; of dominica potestās, 156, 157.

LINEN goods, 269.

līnum, 392.

LITERARY sources, 9.

litterae, see LETTERS; eōdem exemplō, 390.

Livia, columbārium of, 428*.

LOAVES of bread, 288*.

locus, cōnsulāris, 306; in columbārium, 431.

lōrārius, executioner, 174.

lucerna, lamp, 228*, 229*.

lūdī, circēnsēs, 328 f.; scēnicī, 323 f.; gladiātōriī (schools), 349*, 350.

lūdus, see SCHOOLS; lūdus Trōiae, 343.

LUNCHEON, 302.

lūnula, ornament, 98; for shoe, 251.

M. and M', in names, 41.

m., for missus, of pardoned gladiator, 361.

Maecenas, gardens of, 423.

maeniāna, sections of seats, 337, 358.

maeniānum, projecting second story, 233*.

magister bibendī, master of revels, 313.

maiestās patria, 31.

mālum, Armeniacum, grānātum, Persicum, Pūnicum, 274.

mamillāre, 257*.

mangōnēs, 135.

MANHOOD, when reached, 126.

MANUFACTURE of clothing, 271.

MANUMISSION of slaves, 175.

manus, defined, 35; limited, 36; unpopular, 65, 66; when necessary, 66.

Marcellus, theater of, 327*.

MARRIAGE, Chap. III. See Table Of Contents; by capture, 78, 86, 88; hymn, 86; cry, 87; torch, 86, 89; religious duty, 28.

Martial (43-101 A.D.) and the toga, 244; and cost of books, 401.

MASTER, heir of his slaves, 164.

MATERIALS for clothing, 269.

MATCHED PAIRS of slaves, 140.

mātrimōnium, motherhood, 64; iniūstum, 69.

mātrīmus, with a living mother, 82.

mātrōnālia, 91.

MEALS, Chap. VIII. See Table of Contents.

MEANINGS of names, 44.

MEAT, early food of Italians, 273; various kinds, 277.

MEMORIAL festivals, 438.

mēnsa, table in general, 227; dining, 307.

mēnsa prīma, first course, 308.

mēnsa secunda, dessert, 308, 309, 311.

MENU, of dinner, 309.

merenda, irregular meal, 302.

merīdiātiō, noonday rest, 302.

mēta, of a grain mill, 284*.

mētae, in a circus, 331*, 335.

MILESTONES, 386*.

MILL, for grain, 284*; for olives, 292*; as a punishment, 148, 171.

missus, seven laps in a race, 331; "spared," of a gladiator, 361.

MIXING BOWLS, 314*; three thousand of Pompeius, 326; mixing wine, 314.

mola, mill, 284*, 285*.

monopodium, table with one support, 227*.

MONUMENTAL sources, 11.

"Moritūrī tē salūtant," 362.

MOSAICS, 221.

MOTHER, as nurse, 100; as teacher, 104, 105.

MOURNING, signs of, 246, 253; periods of, 437.

mulleus, patrician shoe, 251.

mulsa, water and honey, 298.

mulsum, wine and honey, 298.

mūnera, opposed to lūdī, 345; gladiātōria, Chap. IX. See Table of Contents.

mūnīre viam, of road building, 387.

murmillōnēs, class of gladiators, 360.

mustāceum, wedding cake, 85.

mustum, new wine, 296.

MUTUAL obligations, of patron and freedman, 175; patrician patron and client, 179; later patron and client, 182; of hospitēs, 185.

NAME, Chap. II. See Table of Contents. See also praenōmen, nōmen, cognōmen.

nārrātiō, narration, taught in schools, 115.

NATURALIZED citizens, names of, 60.

naumachiae, naval battles, 364.

NETS, for the hair, 264.

NEW clients, 181.

NEWSPAPER, substitute for, 413.

NICKNAMES, 54; See also cognōmen.

NIGHT for burial, 432.

NOBLES, debarred from business careers, 404; funerals of, 433 f.

nodus Herculāneus, 77.

nōmen, before and after cognōmen, 40; endings of, 46; sign of gēns, 21, 47; two or more in one name, 55; used as praenōmen, 55.

nōmenclātor, 151, 415.

nōminālia, 97.

novendiāle, 437.

nūbere, meaning, 77.

nūcleus, in roads, 387.

NUMERALS as praenōmina, 44; as names of women, 57.

nūptiae iūstae, 67; iniūstae, 69.

NURSERY stories, 100.

NURSES, 100; Greek preferred, 101.

NUTS, in wedding festivities, 87; for marbles, 103; grown in Italy, 274.

