chapter liv), and that there was a golden dove in the temple, but nothing

was known regarding its origin, some referring it to Dionysus, some to Deukalion, and some to Semiramis (a name said to mean mountain dove) (chapter xxxiii). Aelian tells that the dove was the sacred companion of Astarte (_Hist. Nat._, iv, 2). Like the Egyptians, the Semites regarded the pigeon with veneration. The Hebrews sacrificed it on special occasions (_Num._ vi, 10; _Lev._ xiv, 4, 49). Noah sent out a dove from the ark (_Gen._ viii, 8). A prophet mourns as a dove (_Is._ xxxviii, 14). The dove is 'silly' (_Hos._ vii, 11). Doves were sold in the temple (_Mark_, xi, 15). The Spirit of God appears as a dove (_Matt._ iii, 16). According to Herodotus, the Persians drove away white pigeons, connecting them with leprosy (_Book I_, 139). At Dodona, the famous sanctuary in Epirus, auguries were taken from the moaning of doves in the tree-tops, and the priestesses of Zeus were called doves (_Peleiai_). Doves and pigeons were mystical birds in the British Isles. In England it was believed that one could not die on a bed of pigeon feathers, and the dying person had, therefore, to be removed from one so that the suffering might not be prolonged. The early Christian saints reverenced the dove. St. Gregory the Great is shown with a dove on his shoulder, and the emblem of St. Remigius is a dove with an oil-cruse in its beak. A snow-white dove with golden bill was wont to sit on the head of St. Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow. Stories used to be told of sick persons recovering on seeing a white dove on an altar. In the folk lore attached to the memory of Michael Scott, the dove is connected with heaven, and the raven with hell. St. Columba's name signifies 'Dove'. Dove-cotes were connected with old churches, especially in England.

DO'VER, a municipal borough of England, county of Kent, 67 miles south-east of London. It lies on the coast of the Straits of Dover, and is 21 miles distant from Calais on the French coast. It is an important railway terminus, and as a port for mail and packet service with the Continent has a large passenger traffic. Ship-building, sail-making, and fisheries are carried on. There are two docks and a tidal harbour; an outer harbour of 70 acres, enclosed by a new pier and the extended Admiralty Pier, completed in 1871. Very extensive harbour improvements, begun in 1893, were carried out in subsequent years. The celebrated castle stands on a high chalk cliff. Dover is the chief of the Cinque Ports, and has extensive barracks. A parliamentary borough till 1918, Dover now gives its name to a parliamentary division of Kent. Dover was frequently raided by German aviators during the European War. Pop. 43,645.

DOVER, a city of the United States, in New Hampshire. It is situated on both sides of the Cochecho, which has here a fall of over 30 feet, affording abundant water-power for the large iron and cotton manufactories. Pop. 13,247.

DOVER, STRAITS OF, the narrow channel between Dover and Calais which separates Great Britain from the French coast. At the narrowest part it is only 21 miles wide. The depth of the channel at a medium in the highest spring-tides is about 25 fathoms. On both the French and English sides the chalky cliffs show a correspondency of strata which leaves no room for doubt that they were once united, a fact which is clearly shown by many other proofs.

DOVER'S POWDER, a preparation frequently used in medical practice to produce perspiration. It consists of 1 grain of opium, 1 of ipecacuanha, and 8 of sulphate of potash in every 10 grains, which constitute a full dose. It is named after Thomas Dover, an English physician of the eighteenth century.

DOVRE-FJELD (d[=o]-vre-fyel), an assemblage of mountain masses in Norway, forming the central part of the Scandinavian system, and extending as a plateau 2000 feet high E.N.E. from lat. 62deg N. to lat. 63deg. It is generally composed of gneiss and mica schist. One of the mountains belonging to it is Snehaetta, 7620 feet.

DOW, Gerard, an eminent painter of the Dutch school, was the son of a glazier, and born at Leyden in 1613. He studied under Rembrandt, and united his master's manner in chiaroscuro with the most minute finish and delicacy. Among his pictures, generally of small size and mostly scenes of family life, are: _The Evening School_, _Young Mother_, _Woman Sick with Dropsy_, and _The Bible Reader_. Dow died in 1675.

DOWDEN, Edward, English critic, historian, and educator, was born at Cork in 1843, died in 1913. He studied at Queen's College, Cork, and Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained great distinction, especially in English and Philosophy; and in 1867 he was elected to the professorship of English literature in the university. He was the first Taylorian lecturer at Oxford University in 1889, and held the Clark lecturership in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1893 to 1896. Besides contributing to periodicals, Professor Dowden published various works on literary subjects, in particular: _Shakspere: his Mind and Art_ (1875); _Shakspere Primer_; _Studies in Literature_; _Southey_; _Southey's Correspondence with Caroline Bowles_; _Life of Shelley_ (2 vols., 1886), the chief authority on the poet's life, being founded on papers in the possession of the Shelley family; _Wordsworth's Poetical Works_ (1892-3); _Introduction to Shakspere_ (1893); _New Studies in Literature_ (1895); _The French Revolution and English Literature_ (lectures delivered at Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1896); _History of French Literature_ (1897); _Robert Browning_ (1904); _Michel de Montaigne_ (1905); _Essays, Modern and Elizabethan_ (1910). A volume of poems by him appeared in 1876, and his collected _Poetical Works and Letters_ appeared in 1914.

DOWER (Fr. _douaire_, Lat. _dos_, dower), in English law, is the right which a wife (not being an alien) has in the freehold lands and tenements of which her husband dies possessed and undisposed of by will. By common law this right amounts to one-third of his estate during her life; by local custom it is frequently greater. Where the custom of _gavelkind_ prevails, the widow's share is a half, and that of _free-bench_ gives her the whole or a portion of a copyhold, according to the custom of the manor. The term is also applied to the property which a woman brings to her husband in marriage, but this is more correctly _dowry_.

DOWIE, John Alexander, religious impostor, born at Edinburgh in 1847, died in 1907. Educated at the university of his native town, he joined his family in Sydney, Australia, and entered the ministry as clergyman of the Congregational denomination. In 1878 he started evangelistic work, maintaining that it was wrong to take a minister's salary. In 1882 he established a tabernacle at Melbourne, and began to practise faith-healing. He then came to the United States, where he organized his own Church, establishing it in 1901 at Zion City, 42 miles from Chicago, on the shore of Lake Michigan. He styled himself 'Elijah II', and 'the First Apostle of the Lord Jesus Christ, and General Overseer of the Catholic Apostolic Church'. Suspended in 1906 by his congregation of Zion City, who accused him of tyranny, polygamy, and misuse of funds, he died shortly afterwards.

DOWLAIS, a town of South Wales, Glamorganshire, included in the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil, from which it is distant 1 1/2 miles north-east, with important iron- and steelworks. Pop. 18,112.

DOWLAS, a kind of coarse linen formerly much used by working people for shirts; this use of it is now generally superseded by calico.--Cf. Shakespeare, _1st Henry IV_, iii, 3.

DOWLETABAD. See _Daulatabad_.

DOWN, a county of Ireland, in Ulster, bounded on the north by Belfast Lough and on the east by the Irish Sea; area, 610,730 acres, of which over five-sixths are productive. Down is copiously watered by the Rivers Bann, Lagan, and Newry, and has numerous small lakes. The surface is very irregular, and in parts mountainous, Slieve Donard, in the Mourne Mountains, being 2796 feet high. Agriculture is in a flourishing condition, oats, wheat, flax, turnips, and potatoes being the principal crops. The native breed of sheep is small, but valued for the delicacy of its mutton and the fine texture of its wool. The principal manufactures are linen and muslin. The fisheries on the coast, principally cod, haddock, and herring, are considerable. The county has five parliamentary divisions, each returning a member. The county town is Downpatrick; others are Newry, Newtownards, Bangor, and Banbridge. Pop. 204,303.

DOWNING COLLEGE, one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, chartered in 1800 and opened in 1821. Its founder was Sir George Downing, a Cambridgeshire gentleman.

DOWNING STREET, a street in London, leading from Whitehall. The name is used as a synonym for the British Government, the Foreign Office and Colonial Office being located in it. No. 10 is the official residence of the Prime Minister, and No. 11 that of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

DOWNPAT'RICK, a market town of Ireland, county town of Down, 21 miles S.E. of Belfast. It is the seat of the diocese of Down, Connor, and Dromore, has a cathedral, and is celebrated as the supposed burial-place of St. Patrick. Pop. 3200.

DOWNS, a term given to undulating grassy hills or uplands, specially applied to two ranges of undulating chalk hills in England, extending through Surrey, Kent, and Hampshire, known as the North and South Downs. The word is sometimes used as equivalent to _dunes_ or sand-hills.

DOWNS, THE, a celebrated roadstead for ships, extending 6 miles along the east coast of Kent in England, protected on the seaward side by the Goodwin Sands.

DOWNTON, a town of England, in Wilts., on the Avon, 6-1/2 miles S.S.E. of Salisbury; an ancient place, with a large cruciform church in the Norman and later styles, an old earthwork mound called 'the Moat', and an agricultural college. Pop. 1933.

DOXOL'OGY (from Gr. _doxa_, praise, glory, and _logos_), a set form of words giving glory to God, and especially a name given to two short hymns distinguished by the title of _greater_ (Glory be to God on high, &c.) and _lesser_ (Glory be to the Father, &c.). Both the doxologies have a place in the Church of England liturgy, the latter being repeated after every psalm, and the former used in the communion service.

DOYEN, Eug[`e]ne Louis, famous French surgeon, born at Rheims in 1859, died at Paris in 1916. He made numerous discoveries in gynaecological surgery, and in 1895 established a private clinic, where many French and foreign surgeons came to study under him. His surgical methods were adopted, although his claim to have discovered the germ of cancer has been disputed. In 1898 he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh, where he introduced the method of teaching surgery by means of the cinematograph. His works include: _La maladie et le m['e]decin_ and _Le Cancer_.

DOYLE, Sir Arthur Conan, English novelist, a nephew of Richard Doyle, born at Edinburgh, 1859, studied medicine, and for some years practised, but gave up the profession for that of literature. In 1887 he produced _A Study in Scarlet_, in which he created the detective Sherlock Holmes. Among his other books are: _Micah Clarke_, _The Sign of Four_, _The White Company_, _The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes_, _Brigadier Gerard_, _The Great Boer War_, _The Crime of the Congo_, _The Lost World_, _The Poison Belt_, _The British Campaign in France and Flanders_, _The New Revelation_, and _The Vital Message_.

DOYLE, Sir Francis Hastings Charles, English poet, born 21st Aug., 1810, died 8th June, 1888, was the son of Major-General Sir Francis Hastings Doyle, first baronet, succeeding his father in the title in 1839. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1832, and held a fellowship at All Souls' from 1835 to 1844. After some years' work as a barrister, he became Receiver-General, and in 1869 Commissioner of Customs, having two years previously been elected professor of poetry at Oxford in succession to Matthew Arnold, a position to which he was re-elected for a second term five years later. He had already published _Miscellaneous Verses_ (1840); _The Two Destinies_ (1844); _The Return of the Guards and other Poems_ (1866); and subsequently printed his _Oxford Lectures_ (1869 and 1877) and _Reminiscences and Opinions, 1813-85_ (1886).

DOYLE, Richard, an artist, born in London in 1824, died in 1883. He was long well known as a constant contributor of satirical designs to _Punch_, and also showed much talent in illustrations to Leigh Hunt's _Jar of Honey_, Thackeray's _Newcomes_ and his _Rebecca and Rowena_, and Ruskin's _King of the Golden River_. Afterwards he devoted himself to water-colour painting.

DOZY (d[=o]'zi), Reinhart, Dutch Orientalist and historian, born 1820, died 1883. He was thoroughly versed in most of the Semitic tongues, and spoke and wrote almost all the European languages with facility. Among his works (sometimes in Dutch, sometimes in French) are: _Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne de 711-1110_, _G['e]ographie d'Edrisi_, _De Israelieten te Mekka_, _Het Islamisme_], _Supplements aux Dictionnaires Arabes_.

DRAA, or WADY DRAA, a river, or rather water-course, of Morocco, rising in the Atlas Mountains and flowing generally south-east, until, after penetrating the Anti-Atlas range and passing several oases, it suddenly turns westwards, and forms the shallow lagoon El Debaia. From this point until it enters the ocean it is a wady, and forms the southern boundary of Morocco.

DRACAE'NA, a genus of endogenous evergreen plants, nat. ord. Liliaceae. It includes the dragon tree of Teneriffe (_D. Draco_), celebrated for producing the resin called dragon's blood. Several species of Dracaena are cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty of their foliage, but many of the fine plants known by this name belong strictly to other genera.

DRACHENFELS (dr[:a]'_h_en-fels; 'dragon rock'), "the castled crag of Drachenfels", as Byron calls it, a hill in Rhenish Prussia, about 8 miles south-east of Bonn, rising 900 feet above the Rhine, and crowned by the old castle of Drachenfels.

