Part 4

Up to this point the illustrations have shown that the werewolf superstition went through various stages of development. The motives for assuming wolf’s dress (or animal skins or robes), at first were purely peaceful, for protection against cold, and to secure food by acting as decoys; then it was used for personal advantage or gain by foragers (or robbers) and spies; then for purposes of vengeance;[101] later from a desire for power over others; and finally men (the professional and the superstitious) began to concoct fabulous stories which were handed down as tradition or myth, according to the psychic level of the narrator and hearer.[102]

[101] Close of note 102.

[102] John Fiske, Myths and myth-makers, p. 78, fol., gives the origin and development of the werewolf as follows: From the conception of wolf-like ghosts it was but a short step to the conception of corporeal werewolves.... Christianity did not fail to impart a new and fearful character to the belief in werewolves. Lycanthropy became regarded as a species of witchcraft, the werewolf as obtaining his powers from the Devil. It was often necessary to kill one’s enemies, and at that time some even killed for love of it (like the Berserker); often a sort of homicidal madness, during which they would array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears and sally forth by _night_ to crack the backbones, smash the skulls and sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the blood of unwary travelers or loiterers.... Possibly often the wolves were an invention of excited imagination. So people attributed a wolf’s nature to the maniac or idiot with cannibal appetites, then the myth-forming process assigned to the unfortunate wretch a tangible lupine body. The causes were three: 1. Worship of dead ancestors with wolf totems originated the notion of transformation of men into divine or superhuman wolves. 2. The storm-wind was explained as the rushing of a troop of dead men’s souls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters (called by Christianity demons). 3. Berserker madness and cannibalism, accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, interpreted as due to such demoniacal metamorphosis, gave rise to the werewolf superstition of the Middle Ages. The theory that if one put on a wolf’s skin he became a werewolf, is perhaps a reminiscence of the fact alleged of Berserkers haunting the woods by _night_, clothed in hides of wolves or bears. A permanent cure was effected by burning the werewolf’s sack, unless the Devil furnished him with a new wolfskin. Primitively, to become incarnated into any creature, the soul had only to put on the outward integument of the creature. The original werewolf is the night-wind—a kind of leader of departed souls, howling in the wintry blasts. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy:—The Berserkir of Iceland dressed in the skins of bears and wolves, and further on: “Beastform is in mythology proper far oftener assumed for malignant than for benignant ends.”

The starting point of the whole superstition of the harmful werewolf is the disguising as some common animal by members of savage races when abroad as foragers or scouts, in order to escape detection by the enemy. Like wolves they roamed the land in search of food. As stated above,[103] later fabulous report would represent them as possessing in their disguise the attributes of the animal they impersonated,[104] and finally even of actually taking on animal form, either wholly or in part,[105] for longer or shorter periods of time. Some of the North American Indian transformation stories represent men as having only the head, hands and feet of a wolf.[106] The transformation into a werewolf in Germanic lands is caused merely by a shirt or girdle made of wolf-skin.[107] This shirt or girdle of wolf-skin of the Germanic werewolf is the survival of the robe or mantle originally disguising the entire body. It would be but a step further to represent a person as rendering himself invisible by putting on any other article of apparel, such as the Tarnkappe.[108] The stories especially in Europe were of the _were-wolf_ rather than _were-bear_ or other animal, because the wolf was the commonest of the larger wild animals.[109] It was the stories of the commonest animal, the wolf, which crystallized into the household werewolf or transformation tales.[110]

[103] Ante p. 22.

[104] Note 57.

[105] Close note 65.

[106] Grinnell; and Ethn. Rep. 1888-89, p. 737.

[107] Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1094, fol. says: Our oldest native notions make the assumption of wolf-shape depend on arraying oneself in a wolf-belt or wolf-shirt, as transformation into a swan does on putting on the swan-shirt or swan-ring. Page 1095: “The transformation need not be for a magical purpose at all: any one that puts on, or is conjured into, a wolf-shirt, will undergo metamorphosis.... With the appearance, he acquires also the fierceness and howling of the wolf; roaming the _woods_, he rends to pieces everything that comes in his way.” This is like the belief of the American Indian that the wearer of a mask becomes imbued with the spirit of the being which his mask represents (note 57); or that the shaman in full regalia becomes, or tries to make his followers believe that he has become, the power he represents (note 67).

[108] Thus some American Indian stories represent men transformed into wolf, turkey or owl turning into stone or piece of decayed wood when pursued. And mantles of invisibility are mentioned in note 60.

[109] See Hirt, Die Indogermanen, I. 187: “Unter den grossen Raubtieren treten uns Bär und Wolf mit alten Namen entgegen. Der Wolf ist freilich überall in Europa verbreitet gewesen, der Bär ist aber ganz sicher ein Waldtier,” etc. Encyc. Brit, under Lycanthropy: “In England by the 17th century the werewolf had long been extinct. Only small creatures, the cat, hare, weasel, etc., remained for the malignant sorcerer to transform himself into.” See note 11.

