Chapter 1

The Pool - Apache

_From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_

The North American Indian

Being A Series Of Volumes Picturing And Describing The Indians Of The United States And Alaska

Written, Illustrated, And Published By Edward S. Curtis

Edited By Frederick Webb Hodge

Foreword By Theodore Roosevelt

Field Research Conducted Under The Patronage Of J. Pierpont Morgan

In Twenty Volumes This, The First Volume, Published In The Year Nineteen Hundred And Seven

JOHNSON REPRINT CORPORATION 111 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10003

JOHNSON REPRINT COMPANY LTD. Berkeley Square House, London, W1X6BA

Copyright 1907, by Edward S. Curtis

_Landmarks in Anthropology_, a series of reprints in cultural anthropology _General Editor:_ Weston La Barre

First reprinting 1970, Johnson Reprint Corporation

CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME ONE THE APACHE HISTORICAL SKETCH HOMELAND AND LIFE MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH MEDICINE AND MEDICINE-MEN THE MESSIAH CRAZE PUBERTY RITE DANCE OF THE GODS THE JICARILLAS HOME AND GENERAL CUSTOMS MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH MIRACLE PERFORMERS ORIGIN OF FIRE THE NAVAHO HOME LIFE, ARTS, AND BELIEFS HISTORY MYTHOLOGY - CREATION MYTH MIRACLE PERFORMERS LEGEND OF THE HAPPINESS CHANT LEGEND OF THE NIGHT CHANT CEREMONIES--THE NIGHT CHANT MATURITY CEREMONY MARRIAGE APPENDIX TRIBAL SUMMARY - THE APACHE THE JICARILLAS THE NAVAHO SOUTHERN ATHAPASCAN COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY INDEX

ALPHABET USED IN RECORDING INDIAN TERMS

[The consonants are as in English, except when otherwise noted]

a as in father a as in cat a as _aw_ in awl ai as in aisle e as _ey_ in they e as in net i as in machine i as in sit o as in old o as in not o as _ow_in how oi as in oil u as in ruin u as in nut ue as in German huette u as in push h always aspirated q as _qu_ in quick th as in thaw w as in wild y as in year ch as in church sh as in shall, sash n nasal, as in French dans zh as _z_ in azure ' a pause

ILLUSTRATIONS

The Pool - Apache _Naye{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho Illustration: Theodore Roosevelt White River - Apache By The Sycamore - Apache The Fire Drill - Apache A Noonday Halt - Navaho Apache Camp Typical Apache _Tenokai_ - Apache At The Ford - Apache The Bathing Pool - Apache _Alchise_ - Apache Mescal Hills - Apache Primitive Apache Home Cutting Mescal - Apache Mescal - Apache Filling the Pit - Apache The Covered Pit - Apache Apache Still Life Among the Oaks - Apache Mescal Camp - Apache Sacred Buckskin - Apache Apache Girl The Ford - Apache Apache Medicine-man Maternity Belt - Apache Medicine Cap and Fetish - Apache _Das Lan_ - Apache Apache Village Sand Mosaic - Apache Apache _Gaun_ Apache Maiden Lone Tree Lodge - Jicarilla A Jicarilla A Jicarilla Feast March Jicarillas Jeditoh - Navaho Lake Lajara - Navaho Into the Desert - Navaho Nature's Mirror - Navaho Canon _Hogan_ - Navaho A Drink in the Desert - Navaho Under the Cottonwoods - Navaho Cornfields in Canon Del Muerto - Navaho The Blanket Maker - Navaho _Pike{~COMBINING BREVE~}hodiklad_ - Navaho _Hastin Yazhe_ - Navaho Navaho _Hogan_ Navaho Still Life Navaho Medicine-man Through the Canon - Navaho Evening in the Desert - Navaho _Hasche{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho _Haschogan_ - Navaho Antelope Ruin - Canon del Muerto _Naye{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho _Tobadzischi{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho _Hasche{~COMBINING BREVE~}zhini_ - Navaho _Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho _Tonenili_ - Navaho _Zahadolzha_ - Navaho _Haschebaad_ - Navaho _Ga__n__ askidi. Zahadolzha. Hasche{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_ - Navaho _Tonenili, Tobadzischi{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni, Naye{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho _Yebichai_ Sweat - Navaho _Pikehodiklad_ - Navaho _Shilhne'ohli_ - Navaho _Zahadolzha_ - Navaho _Yebichai Hogan_ - Navaho _Yebichai_ Dancers - Navaho Mescal Harvest - Apache White River Valley - Apache _Nalin Lage_ - Apache Infant Burial - Apache _Tobadzischi{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni_ - Navaho _Ga__n__askidi_ - Navaho _Zahadolzha_ - Navaho _Hasche{~COMBINING BREVE~}lti_, _Haschebaad_, _Zahadolzha_--Navaho Navaho Women