DRACHMA (drak'ma), the unit of weight and of money among the ancient Greeks. It was the principal Greek coin, was made of silver, and was worth (the Attic drachma) about 9-3/4d. As a weight amongst the Greeks it was about 2 dwt. 7 grains troy. The monetary unit of modern Greece is also called a drachma. Since 1867 its value has been equivalent to that of the franc of the Latin Monetary Union. It is divided into 100 _lepta_.

DRACO, a legislator of Athens, about 620 B.C., whose name has become proverbial as an inexorable and bloodthirsty lawgiver, and whose laws were said to have been written in blood, not ink. Suidas says that he met his death at Aegina, being unintentionally suffocated by the caps and cloaks thrown at him by some of his enthusiastic supporters.

DRACO, the Dragon, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, consisting of a long and straggling line of stars, coiled about Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear. The Pole of the Ecliptic, or earth's orbital plane, is in this constellation, and round that point the Pole of the Equator, at present close to [alpha] Ursae Minoris (the 'Pole Star'), travels in a circle in about 26,000 years. Some 4000 years ago [alpha] Draconis was pole-star.

DRAG, (1) a long coach or carriage, generally uncovered and seated round the sides; (2) an apparatus for retarding or stopping the rotation of one wheel or of several wheels, in carriages especially; (3) an apparatus, consisting of a frame of iron with a bag-net attached, used to recover articles lost in the water.

DRAG-NET, a net drawn along the bottom of a river or pond to catch fish. The use of drag-nets is usually prohibited in rivers where fish breed, as it takes all indiscriminately.

DRAGO DOCTRINE, a doctrine formulated by L. M. Drago, an Argentinian jurist and Minister for Foreign Affairs, and asserting the principle that no power had a right to impose itself by force of arms upon any of the Spanish American nationalities. Drago first advanced his doctrine in 1902, when the British, German, and Italian fleets were blockading the Venezuelan coast to compel President Castro to pay certain claims made upon his government.

DRAGOMIROV, Mikhail Ivanovitch, Russian general, born in 1830, died in 1905. He became known as lecturer on military tactics, and was appointed chief of the Russian general staff at Kiev. During the Russo-Turkish War he distinguished himself at the crossing of the Danube at Sistova, and was wounded at the Shipka Pass. Retired from active service, he was director of the War Academy at St. Petersburg, Governor-General of Kiev from 1898 to 1902, and member of the Council of the Empire. His works include: _The Austro-Prussian War_, _A Study on the Novel 'War and Peace'_, _The French Soldier_, _War is an Inevitable Evil_, and _Duels_.

DRAGOMIROV, Vladimir, son of the former, was prominent as a commander during the European War, and took part in the offensive in Galicia in 1916. In 1919 he was president of General Denikin's Political Council, and Governor of Kiev.

DRAGON (Gr. _drakon_, 'the seeing one', a serpent). This 'composite wonder beast' is prominent not only in fairy lore and mediaeval romances, but in ancient religious systems. In the mythical history of the East the dragon is the symbol of anarchy and destruction, and the idea was taken over by Christianity, which looked upon the dragon as an emblem of the devil. In Ancient Egypt certain of the deities had serpentine forms, as have still some of the dragons of India, China, and Japan. The Egyptian 'fiery flying serpent' is a dragon, as is also the Apep serpent of night and death, through which the sun-barque of Ra was supposed to pass each night. Biblical references to it as the 'worm' include: "Their worm shall not die" (_Is._ lxvi, 24); "The worm shall eat them like wool" (_Is._ li, 8); "In that day the Lord, with his sore, and great, and strong sword, shall punish leviathan the piercing serpent," &c. (_Is._ xxvii, 1); "The great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, he that is called the Devil and Satan" (_Rev._ xii, 9). See also _Ps._ lxxxvii, 4, and lxxxix, 10; _Amos_, ix, 3; and _Is._ li, 9. Osiris, as the Nile, was a dragon on which were human heads. In the Pyramid Texts he is addressed as "the Great Green" (the Mediterranean Sea), and the one who is "round as the Great Circle (Okeanos)." On the sarcophagus of Seti I he is "Osiris encircling the Nether World." Set, who slew him, had a 'roaring serpent' form and hid in a hole; he resembled Typhon. The Babylonian dragon Tiamat was the Great Mother of all the deities, and was slain by her descendant Marduk (Merodach), who formed the earth and sky from her body; her blood ran as the flooded rivers to the sea. In India the drought-demon is a water confiner. When slain by Indra with the thunderbolt, the rainy season ensues. The Naga serpent-gods are dragons who may assume human or half-human, half-reptile forms. They guard treasure and chiefly pearls. Early pearl-fishers believed that the shark was the owner and guardian of pearls. Among the Chinese dragons is the lion-headed shark. All the Chinese dragons have pearls in their mouths, and are supposed to spit out pearls. Dragon deities are connected with the moon, which is 'the night-shining pearl,' and in Mexico 'the pearl of heaven'. The Mexican dragon resembles the Chinese, Indian, and Babylonian dragons. The Indian wonder-beast, the _Makara_, the vehicle of the sea-god Varuna, is similar to the dragon of the Babylonian mother-goddess Ishtar seen on the famous Ishtar gate of Babylon. _Makara_ forms include the lion-headed dolphin, the crocodile-headed fish, and the ram-headed fish so like the 'goat fish' or 'antelope fish' of the Babylonian sea-god Ea, and resembling the Greek horse-headed, dog-headed, and man-headed fish (Tritons). Japanese dragons are serpentine 'water fathers', which are prayed to in time of drought. The Chinese dragons are rain-bringers which sleep during the winter (the season of drought) in pools and rise to fight and thunder in spring. They are hatched from stones as snakes, or from sea-plants, or are transformed fish, or are born from aged pine trees. They are coloured according to their attributes, and may assume human forms or be horse-headed with a snake's tail. That the composite dragon-god is a mixture of several ancient animal-gods is evident by the following description of one class of dragon by a Chinese writer: "His horns resemble those of a stag, his head that of a camel, his eyes those of a demon, his neck that of a snake, his belly that of a clam, his scales those of a carp, his claws those of an eagle, his soles those of a tiger, his ears those of a cow." Dragons may transform themselves into fishes, snakes, crows, dogs, rats, cows, sharks, whales, crocodiles, &c., as well as human beings. The 'will o' wisp' is the 'dragon lantern', and the dragon pearl is the 'jewel that grants all desires' in India, China, and Japan. Dragon herbs cure diseases and prolong life. Dragons carry souls to the Celestial regions, or draw vehicles in which souls stand. This Far Eastern belief existed in Ancient Crete too. On a Cretan sarcophagus is a chariot drawn by two griffins (forms of the dragon) in which stands a woman, probably a goddess, and a swathed pale figure, the deceased. Shakespeare has interesting dragon references, including:

The dragon wing of night o'erspreads the earth,...

(_Troilus and Cressida_, V, 8, 17.)

Swift, swift, you dragons of the night, that dawning May bare the raven's eye.

(_Cymbeline_, ii, 2, 49.)

It is believed that the treasure-guarding dragon of the romances had origin in mixed memories regarding the pearl-guarding shark, the fiery flying serpent, and the ancient serpent and crocodile demons of destruction, flood, darkness, and death. The whole idea of dragons may have originated from traditions about the pterodactyls which lived in the Mesozoic period.

The dragon being a symbol of destruction and a power of evil, the slaying of a dragon was considered a great achievement of mediaeval heroes, such as King Arthur, Beowulf, Siegmund, and Tristram.--Cf. G. Elliot Smith, _The Evolution of the Dragon_; M. W. de Visser, _The Dragon in China and Japan_.

DRAGON, or DRAGON-LIZARD, a name for several species of lizards inhabiting South-East Asia. The common flying lizard (_Draco volans_), the best type of the genus, is about 10 or 12 inches in length, the tail being extremely long in proportion to the body. The sides are furnished with peculiar extensions of the skin, resembling wings, which help to support it in the air as it springs from branch to branch. These wing-like processes are borne by prolongations of five or six of the hindermost ribs, and can be folded up. Its food consists almost exclusively of insects.

DRAG'ONET, the common name of small marine fishes constituting a special family (Callionymidae). The gemmeous dragonet (_Callionymus lyra_) is found in the British seas. The female is dull brown and much smaller than the male, which is brilliantly coloured with spots and bars of blue on a yellow ground. His first dorsal fin is large and drawn out into a long filament.

DRAGON-FLY, the common name of members of a family (Odonata or Libellulidae) of neuropterous insects. They have a large head, large eyes, and strong horny mandibles. They are beautiful in form and colour, and are of very powerful flight. The great dragon-fly (_Aeschna grandis_) is about 4 inches long, and the largest of the British species. They live on insects, and are remarkable for their voracity. The dragon-fly deposits its eggs in the water, where the wingless nymphs live on aquatic insects. The nymph stage lasts for a year. The family is of very wide distribution. The small blue Agrion is a common European form, but the familiar Libellula is the most extensively distributed. See _Demoiselle_.

DRAGONNADES, or DRAGONADES, the name given to the persecutions directed against the Protestants, chiefly in the south of France, during the reign of Louis XIV, shortly before the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Bands of soldiers, headed by priests, marched through the villages, giving the Protestant inhabitants the alternative of renouncing their faith or being given over to the extortions and violence of the soldiery. The dragoons were conspicuous in these expeditions, to which they gave their name. The Dragonnades drove thousands of French Protestants out of France.--Cf. Tylor, _The Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century._

DRAGON'S BLOOD, or GUM DRAGON, a resinous juice, usually obtained by incision from various tropical plants, as _Cal[)a]mus Draco_, _Dracaena Draco_, _Pterocarpus Draco_, &c. It varies in composition, and is often much adulterated. It is opaque, of a reddish-brown colour, brittle, and has a smooth shining conchoidal fracture. It is soluble in alcohol and oil, but scarcely so in water. It is used for colouring varnishes, for staining marble, leather, and wood, and for tooth tinctures.

DRAGON TREE (_Dracaena Draco_), a tree-like liliaceous plant, with a stem simple or divided at top, and in old age often much branched. It is a native of the Canaries, and yields the resin known as dragon's blood. It is often grown in greenhouses.

DRAGOON', a kind of mounted soldier, so called originally from his musket (_dragon_) having on the muzzle of it the head of a dragon. At one time dragoons served both as mounted and foot soldiers, but now only as the former. In the British army there are _heavy_ and _light dragoons_. The first dragoon regiment, the Scots Greys, was formed in 1681.

DRAGUIGNAN (dr[.a]-g[=e]-ny[:a]n),a town of Southern France since 1793, capital of the department of Var, in a beautiful valley, 41 miles north-east of Toulon. It has some interesting buildings, and manufactures of silk, soap, and leather. Pop. 9974.

DRAINAGE. The term comprises the drainage of areas of country by rivers and streams, the reclamation of areas from the sea, and country formerly marshy, and the provision of culverts and pipe-drains to buildings and towns.

The Fens in Lincolnshire are a notable example of a comprehensive system of drainage by means of open ditches (locally called 'drains'), into which the surplus water is lifted by means of wind- and steam-pumps.

Low-lying or flat country often requires a considerable amount of drainage, which is carried out by means of a regular system of earthenware pipes, laid 2 to 3 feet deep, and from 15 to 35 feet apart. These pipes are porous, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, laid with butt joints, and lead into larger mains, and thence by open ditches to streams.

A method recently introduced consists in drawing a pointed cylindrical tool, 2 inches in diameter, through the ground at the required depth. This tool is dependent from a thin steel plate, which connects it with the carriage above, so that it can be drawn underground in any desired direction. This system is economical in first cost, but its useful life is considerably less than that of a piped drain, and its use is obviously confined to soils of the heavier variety.

In considering the provision of drainage to water-logged or low-lying land, every care should first be taken to improve the existing natural means of drainage, such as deepening and cleaning out streams and ditches, and removing obstructions.

It should be borne in mind that the object of land drainage is not only to remove the surplus water, but to promote a free and natural circulation of water in the soil, and to allow the mineral constituents of the water to reach the plant roots.

In the drainage of buildings, glazed socketed stoneware pipes are used, varying in diameter from 3 to 9 inches, laid straight in plan and in longitudinal section, and laid to falls, calculated to give a minimum velocity of 3 feet per second when flowing half full. These are laid in trenches, with inspection chambers at all changes in direction, and should be laid on and surrounded with concrete. In bad ground, or under dwelling houses, cast-iron pipes are employed, with special turned and bored joints. In towns these drains lead into the public sewers, which are similar stoneware pipes from 6 to 18 inches in diameter, larger sizes being constructed in brickwork or concrete, and either circular or egg-shaped form. In populous areas these sewers attain very large dimensions, the northern outfall sewers of London consisting of five parallel sewers, each 9 feet in diameter. See _Draining_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. S. Mitchell, _Handbook of Land Drainage_; Moore and Silcock, _Sanitary Engineering_; Gilbert Thomson, _Modern Sanitary Engineering_.

DRAINAGE TUBES are fenestrated india-rubber tubes used in surgery to effect the gradual removal of the contents of a suppurating cavity. The inner end of the tube is in the cavity, and the outer end projects above the skin surface, and is usually fixed by a stitch or safety-pin, and covered with suitable dressings.