[110] Amongst the American Indians, where various larger animals were common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves. In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves (see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther, Mythologie, p. 102, says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder getötet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen.” The werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_ and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection. Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_. Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.” Sigmund and Sinfjötli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the progenitor of the Mýramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian account reports how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s form, then dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces, etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113.

[111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a) protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of supernaturalism; c) element of humor.

a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their supernatural foes” (for similar assumption of characteristics or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33). See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: “The escort of _wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;” and in the note: “A name of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G. _Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance. Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_, _Wolf_: then the witches can’t eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_ was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in medicine.

b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning his name: “Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_ in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear, avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for example _honey-eater_, etc.

c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note 53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a wolf.

[112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the Völsungasaga. In regard to this W. Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895, p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverständniss beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geächtete in der germanischen Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wörtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden, und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p. 424:—“Gefesselt wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben, er wurde “_Warg_”, d. h. _Wolf_. _Wölfe_ heissen die friedlosen Waldgänger.” As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes wütendes Wesen, Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise, geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; _warg_ ist Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und vertragbrüchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden durch Mord gebrochen und landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm, Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67 fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” (see also Ethn. Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the _dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves. Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close) and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms.

[113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the “harmful” night air.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische parallelen und vergleiche. Stuttgart, 1878.

BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc.

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INDEX

[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]

Abipones, _9, 66._

Abyssinia, _9._

Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._

Alligator, _9._

America, 5; _9, 85._

American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._

Anglo-Saxons, _9._

Animals, _42._

Animal fable, _15._

Arabia, _9._

Arawaks, _9._

Arcadia, _9, 15._

Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._

Assyrians, _15._

Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._

Belgium, _12._

Benignant, _4, 38._

Berserkr, 1; _102._

Bird, 5.

Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._

Bohemia, _9._

Borneo, _9._

Bretons, _9._

Bulgaria, _9._

Burchard von Worms, _9._

Burmah, _12._

Celebrations, _21._

Ceylon, _12._

Charms, 10, 16.

Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28.

Coyote, 13.

Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._

Dante, _24._

Death, _22._

Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._

Denmark, _9._

Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._

Dreams, 21; _67._

Edda, _15._

Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._

English, _9, 109._

Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._

Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._

Fenrisûlfr, _9, 51._

Finns, _5._

Fish, _5._

Fisherman, _29._

Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._

Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._

Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._

French, _9, 12._

Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._

Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._

Greenland, _12, 69._

Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._

Herds, _9, 12, 20._

Herodotus, 1; _15._

Hindoos, _9._

Homer, _24._

Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._

Hyena, 5, 23; _9._

Iceland, _9, 110._

India, 5; _9, 12._

Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._

Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._

Iranians, _9._

Ireland, _9._

Italians, _9._

Jackal, _12._

Jaguar, _9._

Japan, _9._

Kadiak, _29._

Kelts, 7; _9._

Knut, _9._

Lapps, 5.

Leopard, 5; _9, 65._

Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._

Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._

Lithuanians, _9._

Loki, 14; _9, 112._

Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._

Lykaon, _9, 15._

Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._

Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._

Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._

Mastodon, _20._

Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90, 107._

Mexico, _12, 67._

Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._

Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._

Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._

Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._

Netherlands, _9._

Neurians, 1; _15._

Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110, 112, 113._

North America, _12._

Norway, _9._

Odin, _15._

Island Oesel, _9._

Otter, _29._

Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._

Owl, 5, 30; _64._

Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._

Persia, _9._

Plants, _42, 95._

Poles, _9, 14._

Portuguese, _9._

Posen, _14._

Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._

Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._

Provencal, _9._

Prussia, _14._

Reindeer, 5.

Religion, _22, 24, 57._

Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._

Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65, 112._

Romans, 7; _9, 27._

Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._

Scandinavia, _9._

Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._

Scythians, _6._

Seal, _29, 31, 69._

Serpent, 5; _9._

Servia, _9._

Shepherds, _15, 20._

Siam, _12, 69._

Sinfjötli, _15, 64, 110._

Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._

Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._

South America, 5; _12._

Speech (animals), 7.

Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._

Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._

Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._

Sweden, _9._

Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._

Totemism, 2; _47, 102._

Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69, 107._

Traps, 8; _31._

Tschechs, _9._

Turkey, 5; _108._

Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._

Völsungasaga, _15, 112._

Wales, _9._

Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._

Weapons, 7, 8, 9.

Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45, 64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._

Wiener Hundesegen, _15._

Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110, 111._

Transcriber’s note

Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals changed to all capitals.

Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after the paragraph with the corresponding anchor.

“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader’s convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common spelling with ö.

Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note 12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien).

Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.