CHAPTER XI.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY.

EXCRETION.

The products resulting from the waste of the tissues are constantly being poured into the blood, and, as we have seen, the blood being everywhere full of corpuscles, which, like all living things, die and decay, the products of their decomposition accumulate in every part of the circulatory system. Hence, if the blood is to be kept pure, the waste materials incessantly poured into this fluid, or generated in it, must be as continually removed, or excreted. The principal sets of organs concerned in effecting the separation of excrementitious substances from the blood are the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys.

The elimination of carbonic acid through the lungs has already been described on page 66, and the excretory function of the skin on page 70.

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, placed at the back of the abdominal cavity, in the region of the loins, one on each side of the spine. The convex side of each kidney is directed outwards, and the concave side is turned inwards towards the spine. From the middle of the concave side, which is termed the _hilus_, a long tube of small caliber, called the _ureter_, proceeds to the bladder. The latter organ is an oval bag, situated in the pelvic cavity. It is composed principally of elastic muscular fibers, and is lined internally with mucous membrane, and coated externally with a layer of the _peritoneum_, the serous membrane which lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities. The ureters enter the bladder through its posterior and lower wall, at some little distance from each other. The openings through which the ureters enter the bladder are oblique, hence it is much easier for the secretion of the kidneys to pass from the ureters into the bladder than for it to get the other way. Leading from the bladder to the exterior of the body is a tube, called the _urethra_, through which the urine is voided.

The excretion of the kidneys, termed the _urine_, is an amber-colored or straw-colored fluid, naturally having a slightly acid reaction, and a specific gravity ranging from 1,015 to 1,025. Its principal constituents are _urea_ and _uric acid_, together with various other animal matters of less importance, and saline substances, held in solution in a proportionately large amount of water. The composition of the urine and the quantity excreted vary considerably, being influenced by the moisture and temperature of the atmosphere, by the character of the food consumed, and by the empty or replete condition of the alimentary tract. On an average a healthy man secretes about fifty ounces of urine in the twenty-four hours. This quantity usually holds in solution about one ounce of urea, and ten or twelve grains of uric acid. In the amount of other animal matters, and saline substances, there is great variation, the quantity of these ranging from a quarter of an ounce to an ounce. The principal saline substances are common salt, the sulphates and phosphates of potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. In addition to the animal and the saline matters, the urine also contains a small quantity of carbonic acid, oxygen and nitrogen.

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