DRAINING, in agriculture, a method of improving the soil by withdrawing the superfluous water from it by means of channels that are generally covered over. Plants cannot thrive unless there is free circulation of air and water round their roots. The successful practice of draining in a great measure depends on a proper knowledge of the superficial strata, of their situation, relative degrees of porosity, &c. Some strata allow water to pass through them, while others more impervious force it to run or filtrate along their surfaces till it reaches more level ground below. In general, where the grounds are in a great measure flat and the soils of materials which retain the excess of moisture, they require artificial means of drainage to render them capable of yielding good crops whether of grain or grass. The wetness of land, which makes it inferior for agricultural purposes, may appear not only as surface-water but as water which flows through the lower strata, and to draw off these there are the two distinct operations of surface-draining and under-draining. The rudest form of open drains are the deep furrows lying between high-backed ridges, and meant to carry off the surplus water after the soil is completely saturated, but in doing so they generally carry off also much of the best of the soil and of the manure which has been spread upon it. The ordinary ditch is a common form of water-course useful in certain cases, as in hill pastures. But covered drains at a depth of 4 feet or so are the common forms in draining agricultural lands. They are generally either _stone-drains_ or _tile-drains_. Stone-drains are either formed on the plan of open culverts of various forms, or of small stones in sufficient quantity to permit a free and speedy filtration of the water through them. The box-drain, for instance, is formed of flat stones neatly arranged in the bottom of the trench, the whole forming an open tube. In tile-drains, tiles or pipes of burnt clay are used for forming the conduits. They possess all the qualities which are required in the formation of drains, affording a free ingress to water, while they effectually exclude earth, as well as other injurious substances, and vermin. Drainage tiles and pipes have been made in a great variety of forms, the earliest of which, since the introduction of thorough draining, was the horse-shoe tile, so called from its shape. These should always rest on soles, or flats of burned clay. Pipe tiles, which combine the sole and cover in one piece, have been made of various shapes, but the best form appears to be the cylinder. An important department of draining is the draining off of the waters which are the sources of springs. The judicious application of a few simple drains, made to communicate with the watery layers, will often dry swamps of great extent, where large sums of money, expended in forming open drains in the swamp itself, would leave it but little improved. In the laying out of drains the first point to be determined is the place of outfall, which should always afford a free and clear outlet to the drains, and must necessarily be at the lowest point of the land to be drained. The next point to be determined is the position of the minor drains. In the laying out of these the surface of each field must be regarded as being made up of one or more planes, as the case may be, for each of which the drains should be laid out separately. Level lines are to be set out a little below the upper edge of each of these planes, and the drains must then be made to cross these lines at right angles. By this means the drains will run in the line of the greatest slope, no matter how distorted the surface of the field may be. All the minor drains should be made to discharge obliquely into mains or submains, and not directly into an open ditch or water-course. As a general rule, there should be a main to receive the waters of the minor drains from every 5 acres. The advantages of drainage are obvious. In the first place it brings the soil into a more suitable condition for the growth of plants, aiding in producing the finely divided and porous state which allows the roots and rootlets to spread themselves at will in order to obtain the needed supplies of food, air, and moisture. It also allows the sun's rays to produce their full effect on the soil and plants. In the presence of stagnant water a great part of this effect would be lost. See _Drainage_.

DRAIN-TRAP, a contrivance to prevent the escape of foul air from drains, while allowing the passage of water into them. They are of various forms. In the traps represented below it will be seen that there must always be a certain quantity of water maintained to bar the way against the escape of the gas from the drain or sewer. When additional liquid is conveyed to the trap, there is, of course, an overflow into the drain. In older types of drains the gas was prevented from escaping by a metal plate thrown obliquely over the drain mouth and dipping into the water in the vessel beyond it.

DRAKE, Sir Francis, an English navigator, born at Tavistock, in Devonshire, in 1539, or according to some authorities in 1545. He served as a sailor in a coasting vessel, and afterwards joined Sir John Hawkins in his last expedition against the Spaniards (1567), losing nearly all he possessed in that unfortunate enterprise. Having gathered a number of adventurers round him, he contrived to fit out a vessel in which he made two successful cruises to the West Indies in 1570 and 1571. Next year, with two small ships, he again sailed for the Spanish Main, captured the cities of Nombre de Dios and Vera Cruz, and took a rich booty which he brought safely home. In 1577 Drake made another expedition to the Spanish Main, having this time command of five ships. On this the most famous of his voyages Drake passed the Straits of Magellan, plundered all along the coasts of Chile and Peru, sacked several ports, and captured a galleon laden with silver, gold, and jewels, to the value of perhaps L200,000. He then ran north as far as 48deg N. lat., seeking a passage to the Atlantic, but was compelled to return to Port San Francisco on account of the cold. He then steered for the Moluccas, and holding straight across the Indian Ocean doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Plymouth 3rd Nov., 1580, being thus the first of the English circumnavigators. As there was no war between England and Spain, the proceedings of Drake had a somewhat dubious character, but the queen maintained that they were lawful reprisals for the action of the Spaniards, and showed her favour to Drake by knighting him on board his own ship. Five years afterwards Drake was again attacking the Spaniards in the Cape Verde Islands and in the West Indies, and in 1588 particularly distinguished himself as vice-admiral in the conflict with the Spanish Armada. In 1593 he represented Plymouth in Parliament. His later expeditions, that in 1595 against the Spanish West Indies and that to Panama, were not so successful, and his death, which took place on 28th Jan., 1596, at sea off Porto Bello, was hastened by disappointment.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. S. Corbett, _Sir Francis Drake_ (English Men of Action Series), and _Drake and the Tudor Navy_.

DRAKENBERG MOUNTAINS, a range of South Africa forming the western frontier of Natal, and rising to the height of 11,000 feet, a continuation of the Quathlamba range.

DRAMA (Gr. _drama_, action, from _dr[=a]n_, to act or do), a form of art which imitates action by introducing real persons to represent the fictitious characters, and to carry on the story by means of action and dialogue.

Man is naturally an imitative animal, and some crude form of drama must have been in existence in very early times. We can see the origins of drama in many of the games played by children, where important events such as war, marriage, and sacrifice are represented in song and dance. In Greece, the cradle of drama as of everything that is good, there must have been in prehistoric times war-dances which formed the basis of tragedy, and rough vintage revel dances which formed the basis of comedy.

_Greek Drama._--The Greek drama was religious in its origin. It arose from the dithyrambs or songs composed in honour of Dionysus, the god of all vegetation, though identified most closely with the vine. When vegetation died in winter, this was considered to be the death of Dionysus; when it bloomed anew in the spring, this was thought to be the god's resurrection. The one event was celebrated with gloomy song and dance, and the other with merry revels and crude indecency. The history of Greek drama is the history of the decline and fall of the chorus. At first the chorus was the whole play, and in the _Supplices_ of Aeschylus, the earliest extant tragedy, the chorus played a predominating part. According to tradition, Thespis (about 535 B.C.) introduced for the first time a masked actor, who carried on a dialogue with the leader of the chorus. Aeschylus introduced a second actor, and Sophocles a third. It is thought that there never were more than three actors, but, of course, duplication of parts was permitted. There were also frequently mute characters (_k[=o]pha pros[=o]pa_) on the stage. Dialogue became more important in the later plays of Aeschylus, and chorus became less important; Sophocles developed his dialogue in masterly style, though his choruses are among the most beautiful things in all Greek poetry; in Euripides the choruses, however lovely in themselves, are less an integral part of the drama than they were in the plays of his predecessors. In fact the chorus acted as a clog on the freedom of the dramatist, who wished to develop exciting situations and depict realistic characters. In comedy the same decline of the chorus is to be found; in the _Acharnians_, the earliest comedy, the chorus is very prominent; in the _Plutus_, the last comedy extant, it is comparatively unimportant. Sumptuary laws had something to do with this, and there is a vast difference between the magnificently apparelled chorus in the _Birds_, and the chorus in the _Lysistrata_, which represented elderly Athenian men and women in their everyday costume.

Greek tragedies were usually presented in the form of trilogies, that is, in sets of three plays all dealing with the same subject. To these was added, as a rule, a fourth play, known as a satyr-play. The _Cyclops_ of Euripides is the only example extant of this kind of play. It is not very amusing, though it contains a certain amount of horse-play and high spirits. The satyr-play was intended to lighten the gloom of the three preceding tragedies. We have one complete trilogy preserved--the magnificent _Oresteia_ of Aeschylus, consisting of the _Agamemnon_, _Choephoroe_, and _Eumenides_--plays which are bracketed with _Lear_ and _Othello_ as the highest and most majestic of all tragedies. In later times the three plays of the trilogy dealt with different subjects. The tragedies to be performed were carefully selected by some of the Athenian magistrates, and at the festival prizes were given for the best tragedy, on the recommendation of a carefully chosen jury. Comedies were presented one at a time; prizes were offered for the best of them also. Greek tragic actors wore long flowing robes, and added to their height by means of the _cothurnus_ or thick-soled boot; it is believed that they wore masks with some sort of speaking-trumpet in the mouth, so that their words would be audible to the vast audience which assembled in the theatre, a huge circular open-air amphitheatre.

Each of the three Greek tragic writers whose work has been preserved is supreme in his own way. Aeschylus's lyric dramas are among the greatest writings of all time; the plays of Sophocles are masterpieces of deft construction, of well-woven plot, and ironic dialogue; and his choruses are lyrics of the greatest beauty. Aeschylus is more titanic; Sophocles is more humane. Euripides, the latest of the three, is a great poet and a champion of the weak, such as women and slaves; moreover, he sees deeply into men's hearts. He is really the founder of romantic drama, through the Roman Seneca, who imitated him. Of Greek comic poets we only possess one, but he is a host in himself. Aristophanes is a Gargantuan mirth-maker; he bestrides the narrow world like a Colossus. He plays with a master's hand upon every note in the whole comic gamut. His works, owing to the conditions of the old comedy, were very frequently political and highly personal in their tone. The later plays are less so. The _Birds_, _Clouds_, and _Frogs_ are among the very greatest comic creations; only a little less great is the _Lysistrata_, where a serious purpose is veiled by intense indecency. The old comedy, however, was essentially the product of its own age; it did not invite, or even permit, imitation. The new comedy, of which Philemon, Menander, and Diphilus were the principal writers, gradually supplanted it. Their plays were more or less romantic comedies with carefully constructed plots. They are all lost, but we may gain some idea of them from Plautus and Terence, and from the fragments which have been found, some of them fairly recently.

_Roman Drama._--Roman drama is not intrinsically good; it is in many respects a weak imitation of Greek drama, but it has been very much more important in its influence. Early English, French, and Italian dramatists all turned to Seneca as a model for tragedy, and to Plautus and Terence as models for comedy. This was partly due to the fact that though most of them had small Latin, they had less Greek; but it was partly because the Latin writers were easier to imitate. Italy had native farces, known as Atellan Fables, which were not without their influence on the development of comedy. These plays were broadly farcical, and dealt almost entirely with country life. The two great Roman comedy writers, Plautus and Terence, based their work, however, upon the new comedy of Greece, especially upon the plays of Menander and Diphilus. Plautus is decidedly coarse at times, and sometimes his fun is too much like that of a fourth-form boy at a public school, but his work is wholesome and vigorous, and he is a more creative and virile writer than Terence. Terence's plays are somewhat weak dramatically, but are written in a style of great beauty. He was a careful literary craftsman. Seneca, the only Roman tragic writer, had an immense influence on later dramatists. It is hard to account for this. He based his work upon Euripides, but he suppressed everything that makes Euripides tender and human. Senecan tragedy abounded in bloodshed and horrors; the speeches are full of pompous rant, and their metre is most monotonous. Some of the choruses are good rhetorical writing, though scarcely great poetry. Seneca's influence pervades all our early tragedy; it is clearly seen in _Gorboduc_ and in Jonson's _Sejanus_ and _Catiline_; even Shakespeare is not without traces of it. As the Roman Empire declined so did the Roman stage; finally nothing was performed save pantomime, in the proper sense of the word, where everything was done in dumb-show. This appeared to content the populace of the Roman Empire, even as the cinema seems to satisfy the citizens of a later and perhaps greater empire.