OBELISKS in the circuses, 336*.

OCCUPATIONS of slaves, 143.

oecī, rooms in house, 207.

OLD and new clients, 176 f.

oleum olīvum, olive oil, 291.

OLIVE, uses, 289 f.; preserved, 290; oil, uses, 291; manufacture, 292.

ollae, urns for ashes of dead, 428, 429, 430*, 431, 437.

ollus quiris lētō datus, 434.

ONION, unrefined, 275.

oppidum, in circus, 330*.

opus, caementīcium, 210, 211*; incertum, 212*; quadrātum, 210*; rēticulātum, 212*.

Orange, theater at, 327*.

ORANGE, not grown in Italy, 274.

ōrdō, in columbārium, 428, 431; scrībārum, 414.

ōrnāmenta, theatrical properties, 324.

ōrnātor, valet, 150.

ōrnātrīx, ladies' maid, 150, 265.

os resectum, bone for burial, 436.

ōstium, door, 195.

ōva, in the circus, 336.

OVEN, for bread, 287*.

p., for periit, of gladiators, 361.

paedagōgus, 123*.

paenula, cloak, 248*.

palaestra, exercise ground, 367, 376*.

palla, woman's robe, 261.

palūdāmentum, general's cloak, 247.

pālus, with prīmus or secundus, 363.

papyrus, manufacture, 394; rolls, 396.

PARASOL, 266*.

parentālia, festival of, 438.

pariēs, house wall, 210.

pater and derivatives, 26.

pater familiās, defined, 17; powers, see potestās; adopted into another family, 30.

patria potestās, see potestās.

patriciī, sons of fathers, 64.

patrimōnium prōfundere, 33.

patrīmus, with a living father, 82.

patrōnus, derivation of word, 26; and lībertus, 175; patrician and client, 179; and client of later times, 182.

PAUPERS, burial of, 423.

PAVEMENT, construction, 387.

pavīmentum, floor, 213.

PAY of teachers, 121; of chariot drivers, 342; of soldiers, 410.

pecūlium, defined, 33; of slaves, 162.

pecūnia, meaning, 273.

pedisequī, lackeys, 123, 150.

PENS, 395.

peregrīnus, foreigner, 69.

PERFUMES at feasts, 313.

PERISTYLE, 192, 202*; perhaps a kitchen garden originally, 197.

pērō, shoe of untanned leather, 251.

Persius (34-62 A.D.) as a schoolboy, 124.

pessulī, bolts for doors, 216.

petasus, hat, 252*.

petōritum, baggage wagon, 383.

PETS for children, 103.

PHILOLOGY, defined, 6.

PHYSICIANS, income and attainments, 412.

pietās, affection, 73.

pīlentum, state carriage, 383.

pilleus, cap of liberty, 175*, 252.

piscīna, plunge bath, 367, 370, 376*, 377*.

pīstōrēs, millers and bakers, 283.

PLACES, of honor at dinner, 305*; in the theater, 326; in the circus, 337; in the amphitheater (Pompeii), 355, (Rome), 358; where gladiators were shown, 356; of burial, 421.

PLAN, of theater after Vitruvius, 327; circus of Maxentius, 330; of gladiatorial school at Pompeii, 349; of houses, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193; of house of Pansa, 208; of baths, 371, 376, 378; of inn, 388; of tombs and grounds, 425, 426.

Plancus, tomb of, 420*, 427.

Plautus (†184 B.C.) on puls, 283.

PLAYTHINGS for children, 102*.

PLEBEIANS, marriages of, 62; importance of cognates, 65; gain right of marriage, 64; old plebeians, 177; new, 178.

plēbs, see PLEBEIANS.

Pliny, the elder (†79 A.D.), 352.

pōcula, goblets, 314*.

podium, in circus, 337; in amphitheater, 357; in tombs, 425.

POLITICS, as a career, 406.

Pollio, Vedius, cruelty of, 158.

POLYGAMY unknown at Rome, 61.

pompa circēnsis, parade in circus, 343.

Pompeii, importance of discoveries at, 11, 12; house plans, 187 f.; business rooms in private house, 194; small house at, 197*; house of poet, 199*; of Pansa, 208*; smaller theater at, 327*; lūdī gladiātōriī, 350*; amphitheater, 353*; thermae, 376*; street of tombs, 421*; tomb with marble door, 427*.

pondera, stepping-stones, 233*.

pontifex maximus, in marriage ceremony, 82.

POOR, burial of, 428.

por, for puer in names, 58.

PORK, favorite meat, 278.

PORRIDGE, 283, 286, 299.

porta triumphālis in circus, 330; pompae, 330; Libitinēnsis, 354.