_Photogravures by John Andrew & Son, Boston._

_Naye{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani_ - Navaho

_From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_

FOREWORD

_In Mr. Curtis we have both an artist and a trained observer, whose pictures are pictures, not merely photographs; whose work has far more than mere accuracy, because it is truthful. All serious students are to be congratulated because he is putting his work in permanent form; for our generation offers the last chance for doing what Mr. Curtis has done. The Indian as he has hitherto been is on the point of passing away. His life has been lived under conditions thru which our own race past so many ages ago that not a vestige of their memory remains. It would be a veritable calamity if a vivid and truthful record of these conditions were not kept. No one man alone could preserve such a record in complete form. Others have worked in the past, and are working in the present, to preserve parts of the record; but Mr. Curtis, because of the singular combination of qualities with which he has been blest, and because of his extraordinary success in making and using his opportunities, has been able to do what no other man ever has done; what, as far as we can see, no other man could do. He is an artist who works out of doors and not in the closet. He is a close observer, whose qualities of mind and body fit him to make his observations out in the field, surrounded by the wild life he commemorates. He has lived on intimate terms with many different tribes of the mountains and the plains. He knows them as they hunt, as they travel, as they go about their various avocations on the march and in the camp. He knows their medicine men and sorcerers, their chiefs and warriors, their young men and maidens. He has not only seen their vigorous outward existence, but has caught glimpses, such as few white men ever catch, into that strange spiritual and mental life of theirs; from whose innermost recesses all white men are forever barred. Mr. Curtis in publishing this book is rendering a real and great service; a service not only to our own people, but to the world of scholarship everywhere._

THEODORE ROOSEVELT

_October 1st, 1906._

White River - Apache

_From Copyright Photograph 1903 by E.S. Curtis_

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The task of recording the descriptive material embodied in these volumes, and of preparing the photographs which accompany them, had its inception in 1898. Since that time, during each year, months of arduous labor have been spent in accumulating the data necessary to form a comprehensive and permanent record of all the important tribes of the United States and Alaska that still retain to a considerable degree their primitive customs and traditions. The value of such a work, in great measure, will lie in the breadth of its treatment, in its wealth of illustration, and in the fact that it represents the result of personal study of a people who are rapidly losing the traces of their aboriginal character and who are destined ultimately to become assimilated with the "superior race."

It has been the aim to picture all features of the Indian life and environment--types of the young and the old, with their habitations, industries, ceremonies, games, and everyday customs. Rather than being designed for mere embellishment, the photographs are each an illustration of an Indian character or of some vital phase in his existence. Yet the fact that the Indian and his surroundings lend themselves to artistic treatment has not been lost sight of, for in his country one may treat limitless subjects of an aesthetic character without in any way doing injustice to scientific accuracy or neglecting the homelier phases of aboriginal life. Indeed, in a work of this sort, to overlook those marvellous touches that Nature has given to the Indian country, and for the origin of which the native ever has a wonder-tale to relate, would be to neglect a most important chapter in the story of an environment that made the Indian much of what he is. Therefore, being directly from Nature, the accompanying pictures show what actually exists or has recently existed (for many of the subjects have already passed forever), not what the artist in his studio may presume the Indian and his surroundings to be.

The task has not been an easy one, for although lightened at times by the readiness of the Indians to impart their knowledge, it more often required days and weeks of patient endeavor before my assistants and I succeeded in overcoming the deep-rooted superstition, conservatism, and secretiveness so characteristic of primitive people, who are ever loath to afford a glimpse of their inner life to those who are not of their own. Once the confidence of the Indians gained, the way led gradually through the difficulties, but long and serious study was necessary before knowledge of the esoteric rites and ceremonies could be gleaned.

At times the undertaking was made congenial by our surroundings in beautiful mountain wild, in the depths of primeval forest, in the refreshing shade of canon wall, or in the homes and sacred places of the Indians themselves; while at others the broiling desert sun, the sand-storm, the flood, the biting blast of winter, lent anything but pleasure to the task.

The word-story of this primitive life, like the pictures, must be drawn direct from Nature. Nature tells the story, and in Nature's simple words I can but place it before the reader. In great measure it must be written as these lines are--while I am in close touch with the Indian life.

At the moment I am seated by a beautiful brook that bounds through the forests of Apacheland. Numberless birds are singing their songs of life and love. Within my reach lies a tree, felled only last night by a beaver, which even now darts out into the light, scans his surroundings, and scampers back. A covey of mourning doves fly to the water's edge, slake their thirst in their dainty way, and flutter off. By the brookside path now and then wander prattling children; a youth and a maiden hand in hand wend their way along the cool stream's brink. The words of the children and the lovers are unknown to me, but the story of childhood and love needs no interpreter.