_Mediaeval Drama._--There is no drama between the death of Seneca and the Renaissance, unless we except the six curious 'comedies' of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim (born about A.D. 935). These plays are based upon Terence, though they do not follow their model closely. They are, of course, written in Latin. They have some vivid dramatic touches, and frequent felicities of expression. They were probably intended for recitation, not for representation on the stage. They must be regarded as an isolated phenomenon. The Church for long discouraged drama, but ended by adapting it to its own purposes. As in Greece, therefore, drama originated in England from religion. The priests impressed certain events in sacred history upon the minds of their congregation by means of dramatic performances which at first took place actually in the church. Thus the removal of the stone from the mouth of the sepulchre and the discovery of the empty tomb was performed at Easter, and the finding of the Babe in the manger by the three Magi was represented at Epiphany. It is easy to understand how performances of this sort arose from the singing of suitable anthems on festival days. The Oberammergau passion-play is a somewhat sophisticated representative of these liturgical plays; it cannot be called a survival, as it only dates back to 1633. These mystery-plays, so called because they were produced by the trade-guilds (Lat. _ministerium_, a trade), were eventually brought out into the market-place on wagons, and were moved round to various 'stations' in the town, different plays being performed at each station. A distinction is sometimes made between mystery- and miracle-plays, the former being defined as dealing with gospel events only, while the latter deal with incidents derived from the legends of the saints. Several collections of these plays survive--the Wakefield, Chester, and Coventry plays. They are written in a lively fashion, and are often naively humorous, the most sacred Bible characters being introduced along with English yokels and crudely comic persons. The next development of the drama was the morality play or allegory; the well-known _Everyman_ is the most finished specimen of this kind of play which we possess. Here personifications of Virtues and Vices formed the dramatis personae; the Devil was usually included in the cast. Moralities were in ways less crude than mysteries, as they consisted of an allegory worked out by means of a more or less continuous plot, while mysteries consisted merely of a series of isolated scenes. The interlude is another early species of drama; it marks a still further advance. Interludes were both farcical and theological in their subjects, and played an important part in the controversies at the time of the Reformation. John Heywood (1497-1580) is the most important writer of interludes, the controversial plays of John Bale (1495-1563) serving to link the interlude to the regular drama, which began gradually to spring up.

_Elizabethan Drama._--The first English comedy, _Ralph Roister Doister_, appeared in 1551. It is by Nicolas Udall, and is based upon the _Miles Gloriosus_ of Plautus. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, a more native production, thought to have been by John Still, who was master of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Bishop of Bath and Wells, appeared about 1566. Drama now improved rapidly, and was soon to attain perfection in Shakespeare. Marlowe, Kyd, Greene, Lyly, Nash, Lodge, and Peele all helped to prepare the way. The greatest of these is Marlowe, who died at the age of twenty-nine, leaving behind him the great plays _Tamburlaine_ (1588), _Faustus_, and _Edward II_. In his development of blank verse he contributed greatly to the success of the drama. The earliest tragedy, _Gorboduc_ (1562), is incredibly stiff and wooden in its versification. Marlowe made of blank verse an instrument that would sound any note of pathos or sublimity. In the plays of Shakespeare (1564-1616) drama reached its greatest height. In comedy, tragedy, history, in handling dramatic situations, and in liquid perfection of verse, he is supreme. Like the very greatest masters, he founded no school, and his contemporaries owe little to him. While they are all put in the shade by his myriad-minded genius, they are all partakers with him in the glory of their age, and are all great in themselves. Jonson (1573-1637) is one of the most important, as he to some extent founded a school and exercised considerable influence over later writers. He was a scholarly and laborious playwright, who over-elaborated some of his work, but who was a masterly adept at constructing a play, and a vigorous realist. Chapman (1559-1634), Dekker (1570-1641), and Marston (1575-1634) were all good workmanlike dramatists. Beaumont and Fletcher produced between them a great body of work, some of inferior quality, but all of great power. In some respects their work is less unlike that of Shakespeare than the work of other Elizabethans. Middleton, Webster, Tourneur, Thomas Heywood, and Massinger are all excellent in their way, Massinger in particular being a master of stage-craft. Shirley and Ford conclude the list of the great Jacobean dramatists. The Puritans caused the theatres to be closed in 1642.

_Spanish and French Drama._--Meanwhile a similar outburst of dramatic activity was taking place on the Continent. In Spain, Lope de Vega (1562-1634) wrote a prodigious quantity of plays, and wrote them with much brilliance. Calderon wrote some beautiful plays, several of which have been translated by Edward Fitzgerald. Cervantes, though much better known as a novelist, wrote many good plays. The Spanish school directly inspired Corneille (1606-1684) to write his play _Le Cid_, and so begin the great age of classical French tragedy. Racine (1639-1700) is the other great name. French classical drama, though somewhat fettered by its observance of laws that were wrongly considered essential, is extremely dignified and beautiful. In Moli[`e]re (1622-73) France possesses the greatest of all writers of society comedies. He is as supreme in his kingdom as Shakespeare is in his empire. He borrowed from his predecessors with all the licence of genius, but he payed usurious interest on his borrowings.

_Restoration Drama._--When the theatres were reopened after the Restoration, many dramatists began to write. Restoration comedy was largely based on Moli[`e]re, who was brutalized by Wycherley, and adapted but not improved by Congreve. Congreve was, however, a master of sparkling dialogue, and in one play, _The Way of the World_, he has shown himself not unworthy of comparison with his master. Vanbrugh and Farquhar are the other two important writers of comedies; all their comedies are more or less disfigured by cynicism and immorality, the reaction after the Puritan restraint. Restoration tragedy is much less important than Restoration comedy. Otway, Lee, and Southerne are its chief exponents.

_Eighteenth Century Drama._--Some of these dramatists bring us into the eighteenth century, which was not on the whole prolific in good plays. Fielding wrote many amusing farces, but all were more or less hack-work. At a later period Foote, Cumberland, and the two Colmans wrote good acting plays, which have not lived. The two plays of Goldsmith and several of the plays of Sheridan still hold the stage. Sheridan owed much to the Restoration dramatists, especially Vanbrugh, but as he improved his originals in many respects, and made them much more presentable in decent society, he is entitled to most of the reputation he long enjoyed.

In France, Marivaux (1678-1763) wrote sentimental comedies, while Beaumarchais, whose own life was more exciting and varied than most plays, wrote comedies with brilliant plots. In Italy, Maffei, Goldoni, and Alfieri are notable dramatists; the last named wrote propaganda in the disguise of tragedy. In Germany, Lessing by precept and example inaugurated the 'romantic movement'; Schiller and Goethe are the two greatest names associated with the stage. _Wallenstein_ in particular is a good chronicle-play, while _Faust_ is considered one of the greatest of all German plays.

_Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Drama._--Victor Hugo led the Romantic movement in France, and wrote many great plays, such as _Hernani_ and _Ruy Blas_. De Musset wrote his plays, which he called _proverbes_, under the same influence, and later followers of this school are Rostand and the Belgian M. Maurice Maeterlinck. The French dramatists Augier, Scribe, and Sardou had an overwhelming influence on the English stage, not altogether for its good. English drama was at a low ebb in the middle of the nineteenth century. Lytton's plays, though sometimes performed still, are extremely theatrical. Boucicault, who made a great success by dramatizing 'the pathos of Paddy', is not a great writer. H. J. Byron was an inveterate punster and writer of burlesques of no value. One of his plays, _Our Boys_, was acted for many years. Robertson is the most outstanding author of what is known as 'the cup and saucer' school of comedy. His plays are very much acting plays; they are not literature, and are quite removed from real life. Gilbert was a man of great gifts, but though some of his farces and comedies are good, he was not a master of drama as he was of _libretti_ writing. He did little to improve the drama of his day. Sir A. W. Pinero began his career as a dramatist under the aegis of Robertson, but continued it under that of Ibsen. Ibsen (1828-1906) exercised a not altogether wholesome influence upon English drama for a considerable time. His plays are extremely well-constructed, and he refused to tolerate many conventions, such as asides and soliloquies. In many of his plays he adopted the retrospective method, where the plot consists not so much in anything being done as in the gradual discovery of what has been done long before the rise of the curtain. Sophocles had done this most skilfully in _Oedipus Tyrannus_, but Ibsen carried the method to perfection in _The Wild Duck_ and _Rosmersholm_. All Ibsen's plays are more or less unpleasant, and he did not make many of his characters sympathetic. Pinero, after writing several farces, wrote _The Second Mrs. Tanqueray_ (1893), a masterpiece after the style of Ibsen. _His House in Order_ is a cleverly constructed example of the retrospective method. H. A. Jones (born 1851) has written many excellent and extremely powerful plays, of which the best known are _The Liars_ and _The Case of Rebellious Susan_. G. Bernard Shaw (born 1856), who combines some of the qualities of a Greek sophist with some of the foibles of a modern Irishman, has written some amusing plays, though others have been spoilt by his tendency to turn them into propaganda. Galsworthy has written plays of great earnestness; in some he has neglected the Aristotelian maxim that every play must have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Sir James Barrie has accumulated a large fortune by means of his plays, and in one at least, _Peter Pan_, he has made a bid for immortality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. H. Butcher, _Aristotle's_ _Theory of Poetry and Fine Art_; A. E. Haigh, _The Attic Theatre_; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_; A. W. Pollard, _English Miracle Plays_; F. S. Boas, _Shakespeare and his Predecessors_; A. C. Bradley, _Shakespearean Tragedy_; Sir W. Raleigh, _Shakespeare_ (English Men of Letters Series); Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_; K. Mantzius, _History of Theatrical Art_; A. S. Rappoport, _The English Drama_ (Temple Primers); T. H. Dickinson, _The Contemporary Drama of England_; F. Bruneti[`e]re, _Les ['E]poques du th['e][^a]tre francais 1636-1850_; A. Filon, _The Modern French Drama_; A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_; G. H. Lewes, _The Spanish Drama_.

DRAMMEN, or DRAM, a seaport of Norway, in a valley on both sides of the Drammen, at its mouth in the Drammenfiord, 25 miles S.S.W. of Christiania. It has manufactures of leather, soap, ropes, sail-cloth, earthenware, and tobacco; and is the second port in the kingdom for the export of timber.

DRAPER, John William, American chemist and physiologist, born at Liverpool 1811, died 1882. He went to America in 1833, and was successively professor of physical science in Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia, and of natural history, chemistry, and physiology in the University of New York. He made many contributions to scientific literature, and devoted much attention to the chemical action of light, in connection with which he effected some discoveries. Among his chief works is his _History of the Intellectual Development of Europe_ (2 vols., 1863). His son, Henry Draper (born 1837, died 1882), chemist and astronomer, made some valuable researches on the spectra of the heavenly bodies.

DRAUGHTS, a game resembling chess played on a board divided into sixty-four checkered squares. Each of the two players is provided with twelve pieces or 'men' placed on every alternate square at each end of the board. The men are moved forward diagonally to the right or left one square at a time, the object of each player being to capture all his opponent's men, or to hem them in so that they cannot move. A piece can be captured only when the square on the diagonal line behind it is unoccupied. When a player succeeds in moving a piece to the farther end of the board (the crown-head), that piece becomes a king, and has the power of moving or capturing diagonally backwards or forwards. When it so happens that neither of the players has sufficient advantage in force or position to enable him to win, the game is drawn. _Checkers_ is the common American name of the game.

The game does not offer the same scope for brilliance and originality as the sister game of chess, but still is much more profound than is generally supposed. It has been cultivated in Britain, and especially in Scotland, certainly for over two hundred years, and has served as a field of exercise for some extremely able intellects, which but for it might hardly have been exercised at all. Among famous players are: Andrew Anderson, of Carluke, who published a celebrated work on the game in 1852; James Wyllie, the 'Herd Laddie', who travelled over the world playing exhibition matches, and was for many years world's champion; Robert Martins, English champion about 1870, who played several matches with Wyllie; R. D. Yates, a young American player, who defeated Wyllie for the championship, but shortly afterwards gave up the game; James Ferrie, of Coatbridge, who in 1894 defeated Wyllie and became champion, to be defeated in turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh in 1896; Robert Stewart, of Fifeshire, many times Scottish champion, and probably the strongest player now living.

The Scottish tourney, held annually in Glasgow since 1893, except for a few years on account of the War, has done much to stimulate interest in the game. The English Draughts Association also holds a biennial tourney. Several international matches have taken place between Scotland and England, the first in 1884. This, like nearly all the other matches, was won by Scotland. In 1905 a very strong British team visited America and decisively defeated a side representing the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: James Lees, _A Guide to the Game of Draughts_. Early works by Payne, Sturges, Drummond, Hay, Anderson, and Bowen are now very scarce. There are several periodicals devoted to the game; and some newspapers, notably _The Glasgow Weekly Herald_, give it a column weekly.

DRAVE, or DRAU (dr[:a]'ve, drou), a European river which rises in Tyrol, flows E.S.E. across the north of Illyria and the south of Styria, and between Hungary on the left and Croatia and Slavonia on the right, and, after a course of nearly 400 miles, joins the Danube 14 miles east of Essek. It is navigable for about 200 miles.

DRAVID'IAN, a term applied to the vernacular tongues of the great majority of the inhabitants of Southern India, and to the people themselves who inhabited India previous to the advent of the Aryans. The affinities of the Dravidian languages are uncertain. The family consists of the Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, Malay[^a]lam, Tulu, Tuda, Gond, Rajmahal, Oraon, &c. Only the first four mentioned have a literature, that of the Tamil being the oldest and the most important. Originally the word Dravidian was a purely philological term, but it is now used in an ethnological sense as well.--Cf. R. Caldwell, _Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages_.

DRAWBACK, usually a certain amount of duties or customs dues paid back or remitted to an importer when he exports goods that he has previously imported and paid duty on, as, for instance, tobacco, &c.; or a certain amount of excise paid back or allowed on the exportation of home manufactures.