POSITION of women, 90.

POSTAL service, 389.

postīcum, garden door, 216.

potestās, patria, 31; limitations, 32, 73; extinguished, 34; suspension of, 34; dominica, 37.

POTTER's FIELD at Rome, 423.

praecīnctiō, in theater, 327; in circus, 337; in coliseum, 358.

praenōmen, first name, 41; number, 41; abbreviations, 41, 45; limited in certain families, 42; given to firstborn son, 43; meanings of, 44; two in one name, 55.

prandium, luncheon, 302.

PRICES, of baths, 373; books, 401; houses, 221, note; meals, 388; slaves, 140; tables, 227; wines, 298.

PRIMITIVE house, 188.

prīmus pālus, title of honor, 363.

PRIVATE, antiquities, 2; slaves, 142 f.; bathhouse at Caerwent, 371*; games, 322; rooms in house, 203.

PROCESSION, bridal, 86; in circus, 343; in the amphitheater, 362.

prōcūrātor, steward, 149.

PROFESSIONS in hands of freedmen and foreigners, 412; even of slaves, 143.

PROLETARIATE, 411.

prōlūsiō, sham fight, 362.

prōmulsis, appetizer, 308.

prōnuba, matron of honor, 81.

PROVINCES, corruption in, 406, 409.

PUBLIC, antiquities, 2; baths, 372 f., 376*, 377*; fountains, 233*; games, 322; opinion, in case of children, 32, 33; in case of slaves, 156.

"PUBLICANS and sinners," 409.

PUBLICATION of books, 400.

puer, for servus, 58; written por, 58.

pugillārēs, writing tablets in sets, 391*.

puls, ancient national diet, 283.

pultiphagōnidae, 299.

PUNISHMENTS of schoolboys, 120*, 124; of slaves, 166 f.

pūp(us), of unnamed child, 55.

PURPLE or crimson, 270.

puticulī, gravepits, 423.

quadrāns, regular bath charge, 373.

quadrīgae, in races, 340.

RACEHORSES, 339 f.

RACES in circus, 339 f.; teams, 340; drivers, 341; syndicates, 339.

RACING syndicates, 339.

RAPE of the Sabines, 86, 87.

READING, how taught, 110.

rēda, carriage, 384.

REFERENCE books, 13.

RELATIONSHIPS, agnātī, 23; cognātī, 25; adfīnēs, 26.

renūntiāre, break an engagement to marry, 71.

repōtia, 85, 89.

repudium renūntiāre, see renūntiāre.

rētiāriī, gladiators with nets, 359, 360*.

rēticula, nets for the hair, 264.

REWARDS of aurīgae, 341; of gladiators, 363.

rēx bibendī, lord of the feast, 313.

RICE in modern wedding festivities, 87.

RINGS, engagement, 71; men's, 255; women's, 267; worn on joint, 256.

ROADS, 385*-387*.

Romulus, legislation of, 32, 95; wall of, 210*; hut of, 214*.

ROOF, of peristyle, 202*; construction of, 214*.

rosāria, feast of roses, 438.

rudēs, fencing swords, 349; with prīma or secunda, 363.

rūdus, in roads, 387*.

RUNAWAY slaves, 161, 172*.

sacra gentīlīcia, 22.

sacrārium, private chapel, 207*.

SADDLES, not used by Romans, 381.

sagīna gladiātōria, training food, 349.

sagum, military cloak, 247.

SALADS, 276.

SALES of captives, 134; of slaves, 139.

SALTCELLAR of silver, 299; always on table, 307.

salūtātiō, morning levee, 182.

"Samnītēs," name for gladiators, 359, 360*; later called secūtōrēs or hoplomachī, 360.

SANDALS, see SLIPPERS.

sarcophagus 436*, 428.

SAVINGS of slaves, 162-164.

SCALES, in marriage ceremony, 83.

scāpus, fixed quantity of paper, 394, 398.

schēdae, sheets of paper, 395.

SCHOOLS, Chap. IV. See Table of Contents.

SCHOOLS for gladiators, 349*.

scrībae, in civil service, 414; as copyists, see librāriī.

scrīnium, case for books, 397*.

SEALS, 255*, 392.

SEATS, in theater, of classes, 326; arrangement, 327; in circus, 337; in amphitheater (Pompeii), 355, (Rome), 358.

secunda mēnsa, 308, 309, 311.

secūtōrēs, later name for "Samnītēs," 360.

SEDAN CHAIRS, in travel, 382.

sella curūlis, 225*.

sēmitae, sidewalks, 387.

sepulcrum, 425, 436.

serae, bars, 216.