By The Sycamore - Apache

_From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_

It is thus near to Nature that much of the life of the Indian still is; hence its story, rather than being replete with statistics of commercial conquests, is a record of the Indian's relations with and his dependence on the phenomena of the universe--the trees and shrubs, the sun and stars, the lightning and rain,--for these to him are animate creatures. Even more than that, they are deified, therefore are revered and propitiated, since upon them man must depend for his well-being. To the workaday man of our own race the life of the Indian is just as incomprehensible as are the complexities of civilization to the mind of the untutored savage.

While primarily a photographer, I do not see or think photographically; hence the story of Indian life will not be told in microscopic detail, but rather will be presented as a broad and luminous picture. And I hope that while our extended observations among these brown people have given no shallow insight into their life and thought, neither the pictures nor the descriptive matter will be found lacking in popular interest.

Though the treatment accorded the Indians by those who lay claim to civilization and Christianity has in many cases been worse than criminal, a rehearsal of these wrongs does not properly find a place here. Whenever it may be necessary to refer to some of the unfortunate relations that have existed between the Indians and the white race, it will be done in that unbiased manner becoming the student of history. As a body politic recognizing no individual ownership of lands, each Indian tribe naturally resented encroachment by another race, and found it impossible to relinquish without a struggle that which belonged to their people from time immemorial. On the other hand, the white man whose very own may have been killed or captured by a party of hostiles forced to the warpath by the machinations of some unscrupulous Government employe, can see nothing that is good in the Indian. There are thus two sides to the story, and in these volumes such questions must be treated with impartiality.

Nor is it our purpose to theorize on the origin of the Indians--a problem that has already resulted in the writing of a small library, and still with no satisfactory solution. The object of the work is to record by word and picture what the Indian is, not whence he came. Even with this in view the years of a single life are insufficient for the task of treating in minute detail all the intricacies of the social structure and the arts and beliefs of many tribes. Nevertheless, by reaching beneath the surface through a study of his creation myths, his legends and folklore, more than a fair impression of the mode of thought of the Indian can be gained. In each instance all such material has been gathered by the writer and his assistants from the Indians direct, and confirmed, so far as is possible, through repetition by other members of their tribe.

Ever since the days of Columbus the assertion has been made repeatedly that the Indian has no religion and no code of ethics, chiefly for the reason that in his primitive state he recognizes no supreme God. Yet the fact remains that no people have a more elaborate religious system than our aborigines, and none are more devout in the performance of the duties connected therewith. There is scarcely an act in the Indian's life that does not involve some ceremonial performance or is not in itself a religious act, sometimes so complicated that much time and study are required to grasp even a part of its real meaning, for his myriad deities must all be propitiated lest some dire disaster befall him.

Likewise with their arts, which casual observers have sometimes denied the Indians; yet, to note a single example, the so-called "Digger" Indians, who have been characterized as in most respects the lowest type of all our tribes, are makers of delicately woven baskets, embellished with symbolic designs and so beautiful in form as to be works of art in themselves.

The great changes in practically every phase of the Indian's life that have taken place, especially within recent years, have been such that had the time for collecting much of the material, both descriptive and illustrative, herein recorded, been delayed, it would have been lost forever. The passing of every old man or woman means the passing of some tradition, some knowledge of sacred rites possessed by no other; consequently the information that is to be gathered, for the benefit of future generations, respecting the mode of life of one of the great races of mankind, must be collected at once or the opportunity will be lost for all time. It is this need that has inspired the present task.

The Fire Drill - Apache

_From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_

In treating the various tribes it has been deemed advisable that a geographic rather than an ethnologic grouping be presented, but without losing sight of tribal relationships, however remote the cognate tribes may be one from another. To simplify the study and to afford ready reference to the salient points respecting the several tribes, a summary of the information pertaining to each is given in the appendices.

In the spelling of the native terms throughout the text, as well as in the brief vocabularies appended to each volume, the simplest form possible, consistent with approximate accuracy, has been adopted. No attempt has been made to differentiate sounds so much alike that the average student fails to discern the distinction, for the words, where recorded, are designed for the general reader rather than the philologist, and it has been the endeavor to encourage their pronunciation rather than to make them repellent by inverted and other arbitrary characters.

I take this opportunity to express my deep appreciation to those who have so generously lent encouragement during these years of my labor, from the humblest dwellers in frontier cabins to the captains of industry in our great commercial centres, and from the representatives of the most modest institutions of learning to those whose fame is worldwide. Without this encouragement the work could not have been accomplished. When the last opportunity for study of the living tribes shall have passed with the Indians themselves, and the day cannot be far off, my generous friends may then feel that they have aided in a work the results of which, let it be hoped, will grow more valuable as time goes on.