DRAWBRIDGE, a bridge with a lifting floor, such as was formerly used for crossing the ditches of fortresses, or any movable bridge over a navigable channel where the height of the roadway is insufficient to allow vessels to pass underneath. Modern drawbridges across rivers, canals, the entrances of docks, &c., are generally made to open horizontally, and the movable portion is called a bascule, balance, or lifting bridge, a turning, swivel, or swing bridge, or a rolling bridge, in accordance with the mode in which it is made to open. Swing-bridges are usually divided into two parts meeting in the middle, and each moved on pivots on the opposite sides of the channel, or they may move as a whole on a pivot in the middle of the channel. Rolling bridges are suspended from a structure high above the water, and are propelled backwards and forwards by means of rollers.

DRAWING is the art of representing upon a flat surface the forms of objects, and their positions in relation to each other. The idea of nearness or distance is given by the aid of perspective, foreshortening, and gradation, and in the same way the three-dimensional quality of objects is expressed. The term drawing is sometimes limited to the representing of the forms of objects in outline, with or without the shading necessary to develop roundness or _modelling_. But the term has a wider significance. Any arrangement of colours or tones which serve to express form, and the relation of one form to another, is really drawing; and thus a painting may show fine draughtsmanship without line being used at all. Drawing is not a matter of the medium employed, but of the manner in which it is used. It is, however, convenient to classify drawings according to mediums, each of which produces its effect in a different way. Thus drawing may be divided into (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk, pencil, or charcoal drawing; (3) crayon and pastel drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush; (5) architectural or mechanical drawing. _Pen drawings_ are often confined to pure outlines; an appearance of _relief_ or projection being given by thickening or doubling the lines on the shadow side, or they may be shaded by combination of lines. _Chalk, pencil, and charcoal drawings_ may be in line or tone. When the chalk is powdered and rubbed in with a stump, large masses and broad effects can be produced with much rapidity. The best draughtsmen, however, rarely use a stump. In _crayon and pastel drawings_ the colours of the objects represented are more or less completely represented in the medium. _Drawings shaded with the brush_ are outlined with the pencil or pen, the shading being laid on or _washed in_ with the brush in tints of Indian ink, sepia, or colour. This was the method of the early water-colour painters in England. _Architectural and mechanical drawings_ are those in which the proportions of a building, machine, &c., are accurately set out for the guidance of the constructor; objects are, in general, delineated by geometric or orthographic projection.

The great schools of painting all show excellent drawing, though differing in character. In Italy the Florentine school combined study of the antique with anatomical research, and produced many vigorous and expressive draughtsmen, notably Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci. The Roman school, under the influence of Raphael, sacrificed vigour and expressiveness to elegance and the representation of ideal form. In the Lombard school a severe style of drawing is seen through harmonious colouring, and in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the richness of the colour. The German and Dutch schools excel in a careful and minute style of naturalistic drawing, combined with good colour. The French school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later period its style betrayed a tendency to mannerism. David introduced, again, a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the antique, and these are qualities which distinguish his school (the so-called Classical school), of which Ingres is the leading representative, from the Romantic and Eclectic schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is naturalistic rather than academic, but the work of Gainsborough and Alfred Stevens is comparable with that of earlier masters.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ruskin, _Elements of Drawing_; Spiers, _Architectural Drawing_; R. S. Bowers, _Drawing and Design for Craftsmen_; J. H. Brown, _Sketching without a Master_; Harold Speed, _Drawing_.

DRAWING-ROOM, a room appropriated for the reception of company; a room in which distinguished personages hold levees, or private persons receive parties. _Court drawing-rooms_ are those assemblies held from time to time for the reception or presentation to the sovereign of such ladies as by custom, right, or courtesy are admissible. Receptions at which men are presented are known as _levees_. The sovereign sometimes deputes a member of the royal family to receive, in which case presentations are equivalent to those made to the sovereign in person.

DRAWINGS. The term 'drawings' is usually taken to mean drawings of an architectural or engineering nature, such as the plans of a new building prepared by an architect, or the designs for engineering works, or for machinery produced by an engineer.

Three methods are commonly made use of in preparing drawings. (1) Orthographic, which represents the subject under consideration in one plane only, and from which dimensions may be scaled off, and which is the normal method of preparing an engineering drawing. (2) Perspective or radial projection is made use of by an architect for displaying the elevations of a building, and gives a truer appreciation of the actual appearance of the building than can be obtained by orthographic projection. (3) Isometric projection enables one to show the length, breadth, and thickness of an object drawn to scale on the one drawing. Such a drawing is really composed of three sets of parallel straight lines, and is not strictly a true representation of the object as it would appear to the eye. It has the great advantage, however, that measurements may be directly scaled from it, and lines which are parallel in the object are also parallel in the drawing.

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born in 1563, is said to have studied at Oxford, and afterwards held a commission in the army. The poem by which his name is chiefly remembered is his _Polyolbion_ (1622, reprinted in 1890), a sort of topographical description of England. It is generally extremely accurate in its details, with, at the same time, many passages of true poetic fire and beauty. Other works are his _Nymphidia, the Court of Fairy_; _The Barons' Wars_; _The Legend of Great Cromwell_; _The Battle of Agincourt_; besides numerous legends, sonnets, and other pieces. He died in 1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.--Cf. O. Elton, _Michael Drayton: a Critical Study_.

DRAYTON, MARKET, or DRAYTON-IN-HALES, a town, England, county Salop, 18 miles northeast of Shrewsbury. It has a church, supposed to have been erected, with exception of the steeple, in the reign of William I. There are paper and hair-cloth manufactories. Pop. 5167.

DREAMS, trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep. The principal feature of the state of dreaming is the absence of conscious control over the current of thought, so that all kinds of fantastic notions, which in the waking state would at once be put aside, are woven into the texture of the dream. The usual content of dreams consists of aspirations or dreads, which the dreamer had recently entertained or experienced, mixed up with incidents which excited intense emotion at some earlier period of the individual's history, and especially in early childhood. The memory of unpleasant experiences, such, for example, as the horrors of trench warfare, which is repressed in the waking state, tends to force itself on the individual's attention when the conscious control is relaxed in sleep, and to give rise to disturbing dreams which may become so intense as to interfere with sleep and cause insomnia. The only rational remedy for this distressing trouble is to discover the painful incident and persuade the patient frankly to face it and not 'try to forget'. In recent years S. Freud has placed the study of dreams upon a scientific basis. He maintains that dreams represent the fulfilment of wishes. There is usually an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye, but this excites no surprise in the dreamer. Occasionally, however, intellectual efforts are made during sleep which would be difficult to surpass in the waking state. It is said that Condillac often brought to a conclusion in his dreams reasonings on which he had been employed during the day; and that Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in his dreams concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his mind. Coleridge composed from 200 to 300 lines during a dream: the beautiful fragment of _Kubla Khan_, which was all he was able to commit to paper when he awoke, remains a specimen of that dream-poem. Dreams are subjective phenomena dependent on natural causes. They are retrospective and resultant instead of being prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion has, however, prevailed in all ages and among all nations; and hence the common practice of divination or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as presages of coming events. Some authorities declare that all our dreams take place when we are in process of going to sleep or becoming awake, and that during deep sleep the mind is totally inactive. This is denied by the majority of philosophers, and with apparent reason.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Havelock Ellis, _The World of Dreams_; S. Freud, _The Interpretation of Dreams_; W. H. R. Rivers, _Instinct and the Unconscious_.

DREDGING, a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The most simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large leather bag attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or sweep-pole planted in a boat. Much more effective is the steam dredging-machine now in common use. It has a succession of strong iron buckets on an endless chain, which travels on a frame whose lower end is vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it works. It is worked by steam, and the buckets tear up the matter at the bottom, raise it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel. Various forms of steam-pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes are the chief features, are also used. The River Clyde, from being a shallow stream, has been converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels up to Glasgow. Dredging rivers for gold is now largely carried on; and the gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied. The operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other objects, usually for scientific observation, is also called dredging. The oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging has of late assumed great importance as making us acquainted with the life of deep-sea areas.

DREISENSSIA, a genus of bivalve mollusc allied to the mussels. One species (_D. polymorpha_) is a native of the streams which flow into the Caspian, but has been accidentally introduced into most rivers and estuaries of Europe, including those of Britain, where it is now abundant.

DRELINCOURT (dr[.e]-la[n.]-k[:o]r), Charles, a French Calvinistic minister, born at Sedan 1595, died at Paris 1669. He was the author of many controversial works, and of _Consolations against_ _the fear of Death_. To promote the sale of the English translation of this work, De Foe wrote his _Apparition of Mrs. Veal_.

DRENTHE (dren'te), a province of Holland, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq. miles. It is in general more elevated than the surrounding provinces, especially in the centre. The soil is generally poor, and the surface largely consists of heath and morass, but the province is famed for its horses and cattle. Drenthe is remarkable for the great number of so-called 'giants' graves' or barrows scattered over the country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 200,951.

DRES'DEN, the capital of the Republic (former kingdom) of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the River Elbe, which is here spanned by four stone bridges and an iron railway bridge. It is first mentioned in history in 1206, and has been the residence of the sovereigns since 1485; was greatly extended and embellished by Augustus the Strong (1694-1736), and rapidly increased during the nineteenth century. Among the chief sights are the museum (joined on to an older range of buildings called the Zwinger), a beautiful building containing a famous picture-gallery and other treasures; the Japanese palace (Augusteum), containing the royal library (founded by the Elector Augustus in the sixteenth century) of 570,000 volumes, besides a rich collection of manuscripts; the Johanneum, containing the collection of porcelain and the historical museum, a valuable collection of arms, armour, and domestic utensils, belonging to the Middle Ages. The palace, built about 1530, restored and remodelled externally between 1890 and 1902, and until 1918 the residence of the kings of Saxony, has also a fine interior, and contains (in what is called the Green Vault) a valuable collection of curiosities, jewels, trinkets, and works of art. The theatre is one of the finest structures of the kind in the world. The city is distinguished for its excellent educational, literary, and artistic institutions, among which are the Technical High School, much on the plan and scale of a university; the Conservatory and School of Music; and the Academy of Fine Arts. The manufactures are not unimportant, and are various in character; the china, however, for which the city is famed, is made chiefly at Meissen, 14 miles distant. The commerce is considerable, and has greatly increased since the development of the railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is the gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, which first became of importance under Augustus II, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, but owes its most valuable treasures to Augustus III, who purchased the greater portion of the gallery of the Duke of Modena for L180,000. The pictures number about 3000, and in particular comprise many fine specimens of the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Besides this fine collection the museum contains also engravings and drawings amounting to upwards of 350,000. There is also a sculpture-gallery, the Albertinum, where by casts and otherwise the progress of sculpture is exemplified from the earliest times, all the most important antiques being shown. Dresden, being thus rich in treasures of art and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is the summer resort of many foreigners. It suffered severely in the Thirty Years' War, and also in 1813, when it was the head-quarters of Napoleon's army. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the following spring. Pop. 548,308.

DRESDEN, BATTLE OF, a battle fought in 1813 (26-27th Aug.), between the French under Napoleon and the Allies under Schwarzenberg. Napoleon had come to the relief of the city, which was occupied by the French. The Allies assaulted and bombarded the city, and soon after a great pitched battle was fought (27th Aug.), the Allies being defeated.

DRESDEN CHINA, a delicate, semi-transparent, highly finished china made at Meissen, 14 miles from Dresden. The manufacture resulted from an accidental discovery made by B[:o]ttger, a young chemist, in 1710, and the vases, statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, and clocks, manufactured during the eighteenth century are highly prized.

DREUX (dr_eu_; DUROCASSIS or DROCAE of the Romans), a French town, department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, near to where it joins the Eure, 20 miles N.N.W. of Chartres. It is built at the foot of a hill crowned by a dilapidated castle, which contains a chapel, founded in 1142; to which has been added the costly mausoleum of the Orleans family. A battle took place near the town in 1562 between the Royalists under Montmorency and the Huguenots under Cond['e], in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,692.

DREYFUS, Alfred, captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the French army, was born of a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace, in 1859. In Oct., 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents to a foreign Government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the [^I]le du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence. About the middle of the same year Colonel Picquart became head of the Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a Colonel Henry in Nov., 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy, charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written the _bordereau_, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the prosecutors of Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial. Two days later M. Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headed _J'accuse_ published in the _Aurore_, made serious charges against the general staff and the Government in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June, 1898, M. Brisson succeeded M. M['e]line as Prime Minister, and next month M. Cavaignac, his War Minister, read to the Chamber several documents which he regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Dreyfus. The chief of these was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and M. Cavaignac at once resigned. In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a fresh court-martial. The court-martial, which sat at Rennes, found Dreyfus guilty with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. In 1906, when Clemenceau was Prime Minister, the sentence was annulled, and Dreyfus was reinstated in the army (as major). He was shot at by a reactionary journalist in 1908, but escaped without serious injury. In Sept., 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Dreyfus was publicly presented with the insignia of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Several times during the progress of the case France seemed on the verge of revolution.--Cf. J. Reinach, _Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus_.