Servius and Sergius, derivation, 41.

Servius, grammarian (4th cent. A.D.), 434.

SEVENTEEN, time of coming of age, 126.

SHIPS, travel by, 380.

SHOES, 251*, 262*.

SHOWS of gladiators. See mūnera.

SHUTTERS for windows, 217.

SIDEWALKS, 233.

SIGNS of mercy in amphitheater, 362.

silicernium, funeral feast, 436.

SILK goods, 269.

sine missiōne, "to the death," 362.

SIZE of books, 398.

SLAVEHUNTERS, 161.

SLAVERY and clientage, 180.

SLAVES, Chap. V. See Table of Contents.

SLEEPING rooms, 205.

SLIPPERS, 250*, 262*.

SMOKE to ripen wine, 297.

sōlārium, place to take the sun, 207, 426; sun-dial, 232.

SOLDIERS, career, 410.

soleae, 250*, 262*; soleās poscere, "to take leave," 250.

solium, chair, 226*; basin in bath, 369.

sōlum, floor, 213.

sordidātī, in mourning garb, 246.

sortēs virīlis, a shareholder's part, 430.

SOURCES of philological knowledge, literary, 9; epigraphic, 10; monumental, 11.

Sp., abbreviation for Spurius, 41.

sp., abbreviation for spectāvit populus, 363.

Spartacus, 132, 172.

spatium, lap in circus, 331.

SPEED, in travel, 389; in writing, 401.

spīna in circus, 331*, 336*.

spīna alba, of wedding torch, 86.

SPINNING wheel, 199.

SPLITTING up of a house, 19.

spondeō, technical word in contract, 71.

spōnsa, of a girl betrothed, 71.

spōnsālia, ceremony of betrothal, 70.

SPORT, Roman idea of, 316.

SPORTS of the campus, 317; of children, 102, 103.

sportula, the clients' dole, 182.

STAGE, early, 325; later, 326 f.; of Vitruvius, 327*.

STAGING a play, 324.

statūmen in roads, 387.

STEPPING-STONES in streets, 233*.

stilus, for writing, 391.

stola, 259, 260*; mātrōnālis, 91.

STOOLS, 225*.

STOVE, for cooking, 203*; for heating, 218*.

STREET, appearance, 233*; construction, 387; closed to vehicles, 382; of tombs at Pompeii, 421*.

strigilēs, flesh scrapers, 367*, 370.

strophium, girdle, 258.

STUCCO, as finish for exterior wall, 212.

STYLE of living, 299; of bathing, 367.

Styx, passage of, 433.

suāsōria, debates in schools, 115.

sub hastā vēnīre, auction sale, 134.

SUBJECTS taught in schools, Chap. IV.

subligāculum, loin cloth, 235, 257.

subūcula, under-tunic, 237.

sūdāria, handkerchiefs, 266.

Suetonius (about 75-160), 390.

SUICIDE of captives and slaves, 140*, 161.

suī iūris, independent, 17.

Sulla and Sura, derivation, 55.

SUPPLY of gladiators, 347; of slaves, 134; of horses for racing, 339.

Sura, derivation, 55.

susceptiō, acknowledgment of children, 95.

SUSPENSION of potestās, 34.

suspēnsūra, elevated floor of bath room, 368*.

SWEAT bath, dry, 367; moist, 369.

synthesis, dinner dress, 249.

tabellae, for writing, 110*, 391*.

tabellāriī, letter carriers, 389.

TABLE knives and forks unknown, 299.

TABLES, cost, kinds, materials, 227*.

tablīnum, in early house, 190; in later house, 201; meaning of word, 201.

Tacitus (about 55-117) on the toga, 133.

Talassiō, marriage cry, 87.

tālī, knuckle-bones, 320*.

TEACHERS, 121.

tēcta, roofs, 214.

tēgulae, tiles, 214*.

tepidārium, purpose, 366; other uses, 367; position, 368; unusual size, 371*; several in one bath, 376*; in the large thermae, 377; with cold bath, 370.

tessera gladiātōria, 363*; hospitālis, 185.

THEATER, early, 325; later, 326; of Vitruvius, 327*; at Pompeii, 327*; at Orange, 327*; of Pompeius, 326.

thermae, meaning, 372; plan of small, 376*; of large, 378*.

THIRD FINGER for engagement ring, 71.

"Thracians," gladiators, 360*, 361.

"THUMBS down," signal for death, 362.

Tiberius (Emperor, 14-37 A.D.), 274.

tībiālia, wrappings for the legs, 239.