EDWARD S. CURTIS.

A Noonday Halt - Navaho

_From Copyright Photograph 1904 by E.S. Curtis_

INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME ONE

While it is the plan of this work to treat the tribes in the order of their geographic distribution, rather than to group them in accordance with their relationship one to another, we are fortunate, in the present volume, to have for treatment two important southwestern Indian groups--the Navaho and the Apache--which are not only connected linguistically but have been more or less in proximity ever since they have been known to history.

Because of his cunning, his fearlessness, and his long resistance to subjection both by the missionary and by the governments under whose dominion he has lived, but until recent times never recognized, the Apache, in name at least, has become one of the best known of our tribal groups. But, ever the scourge of the peaceable Indians that dwelt in adjacent territory, and for about three hundred years a menace to the brave colonists that dared settle within striking distance of him, the Apache of Arizona and New Mexico occupied a region that long remained a _terra incognita_, while the inner life of its occupants was a closed book.

There is little wonder, then, that we have known practically nothing of the Apache and their customs beyond the meagre record of what has been given us by a few army officers; consequently their study was entered into with especial interest. Although much time was expended and much patience consumed before the confidence of their elders was gained, the work was finally successful, as will be seen particularly by the creation legend and the accompanying mythologic picture-writing on deerskin, which give an insight into the mode of thought of this people and a comprehensive idea of the belief respecting their genesis. Not satisfied with the story as first related by the medicine-men lest error perchance should have crept in, it was repeated and verified by others until no doubt of its entire accuracy remained. It is especially fortunate that the chief investigations were made in the summer of 1906, when the new "messiah craze" was at its height, thus affording exceptional opportunity for observing an interesting wave of religious ecstasy sweep over this primitive folk.

The Navaho tribe, second only to the Sioux in numbers, have been the least affected by civilizing influences. The Navaho is the American Bedouin, the chief human touch in the great plateau-desert region of our Southwest, acknowledging no superior, paying allegiance to no king in name of chief, a keeper of flocks and herds who asks nothing of the Government but to be unmolested in his pastoral life and in the religion of his forebears. Although the mythology and ceremonials of this virile people would alone furnish material for many volumes, it is believed that even with the present comparatively brief treatment a comprehensive view of their character and activities will be gained.

It is with pleasure that I acknowledge the able assistance rendered by Mr. W. W. Phillips and Mr. W. E. Myers during the last two years of field work in collecting and arranging the material for this volume, and the aid of Mr. A. F. Muhr in connection with the photographic work in the laboratory.

EDWARD S. CURTIS

Apache Camp

_From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_

Typical Apache

_From Copyright Photograph 1906 by E.S. Curtis_

THE APACHE

HISTORICAL SKETCH

The Indian and his history present innumerable problems to the student. Facts seemingly contradict facts, well-founded theories contradict other theories as well founded. Linguistically the Apache belong to the great Athapascan family, which, according to the consensus of opinion, had its origin in the far North, where many tribes of the family still live. Based on the creation legends of the Navaho and on known historical events, the advent of the southern branch of this linguistic group--the Navaho and the Apache tribes--has been fixed in the general region in which they now have their home, at about the time of the discovery of America. Contrary to this conclusion, however, the legend of their genesis gives no hint of an origin in other than their historical habitat. The history and the legendary lore of the Indian are passed down from generation to generation, so that it would seem hardly credible that all trace of this migration from a distant region should have become lost within a period of somewhat more than four hundred years.

Again, judging by the similarity in language, the Apache and the Navaho in prehistoric times were as nearly a single group as the present bands of Apache are; and, likewise, there is sufficient similarity in the underlying principles of their mythology to argue a common tribal origin. The names as well as the functions of several of the mythic characters are identical in both tribes, as, for example, the war gods Naye{~COMBINING BREVE~}nezgani and Tobadzischi{~COMBINING BREVE~}ni. These miracle-performing twins in each case are the sons of a woman (who occupies an almost identical position in both Navaho and Apache mythology) and the sun and water respectively. Pollen also is deified by each--as Hadintin Boy among the Apache and Taditin Boy among the Navaho. If, therefore, we may concede that the Navaho and the Apache were originally one tribe, as their language certainly indicates, we have many arguments in favor of the theory of long residence in the South-west of this branch of the Athapascan family, for the striking differences in the details of their myths would seem to indicate that the tribal separation was not a recent one, and that the mythology of the two tribes became changed in the course of its natural development along different lines or through accretion of other peoples since the original segregation. The Apache story of their creation portrays human beings in their present form, while in the Navaho genesis myth occurs the remarkable story, unquestionably aboriginal, of the evolution of the lower animals through successive underworlds until the present world is reached, then as spirit people miraculously creating human life.