DRIFFIELD, GREAT, a town, England, Yorkshire, at the head of a navigable canal communicating with the Humber at Hull. It lies in a fertile district, has an ancient parish church, and manufactures linseed-cake and manures. Pop. 5676.

DRIFT, in geology, a term applied to earth and rocks which have been conveyed by flood-action, glaciers, or floating ice and deposited over the surface of a country. It is sometimes used in a wider sense to denote all post-Pliocene sands, gravels, and clays, such as the superficial deposits shown on the 'drift' maps of the Geological Survey.

DRIFT, in mining, a horizontal tunnel or passage excavated underground that follows the course of a vein or stratum. Drift, in musketry, is the lateral deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel of the rifle; it is due to the spin of the bullet and the resistance of the air.

DRIFT SAND, sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, and blown when dry some distance inland until arrested by obstacles, round which it gradually accumulates until the heaps attain considerable dimensions, often forming dunes or sand-hills. Coast-land sometimes requires artificial protection from encroachment by drift-sand.

DRILL, a tool used for boring holes in wood, metal, stone, ivory, &c. It consists of a sharp spindle to which a circular motion is communicated by various contrivances. Drills are of various designs. For rock-boring the diamond rock-drill, an instrument with cutting edges made of bort or black diamond, is now generally adopted. See _Boring_.--Cf. Dana and Saunders, _Rock Drilling_.

DRILL is the A B C of all military movements. In the Training Manuals of the British army the word is defined as "the training of the soldier to perform certain movements as a second nature". It follows, therefore, that drill is an essential part of the training of every soldier, more especially in the early days of his training, in that without it, and without the power of movement in obedience to the expressed will of a superior given by it, a body of soldiers would be merely a collection of armed men who, however willing individually, would be incapable of carrying out collectively an order given for the general good. In the early days of our history, when fighting was largely individual, and the whole duty of a soldier was 'to do unto the other fellow as he would do unto you--and do it first' (with a club), drill, as we know it, was unknown; each man armed himself as he thought fit, and, beyond getting into some formation for the actual purpose of the assault, a battle was largely a go-as-you-please affair. In Saxon days the normal formation for the battle was the wedge; that is two men at the point followed by three, and so on till the available number was used up. This, of course, formed a solid pointed mass with considerable weight, and was used both for attack and defence. But once this formation was broken it was next to impossible to reform it. An instance of this weakness occurred at the battle of Hastings. The English were in this one and only wedge formation, officers and the better armed men at the point, and the less skilful and more indifferently armed at the base. Doubtless the troops had been got into this formation after much exertion in the way of pushing and vituperation, and, once in it, had been told on no account to break it. At a certain stage in the battle the heavily armoured Normans pretended flight; this was too much for the English, who broke their ranks and gave chase, each after his own particular source of ransom. This ended the battle; the Normans turned, and, owing to the entire inability of the English to re-form their ranks, the wedge, and with it the English army, ceased to exist: the result of want of discipline and absence of drill.

Drill and discipline are complementary to each other. In one of the battles of the Peninsular War, the 28th (now the Gloucestershire Regiment) were being hotly attacked in front by a French column. The regiment was firing in two ranks--the front rank kneeling and the rear rank standing--when suddenly a fresh attack developed from the rear. It was a matter of seconds for the commanding officer of the 28th to order the rear rank to turn about; drill and discipline did the rest, and the rear rank turned round, knelt down, and beat off the new attack. Since then the 28th has worn its badges both front and rear of its head-dresses.

Drill is an aid to discipline in that it teaches men that there is a right and a wrong way of doing a thing. Drill and the spirit arising from it has a great steadying effect on the nerves, as when in the European War the Guards Division, after being almost decimated during a German 'push', was brought out of the line and kept to steady drill for a week. To those who did not understand this appeared harsh and futile; to those who did it appeared, as it was, the best means of steadying men tried beyond endurance, and of preparing them for further efforts. Our English drill has passed through many phases in its time; but from the days when large bodies of men performed complicated manoeuvres at the executive command of one man, through the times when drill, perhaps, was considered to be the be-all and end-all of the soldier, to modern days when it is recognized as a means to an end, the guiding principle remains the same, viz. that one of the first essentials for a soldier is that he shall be so trained by drill that he shall know instinctively how to do the right thing at the right time and in the right way. Even now, when drill movements are no longer performed in face of an enemy, accuracy and attention to detail are insisted on in all parade-ground movements as part of the education of the soldier and as an aid to discipline. Drill for the soldier takes the place of the five-finger exercises for the musician. Neither of them, in itself, is of any particular value, but each adds to the efficiency of those who practise it.

DRILL (_Papio leucophaeus_), a large variety of baboon, smaller and less fierce than the mandrill, and like it a native of the coast of Guinea. The face and ears are bare and of a glossy black colour, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are also naked and of a deep copper colour.

DRILLING, the plan of sowing in parallel rows as distinguished from sowing broadcast. It was introduced into England by Jethro Tull, who invented the first implement for drilling, and published a work on the subject in 1731. The crops which are now generally drilled are turnips and flax. The first form of drill was of very simple construction, and was only adapted for potatoes, beans, peas, carrots, clover, cereals, sowing one row at a time, but now a great variety of improved implements is in use, some of which distribute artificial manure with the seed. Among the principal advantages of drilling over broadcast sowing we may mention that a considerable saving of seed is effected in the sowing of grain crops, but the great advantage is that in the case of green crops it enables the farmer more readily to clean the land both by the hand- and by the horse-hoe. To keep the soil stirred and pulverized, which can only be properly done when the crops have been drilled, favours the retention and absorption of the moisture.

DRIPSTONE, a projecting tablet or moulding over the head of a Gothic doorway, window, archway, or niche to throw off the rain. It is also called a _weather moulding_, and _label_ when it is turned square. It is of various forms; sometimes a head is used as a termination or support, in others an ornament or simple moulding is adopted.

DRIVER, Rev. Samuel Rolles, D.D., professor of Hebrew and Biblical critic, born at Southampton 2nd Oct., 1846, died in 1914. He was educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1869. In 1866 he gained the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholarship, and the Kennicott Scholarship (also for Hebrew) four years later, besides prizes for Septuagint Greek and Syriac. He was for some years a fellow and tutor of his college, and from 1876 to 1884 a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. In 1883, on the death of Dr. Pusey, he became Regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford and (_ipso facto_) a Canon of Christ Church. Of his numerous works we may mention: _A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew_ (1874); _Isaiah: his Life and Times_ (1888); _Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament_ (1891), a work suited for popular reading, which has passed through many editions; _Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament_ (1892); _The Parallel Psalter_ (1904); _Commentaries_ on various books of the Bible; and articles in _Bible Dictionaries_ and in periodicals. He was a joint editor of the new _Hebrew-English Lexicon of the Old Testament_ published by the Clarendon Press.

DROGHEDA (dro_h_'e-da), an ancient town and seaport, formerly a parliamentary borough, Ireland, in the county of Louth, on both sides of the Boyne, about 4 miles from the sea, 26 miles north of Dublin. The Boyne is here crossed by a railway viaduct of 18 arches and 95 feet high. Flax- and cotton-spinning are carried on; there are also salt-works, breweries, and tanneries; and the fisheries are increasing. There is a good export trade in cattle, sheep, grain, butter, and eggs. In 1412 a Parliament assembled here which enacted Poynings' Law. The town was for a long time strongly fortified, and was taken by Cromwell with great slaughter in 1649; it surrendered to William III immediately after the battle of the Boyne. Pop. 12,500.

DROHOBYCZ (dro'ho-bich), a Polish town in Galicia, formerly belonging to Austria, 41 miles S.S.W. of Lemberg. Its Catholic church is one of the handsomest in the country. It has an important trade, particularly in salt, obtained from springs in the vicinity. Pop. 40,000.

DROIT D'AUBAINE (drw[:a]-d[=o]-b[=a]n), an old rule in some European countries, by which the property of a foreigner who died was claimed by the State, unless the person had a special exemption. In France, where it was not abolished till 1819, the Scots, Savoyards, Swiss, and Portuguese were exempted.

DROITWICH (droit'ich), a town of England, in the county and 6 miles N.N.E. of Worcester, on the Salwarp. It is famous for its brine springs, from which salt has been manufactured for more than 1000 years. Pop. 4146.

DR[^O]ME, a south-east department of France, covered almost throughout by ramifications of the Alps, the average height of which, however, does not exceed 4000 feet; area, 2508 sq. miles, of which about one-fourth is waste, one-third under wood, and a great part of the remainder under tillage and pasture. A considerable extent of the area is occupied by vineyards, and several of the wines produced have a high reputation, especially Hermitage. Olives, chestnuts, and silks are staple productions. Valence is the capital. Pop. 263,509.

DROMEDARY. See _Camel_.

DROMORE', an episcopal city, Ireland, County Down, on the Lagan, here crossed by two bridges, 16 miles south-west of Belfast. Its cathedral contains the tomb of Jeremy Taylor. Pop. 2307.

DROPSY (Oedema) is a condition usually marked by enlargement and swelling of the affected parts, and due to an accumulation of serous fluid in the tissue spaces and cavities of the body. Different names are given to such accumulations in particular areas, thus _anasarca_ refers to accumulations in the limbs and body generally; _ascites_ to an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity (abdomen); _hydrothorax_ to an accumulation in the pleural cavity (lungs); _hydrocephalus_ to an accumulation in the brain. The commonest cause of dropsy is heart disease, where first the lower limbs, and then the trunk, are affected. It also appears in diseases of the kidneys and liver, and it may be produced in a limb by any obstruction of the veins of the part.

DROP-WORT (from the small tubers on the fibrous roots), _Spiraea filipend[)u]la_, nat. ord. Rosaceae, a British plant of the same genus as queen-of-the-meadow, found in dry pastures. The hemlock drop-wort, or water drop-wort, is _Oenanthe fistul[=o]sa_.

DROSERA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of polypetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of insectivorous marsh herbs, whose leaves are usually covered with glands or glandular hairs. It contains six genera, including the sundew (Dros[)e]ra), and Venus's fly-trap (Dionaea). (See _Sundew_ and _Dionaea_.) They have no known qualities except that they are slightly bitter. The leaves are generally circinate in the bud, as in ferns.

DROSHKY, a kind of light, four-wheeled carriage used by the Russians. It is not covered, and in some types there is in the middle a sort of bench placed lengthways on which the passengers ride as on a saddle; but the name is now applied to various kinds of vehicles, as to the common cabs plying in the streets of German cities.

DROUAIS (dr[:o]-[=a]), Jean Germain, French historical painter of considerable repute, born at Paris in 1763, died at Rome 1788. His chief pictures are: _The Canaanitish Woman at the Feet of Jesus_, _Dying Gladiator_, and _Marius at Minturno_.

DROUET (dr[:o]-[=a]), Jean Baptiste, Comte d'Erlon, French general, born 1765, died 1844. He served in the campaigns of the Moselle, Meuse, and Sambre (1793-6), in the Peninsula, and at Waterloo, where he commanded the first _corps d'arm['e]e_. In 1834-5 he was Governor-General of Algeria, and in 1843 was made a marshal.

DROUYN DE LHUYS (dr[:o]-a[n.] d[.e] lw[=e]s), ['E]douard, French statesman and diplomatist, born 1805, died 1881. He entered the diplomatic service in 1831, and was charg['e] d'affaires at the Hague during the events which led to the separation of Belgium from Holland. In 1840 he was head of the commercial department under the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Opposition to Guizot caused his dismissal in 1845. He became Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1848, Ambassador to London in 1849; and again Foreign Minister in 1851, and in 1863. On the fall of the empire he fled to Jersey, but subsequently returned to France.

DROWNING means death by the air being prevented from entering the lungs owing to the mouth and nostrils being immersed in a liquid, the liquid being commonly water. Death may, therefore, occur by drowning in a small quantity of water. Thus a child may fall head downwards into a tub and be drowned, though the tub is not half full of water, sufficient to cover the mouth and nostrils being all that is necessary, and a man overcome by a fit or by drunkenness may fall on a road with his head in a ditch or pool of water, and thus meet death. Death is thus due to suffocation, to the stoppage of breathing, and to the entrance of water into the lungs. When death has been caused by drowning, the skin presents the appearance called goose-skin (_cutis anser[=i]na_), the face and surface of the body generally are usually pale, a frothy liquid is found in the lungs and air-passages, and about the lips and nostrils; water may be found in the stomach, and clenched fingers, holding substances grasped at, may serve to show that a struggle has taken place in the water, and that the body was alive at the time of immersion. Complete insensibility arises, it is probable, in from one or two minutes after submersion, recovery, however, being still possible, and death occurs in from two to five minutes. So long as the heart continues to beat, recovery is possible; after it has ceased it is impossible. Newly-born children and young puppies stand submersion longer than the more fully grown.