TILES, for roofs, etc., 214*.

tīrōcinium forī, 117; mīlitiae, 118.

tīrōnēs, of untrained gladiators, 118.

titulus, description of slave, 139; in columbāria, 429, 431*.

TOAST-MASTER, 313.

TOASTS, 314.

TOGA, material and use, 240; appearance, 241*; in literature, 242*; on the monuments, 243*; cumbrous and uncomfortable, 244; earlier toga, 245*; kinds of, 246; see also the Latin word below.

toga, see the English word above; candida, 246; lībera, 127; picta, 246; pulla, 246; pūra, 246; praetexta, 76, 125, 246; splendēns, 246; virīlis, 125.

TOILET articles, 265*.

tollere, acknowledge a child, 44, 95.

TOMBS, 422 f.

tōnsor, barber and barber-shop, 254.

TORCHES, at funerals, 434; weddings, 86, 89.

"To the lions," 364.

TOWN-SLAVES, 159.

trabea, cloak for men, 247.

TRADES, 412.

TRAINERS of gladiators, 349, 363.

TRAVEL, Chap. X. See Table of Contents.

TRAVELING cloak, 248.

TREADING grapes for wine, 296*.

TREATMENT of slaves, 158.

trīclīnium, dining-room, 204, 304*; in court, 204*.

trigōn, three handed ball, 318.

TRIPLE name, 38; expanded, 39; shortened, 40.

Tullus, meaning, 44.

TUNIC, 236*.

tunica, 236*; angustī clāvī, 238; lātī clāvī, 238; exterior (men's), 237; (women's), 259*; interior, 237, 258; manicāta, 237; tālāris, 239; rēcta, 76; rēgilla, 76.

Tūscanicum ātrium, 196.

tūtor, guardian, 19, 70.

TWELVE TABLES (450 B.C.), in the schools, 111; mention both burial and burning of dead, 420.

tyrotarīchus, a dish of cheese and salt fish, 280.

umbella, parasol, 266*.

umbilīcus, of a papyrus roll, 397.

umbōnēs, of a road, 387.

umbrāculum, parasol, 266*.

umbrae, unexpected guests, 304.

ūnctōrium, use, 366; makeshift for, 367.

UNLUCKY days, 75.

URNS, for ashes of dead, see ollae.

ūstrīna, place for private cremation, 426.

ūsus, of marriage, definition, 62; ceremony of, 84.

v., for vīcit, of gladiators, 361.

vappa, term of reproach, 297, note.

Varro (116-28 B.C.), 253.

VEGETABLES grown by Romans, 275.

VEGETARIANS, early Romans, 299.

VEHICLES, used for travel, 382 f.

vēla, portières, 216; awnings, 358, 361.

vēnātiōnēs, hunts in circus and amphitheater, 343, 364.

ventrālia, wrappings for the body, 239.

Venus, the high throw, 320.

vernae, slaves born in the house, 138; of Atticus, 155.

Verrēs, as a nōmen, 46; the governor of Sicily, 406.

vesperna, evening meal in country, 302.

Vestālēs, special seats in theater, 327; in amphitheater, 357; allowed carriages in the city, 382.

vestibulum, space before the door, 194.

via Appia, 385*, 387*.

vicārius, a slave's slave, 164.

vīlicus, overseer, 145, 148; cheats slaves, 160.

VILLAS of the rich, 145, 379, 416.

vīnālia rūstica, festival, 296.

VINEGAR, 281, 297, note.

VINEYARD, 295.

vīnum, fermented wine, 297.

violāria, feast of violets, 438.

VITICULTURE, 293, 294.

Vitruvius, architect of the first century, 187, 327, 366, 387.

volūmen, papyrus roll, 396. See BOOKS.

VULTURE, the lowest throw, 320.

WALL, of house, 210 f.; facing for, 212*; around arena, 354*, 357*.

WATER, supply for houses, 219; for baths, 368; traveling by, 380.

WAX masks, of the dead, 433.

WEDDING, see MARRIAGE; day, 75; feast, 85; garments, 76; torch, 86, 89; procession, 86.

Whitney (1827-1894), definition of Philology, 6.

WINDOWS, 217*.

WINE, in Italy, 293; districts, 294; making, 296*; vaults, 297*; jars, 297 (Fig. 116); drunk diluted, 298; cost, 298.

WOMEN, names of, 57; position of, 90; education of, 92; dress of, 257 f.; at table, 302, 304*; at amphitheater, 353, 358; at baths, 375.

WOOL for clothing, 269.

WORDS of style in contracts, 70; at funerals, 434.

WRITING, how taught, 110; of books, 398.

zōna, girdle, 260*.