For the restoration of the apparently drowned several methods are suggested. Those of Dr. Silvester, recommended by the English Humane Society, and Dr. Benjamin Howard, of New York, will be described.

Whichever method is adopted, the following steps must first and immediately be taken: Pull the body up on to dry ground. Send immediately for medical assistance, warm blankets, dry clothing, brandy and hot water, if any one is at hand to send. No delay must be permitted, however, in treating the drowned, so that if only one person is on the spot he must begin to treat the victim _instantly_, without seeking assistance. Remove all clothing from the neck and chest. Fold the articles of dress removed so as to make a firm pillow, which is to be placed under the shoulders, so that the upper part of the body is slightly raised and the head slightly thrown back. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, open the mouth and pull forward the tongue. If natural efforts to breathe are made, try to stimulate them by brisk rubbing of the sides of the chest and of the face. If no effort to breathe is made, proceed to produce the entrance and outflow of air from the lungs by Silvester's or Howard's method.

Silvester's method: Stand or kneel behind the person's head, grasp each arm at the elbow, draw both arms simultaneously upwards till they are extended in line with the body, as a man places them when he stretches himself. Let this movement occupy about two seconds. This enlarges the chest and causes the entrance of air to the lungs. Without a pause carry the arms down to the sides, making them overlap the chest a little, and firmly press them on the chest. This movement should occupy other two seconds. It expels air from the lungs. Repeat the movements, and maintain them steadily and patiently at the rate of fifteen times a minute, until breathing has been fully restored, or until medical aid arrives, or until death is certain. An hour is not too long a time to persist, and so long as there seems the least effort to breathe the movements must be persevered in.

Howard's method: Place the body on its face, with the roll of clothing under the stomach; the head being supported on the hand as shown in fig. 1. Pull the body over the roll of clothing to expel water from the chest. Then turn the body on the back, the shoulders being supported as shown in fig. 2. Kneel over the body. Place both hands on the lower part of the chest, so that the thumbs hook in under the lowest ribs and the fingers are spread out on the chest. Steadily press forwards, raising the ribs, your own body being thus thrown leaning forward. This enlarges the cavity of the chest and causes air to enter. When the ribs have been raised to the utmost extent, with a slight effort push yourself back to the more erect position, allowing the ribs to recoil to their former position. This expels the air. Repeat the process fifteen times a minute. One person will find it more easy to maintain this method for a prolonged period than Silvester's, especially if the patient be big and heavy.

Meanwhile, if other persons are present they should be occupied rubbing the body and limbs (_always upwards_) with hands or warm flannel, applying hot flannels, bottles, &c., to the limbs, feet, arm-pits, &c. As soon as the person is sufficiently restored to be able to swallow, give small quantities of hot brandy and water, hot wine and water, hot coffee, &c., and use every effort to restore and maintain warmth.

Drowning was formerly a mode of capital punishment in Europe. The last person executed by drowning in Scotland suffered death in 1685. It survived in Switzerland until 1652, and in Austria until 1776. In Russia the punishment was abolished early in the eighteenth century.

DROYLSDEN, a town of England, Lancashire, 3-1/2 miles E. of Manchester, of which it is practically a suburb. Pop. 13,259.

DROZ (dr[=o]), Francois Xavier Joseph, French moralist and historian, born at Besancon 1773, died 1850. In 1806 he published an _Essai sur l'Art d'[^e]tre Heureux_, which was very popular; and in 1823 _De la Philosophie Morale, ou des Diff['e]rents Syst[`e]mes sur la Science de la Vie_, which procured his admission into the Academy. His reputation is, however, founded chiefly on his _Histoire du R[`e]gne de Louis XVI_.

DRUGGET, a coarse kind of woollen felt or cloth, formerly used by the lower classes for purposes of clothing, but now chiefly used as a covering for carpets.

DRUIDS, the priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to Julius Caesar they possessed the greatest authority among the Celtic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, &c., superintended the affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They were also well versed in the knowledge of the mysterious powers of plants and animals, and were adepts in the magic arts. They venerated the mistletoe when growing on the oak, a tree which they likewise esteemed sacred. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who was appointed for life. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their religious doctrines little is known.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathenism_; D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques [`a] forme d'animaux_.

DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a secret organization, founded in London in 1781, for the purpose of mutual aid and protection. Their rites somewhat resemble those of freemasons; their lodges are known as 'groves'.

DRUM, a musical instrument of percussion, of Eastern origin, either cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, with the end or ends covered with tightened parchment, which is stretched or slackened at pleasure by means of cords with sliding knots or screws. Drums are of three kinds: (1) the long or bass drum played with stuffed-nob drumsticks, and used only in large orchestras or military bands; (2) the side-drum, having two heads, the upper one only being played upon by two sticks of wood; (3) the kettle-drum, a hemisphere of brass or copper, the end of which is covered with parchment, always used in pairs, one drum being tuned to the key-note, and the other to the fifth of the key, the compass of the two together being an octave. The use of drums was introduced into Europe either by the Moors or the Crusaders.

DRUMCLOG', a moorland tract in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 6 miles S.W. of Strathaven, the scene of a skirmish between Claverhouse and the Covenanters, in which the former was defeated (1679). A graphic description of the battle is given by Scott in his _Old Mortality_.

DRUM-FISH, or DRUM, _Pogonias chromis_, and other species of the same genus, fishes found on the Atlantic coast of N. America, and so named from the deep drumming sound they make, by means of the swim-bladder and its muscles, during the spawning season in April. It is the most powerful sound-producing apparatus known among fishes. They often weigh about 20 lb.

DRUM-MAJOR, in the British army, a warrant or non-commissioned officer whose duty it is to teach and direct the drummers. He marches at the head of the band carrying the regimental baton.

DRUM'MOND, Professor Henry, was born at Stirling in 1851, died in 1897. Educated at the Universities of Edinburgh and T[:u]bingen, he entered the ministry of the Free Church, and having devoted much attention to science, in 1877 was appointed lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College (or divinity hall), Glasgow, becoming professor in 1884. He travelled much, and wrote a popular book on _Tropical Africa_ (1888). His most remarkable work is _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_ (1883), which has passed through many editions and been translated into various languages. He is author, also, of _Travel Sketches in Our New Protectorate_, _The Greatest Thing in the World_, and _The Ascent of Man_ (1894).

DRUMMOND, Rev. James, Unitarian theologian, was born at Dublin in 1835, died 13th June, 1918. After receiving his early education at a private school, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated and obtained the first gold medal for classics in 1855. In 1859 he became colleague of the Rev. W. Gaskell in Cross Street Chapel, Manchester, and ten years later was appointed professor of theology at Manchester New College, London, of which institution (now known, since its removal to Oxford in 1889, simply as Manchester College) he was principal from 1885 to 1906, when he retired from his post. His works include: _Spiritual Religion: Sermons on Christian Faith and Life_ (1870); _The Jewish Messiah: a Critical History of the Messianic Idea among the Jews_ (1877); _Introduction to the Study of Theology_ (1884); _Philo-Judaeus_ (2 vols., 1888); _Via, Veritas, Vita_ (the Hibbert lectures for 1894); _The Pauline Benediction_ (1897); _The Epistles to the Thessalonians, &c._ (International Handbooks, 1899); _Some Thoughts on Christology_ (1902); _The Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel_ (1904); _Johannine Thoughts_ (1909); _Paul: his Life and Teaching_ (1911).

DRUMMOND, William, of Hawthornden, a Scottish poet distinguished for the elegance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Hawthornden House, 7 miles from Edinburgh, 1585, died 1649. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing for a part of the time at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to Scotland he retired to Hawthornden and gave himself up to the cultivation of poetry and polite literature, and here he spent the most of his life. He entertained Ben Jonson on the occasion of a visit which the English dramatist made to Scotland in the winter of 1618-9, and took notes of Jonson's conversation, first published in entirety in 1842 (_Notes of Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond_). He was the first Scottish writer to abandon the native dialect for the language raised to supremacy by the Elizabethan writers. His chief productions are: _The Cypress Grove_, in prose, containing reflections upon death; _Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual Poems_; _Tears on the Death of Moeliades_ (that is, Prince Henry); _Poems, Amorous, Funeral, Divine, Pastoral, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals_; _The River Forth Feasting_ (on King James's visit to Scotland in 1617); _Polemo-Middinia, or the Battle of the Dunghill: a Macaronic Poem_; and _History of the Lives and Reigns of the Five Jameses, Kings of Scotland_. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style, and a strong attachment to the High Church principles of the Jacobites.

DRUMONT, ['E]douard, French journalist and anti-Semitic agitator, born at Paris in 1844, died there in 1917. His work _Mon vieux Paris_ (1879) was crowned by the Acad['e]mie Francaise. In 1886 he published _La France Juive devant l'opinion_. He thus began a violent campaign against the Jews which he continued until his death, especially in his organ _La Libre Parole_, founded in 1892. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, retaining his seat till 1902. His other works include: _La fin d'un monde_ (1888), _Testament d'un Anti-S['e]mite_ (1891), _De l'or et de la boue du Sang_ (1896), and _Les Juifs et l'affaire Dreyfus_ (1899).

DRUNKARDS, HABITUAL. The Habitual Drunkards Act of 1879 provided for the licensing of retreats for receiving habitual drunkards, and for the regular inspection of such retreats. An habitual drunkard desiring admission to a retreat had to make a written application, accompanied by a declaration of two persons that the applicant was an habitual drunkard, and attested by two justices of the peace. No patient in a retreat was permitted to leave before the expiration of the term stated in the application, such term not to exceed one year. This Act was to expire in ten years; but another Act, passed in 1888, made it permanent, with some modifications. The Inebriates Act of 1898 introduced several important changes. It transferred the licensing power in counties from justices of the peace to County Councils and their committees, and in boroughs from magistrates to town councillors or police commissioners. The maximum period of detention was extended to two years, and the attestation of one justice was made sufficient for a valid application. It also gave power to the Secretary of State to establish State inebriate reformatories, or to grant certificates to reformatories suitable for such a purpose. If an habitual drunkard, when drunk, commit an offence punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude, the court may, in addition to, or in substitution for, the ordinary sentence, order him to be detained three years in a State or certified inebriate reformatory. The proof that the accused is an habitual drunkard may consist either in his own admission or in the jury's verdict after inquiry. The Inebriates' Act of 1899 was very short, and made no important change in the law. In Scotland habitual drunkenness is now a ground justifying judicial separation of spouses, while under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, 1920, it is proposed that in England, where one spouse has been granted a temporary separation order on the ground of the incurable habitual drunkenness of the other, and such order has been in force for at least three years, a divorce should be granted.

DRUNKENNESS, the state of being drunk or overpowered by alcoholic liquor, or the habit of indulging in intoxication. A similar condition may be produced by numerous agents, but the term is always applied to the act or habit of drinking alcoholics to excess. By the law of Britain drunkenness is an offence against the public economy, and those found drunk are liable to fine or imprisonment. Drunkenness is no excuse for any crime, but it renders a contract invalid if either of the parties was in a state of complete drunkenness when the contract was signed.

DRUNKEN PARLIAMENT, in Scottish history, a name given to the Privy Council who, under their powers as representing the estates between sessions, met at Glasgow and passed an Act (1st Oct., 1662) to remove the recusant ministers from their parishes within a month. All the members were said to have been drunk except Lockhart of Lee, who opposed the measure.

DRUPE, in botany, a stone fruit; a fruit in which the outer part of the pericarp becomes fleshy or softens like a berry while the inner hardens like a nut, forming a stone with a kernel, as the plum, cherry, apricot, and peach. The stone enclosing the kernel is called the _endocarp_, while the pulpy or succulent part is called the _mesocarp_. In some fruits, as those of the almond, the horse-chestnut, and coco-nut, the mesocarp is not succulent, yet, from their possessing the other qualities of the drupe, they receive the name. See _Berry_.

DRURY LANE THEATRE, one of the principal theatres in London, was established by Thomas Killigrew in the reign of James I. In 1671 it was burned down, and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren between 1672 and 1674, but again destroyed by fire in 1809. On this occasion it was rebuilt by B. Wyatt, and was reopened on 10th Oct., 1812, with an address composed by Lord Byron. It was in connection with this opening that James and Horace Smith wrote the _Rejected Addresses_. Nearly all the great English actors from Betterton and Garrick have been more or less connected with Drury Lane.--Cf. J. Doran, _In and About Drury Lane_.

DRUSES, a curious people of mixed Syrian and Arabian origin, inhabiting the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and also the Hauran (south-west of Damascus). In their faith are combined certain Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan doctrines. They describe themselves as followers of Khalif Hakim Biamr-Allah, whom they regard as an incarnation of deity, the last prophet, and the founder of the true religion. They are nearly all taught to read and write. They maintain a semi-independence, and between 1840 and 1860 they engaged in bloody conflicts with their neighbours the Maronites. Their total number is estimated at 100,000. They are very friendly to the English, and some of them have been converted to Christianity. Cf. E. Sell, _The Druses_.

DRUSUS, the name of several distinguished Romans, among whom were: _Marcus Livius_, orator and politician; became tribune of the people in 122 B.C. He opposed the policy of Gaius Gracchus, and became popular by planting colonies.--_Marcus Livius_, son of the above, was early a strong champion of the senate or aristocratic party, but showed great skill in manipulating the mob. He rose to be tribune of the people, and was assassinated 91 B.C.--_Nero Claudius_, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, born 38 B.C. By a series of brilliant campaigns he extended the Roman Empire to the German Ocean and the River Elbe, and was hence called _Germanicus_. By his wife Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom afterwards became emperor. He died in 9 B.C.

DRY'ADS, wood nymphs, in the Greek mythology; supposed to be the tutelar deities of trees. Each particular tree or wood was the habitation of its own special dryad.

DRYAS. See _Mountain Avens_.

DRY'BURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in Scotland, consisting of the nave's western gable, the gable of the south transept, and a fragment of choir and north transept of an abbey founded in 1150 on the banks of the Tweed, about 5 miles E.S.E. of Melrose. It is celebrated as the burial-place of Sir Walter Scott and his family.

DRY CELL, originally a cell of the Leclanch['e] type, in which the solution of sal-ammoniac was replaced by a paste containing this substance. The formulae or recipes from which dry cells are now made up are numerous, although the electrodes, as a rule, remain the same as in the Leclanch['e] cell. The E.M.F. of the cell is about 1.5 volts, and three dry cells are used to light up a small 'flash' lamp. A battery of dry cells forms a convenient and portable means of supplying a small current at voltages up to 100.

DRY'DEN, John, English poet, was descended from an ancient family, his grandfather being Sir Erasmus Dryden of Canons Ashby, Northamptonshire. Born near Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, in 1631, he was admitted a King's scholar at Westminster under the celebrated Dr. Busby, whence he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, being elected to a scholarship there. After leaving the university, he went to London, where he acted as secretary to his cousin Sir Gilbert Pickering, a favourite of Cromwell; and on the death of the Protector he wrote his _Heroic Stanzas_ on that event. At the Restoration, however, he hailed the return of Charles II in _Astraea Redux_, and from that time his devotion to the Stuarts knew no decay. In 1661 he produced his first play, _The Duke of Guise_; but the first that was performed was _The Wild Gallant_, which appeared in 1663 and was not a success. This was followed by _The Rival Ladies_, and _The Indian Queen_, a tragedy on Montezuma in heroic verse, written in collaboration with Sir Robert Howard, whose sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, Dryden married in 1663. He followed up _The Indian Queen_ with _The Indian Emperor_, which at once raised Dryden to the highest pitch of public estimation, an elevation which he retained till his death. The great fire of London put a stop for some time to theatrical exhibitions. In the interval Dryden published the _Annus Mirabilis_, an historical account of the events of the year 1666, one of the most elaborate of his productions. In 1668 he also published his celebrated _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_--the first attempt to regulate dramatic writing. In 1668 _The Maiden Queen_, a tragi-comedy, was represented. This was followed in 1670 by _The Tempest_, an alteration from Shakespeare, in which he was assisted by Sir William Davenant. It was received with general applause, notwithstanding the very questionable taste and propriety of the added characters. Dryden was shortly afterwards appointed to the offices of Historiographer Royal and Poet Laureate, with a salary of L200 a year. He now became professionally a writer for the stage, and produced many pieces, some of which have been strongly censured for their licentiousness and want of good taste. The first of his political and poetical satires, _Absalom and Achitophel_ (Monmouth and Shaftesbury), was produced in 1681, and was followed by _The Medal_, a satire against sedition; and _Mac Flecknoe_, a satire on the poet Shadwell. In 1682 he published a poem called _Religio Laici_, wherein he maintained the doctrines of the Church of England. On the accession of James in 1685 Dryden became a Roman Catholic, a conversion the sincerity of which has been not unreasonably regarded with suspicion, considering the time at which it occurred. At court the new convert was received with open arms, a considerable addition was made to his pension, and he defended his new religion at the expense of the old one in a poem, _The Hind and the Panther_. Among his other services to the new king were a savage reply to an attack by Stillingfleet, and panegyrics on Charles and James under the title of _Britannia Rediviva_. At the Revolution Dryden was deprived of the offices of Poet Laureate and Historiographer, and of the certain income which these offices secured him. During the remaining ten years of his life he produced some of his best work, including his admirable translations from the classics. He published, in conjunction with Congreve, Creech, and others, a translation of Juvenal, and one of Persius entirely by himself. About a third part of Juvenal was translated by Dryden, who wrote an essay on satire which was prefixed to the whole. His poetic translation of Virgil appeared in 1697, and, soon after, the well-known lyric _Alexander's Feast_, and his _Fables_. He died 1st May, 1700, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dryden is unequalled as a satirist among English poets, and the best of his tragedies are unsurpassed by any since written. His poetry as a whole is more remarkable for vigour and energy than beauty, but he did much to improve English verse. He was also an admirable prose writer. Personally he was modest and kindly. The whole of his works, edited by Sir W. Scott, were published in 1818 (18 vols. 8vo); they were republished with additional notes, &c., by Professor Saintsbury (1882-93).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Garnett, _Age of Dryden_; Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_; _Cambridge History of English Literature_ (vol. viii).

DRYING-MACHINE, a machine consisting of any number of steam-heated cylinders up to thirty or even more, each about 22 inches in diameter, and used in bleachworks, dye-houses, and in cloth-finishing departments; used as a separate machine to dry fabrics which contain a certain amount of moisture left in at some previous operation, but often used in conjunction with a starching-mangle or similar apparatus. All the cylinders are in a horizontal plane, and usually in two rows, but such rows may be disposed either in horizontal or vertical frames. Floor-space is economized in the latter arrangement, and two or more groups of two rows per group may be provided for. Each cylinder is provided with some type of safety air-valve, which yields to allow air to enter in proportion as the steam is condensed in the cylinder, and so prevents the latter from collapsing. The condensed steam is withdrawn either by means of siphons or revolving scoops, so that the interior may be as dry as possible. The long length of cloth, either from the squeezing-rollers of the starch-mangle or from a loose or rolled state of cloth from some other machine, is conducted over guide-rollers, then under and over the two rows of steam-heated cylinders, and finally led from the last cylinder to the roller of a plaiting-down apparatus, or otherwise delivered. Both sides of the cloth thus come into direct contact with half the number of cylinders as it is drawn through the machine, and the dried cloth is ultimately delivered by the plaiting-down apparatus in folds ready for the subsequent operations.

DRYING-OILS, linseed and other oils, which are the bases of many paints and varnishes. When exposed to the air, they absorb oxygen, and are converted into a transparent, tough, dry mass or varnish.

DRY-POINT, a method of engraving generally regarded as part of etching, but more closely allied to line engraving. Instead of the copper being covered with etching ground and the lines bitten with acid, a pointed instrument is drawn across it, which incises a fine line with a more distinct burr on each side than that raised by a graver. This burr helps to give a characteristic quality to the line, but is rapidly worn away by printings. Dry-point may be used by itself, but is frequently combined with etching proper.

DRY-ROT, a well-known disease affecting timber, occasioned by various species of Fungi, the mycelium of which penetrates the timber, destroying it. _Merulius lacrymans_, which is found chiefly in fir-wood, is the most common and most formidable dry-rot fungus in Britain; while _Polyp[)o]rus destructor_ is equally destructive in Germany. _P. vaporarius_ may also cause dry-rot. Damp, unventilated situations are most favourable to the development of dry-rot Fungi. Various methods have been proposed for the prevention of dry-rot; that most in favour is thoroughly saturating the wood with creosote, which makes the wood unfit for vegetation, but proper ventilation is the surest safeguard.

DUAL, in grammar, that number which is used, in some languages, to designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express many. The Greek, Sanskrit, and Gothic among ancient languages, and the Lithuanian and Arabic among modern, possess forms of the verb and noun in which two persons or things are denoted, called the _dual_ numbers.

DU'ALISM, the philosophical exposition of the nature of things by the hypothesis of two dissimilar primitive principles not derived from each other. Dualism in religion is chiefly confined to the adoption of a belief in two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in some Oriental religions, especially that of Zoroaster. In metaphysics, dualism is the doctrine of those who maintain the existence of matter and form, or mind and matter, as distinct substances, in opposition to idealism, which maintains that we have no knowledge or assurance of the existence of anything but our own ideas or sensations. Dualism may correspond with realism in maintaining that our ideas of things are true transcripts of the originals, or rather of the qualities inherent in them, the spirit acting as a mirror and reflecting their true images; or it may hold that, although produced by outward objects, we have no assurance that in reality these at all correspond to our ideas of them, or even that they produce the same idea in two different minds. Among modern philosophers Professor W. McDougall and Bergson have defended the doctrine of dualism. See _Monism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ward, _The Realm of Ends_; W. James, _Essays in Radical Empiricism_; H. Bergson, _Matter and Memory_.

DUBAIL, Augustin Edmond, French general, born at Belfort 15th April, 1851. He served in the Franco-Prussian War, and was for many years colonel of a Zouave regiment in Algeria. Chief of the Staff of the French army in 1914, he commanded the First Army operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and successfully defended Nancy. Appointed Military Governor of Paris in 1915, he held this post until June, 1918.

DU BARRY, Marie Jeanne B['e]cu, Comtesse, mistress of Louis XV, was born at Vaucouleurs in 1743. She came young to Paris, and was presented to the king in 1769, who had her married for form's sake to the Comte du Barry. She exercised a powerful influence at court, and with some of her confidants completely ruled the king. Important offices and privileges were in her gift, and the courtiers abased themselves before her. After the death of Louis she was dismissed from court and sent to live in a convent near Meaux. She received a pension from Louis XVI. During the reign of terror she was arrested as a Royalist and executed, Nov., 1793.--Cf. N. Williams, _Madame du Barry_.

DUBIT'ZA, a fortified town of Bosnia, in Yugo-Slavia, on the right bank of the Unna, about 10 miles from its confluence with the Save. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was a frequent point of contention between Austria and Turkey. In 1878, with the rest of Bosnia, it passed under Austrian administration. Pop. 3260.--_Dubitza_, in Croatia, on the opposite bank of the Unna, has 6660 inhabitants.

DUB'LIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in County Dublin, on the east coast of the island, at the mouth of the Liffey, the banks of which for more than 2 miles from the sea are lined with quays. The river, which divides the city into two unequal parts, is crossed by numerous bridges. In the old part of the city the streets are irregular, narrow, and filthy; in the more modern and aristocratic quarters there are fine streets, squares, and terraces, but with little pretension to architectural merit. The public buildings, however, are especially numerous and handsome. The main thoroughfare, east to west, is by the magnificent quays along the Liffey. The principal street at right angles to the river is Sackville Street, a splendid street 650 yards long and 40 yards wide, forming a thoroughfare which is continued across the river by O'Connell Bridge, a magnificent structure the same width as Sackville Street. The principal public secular buildings are the castle, the official residence of the viceroy; the Bank of Ireland, formerly the Irish Parliament House; Trinity College; the custom-house, destroyed in 1921; the King's Inns; the post office; rotunda; corn exchange; commercial buildings; the mansion house; and the city hall or corporation buildings. The most important literary and scientific institutions are Trinity College (Dublin University); the National University of Ireland; the Royal College of Science; the Catholic University; the College of Surgeons; the Royal Dublin Society; the Royal Hibernian Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture; the Royal Irish Academy for Promoting the Study of Science, Literature, and Antiquities; the Archaeological Society; and the Royal Zoological Society. Dublin contains two Protestant Episcopal cathedrals--St. Patrick's Cathedral, erected in 1190, and thoroughly restored between 1860 and 1865, through the munificence of Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness; and Christ's Church, built in 1038 and restored between 1870 and 1877, the restoration being carried out at the expense of Henry Roe. The Roman Catholic Cathedral is a very large edifice. The charitable institutions are numerous, and some of them possess splendid buildings. There are several extensive military and constabulary barracks in the city and vicinity. A little north-west of the city, up the Liffey, is the Phoenix Park, with an area of 1759 acres. In it are the Viceregal Lodge, the usual residence of the King's representative; the Chief Secretary's and Under-Secretary's official residences; the Royal Hibernian Military School; and the depot of the Royal Irish Constabulary; as also the gardens of the Royal Zoological Society. The manufactures carried on are of little note: poplins, for which Dublin has been long celebrated, are still in some request, and brewing and distilling are largely carried on. Since 1918 Dublin returns seven members to the House of Commons. The Sinn Fein members, however, elected in 1918, never attended the Imperial Parliament. Serious risings occurred in Dublin at Easter 1916, in 1919, and 1920, and there were also disorders in May 1921. Dublin is an ancient town, but its early history is obscure. It was held by the Danes for more than three centuries from 836. Pop. 399,000 (1919). The county, which is in the province of Leinster, on the east coast of the island, has an area of 218,873 acres, about a third of it under crops of various kinds, chiefly grass and clover. The surface on the whole is flat, but the ground rises at its southern boundary into a range of hills, the highest of which--Kippure--is 2473 feet above the sea. There is about 70 miles of sea-coast, the chief indentation being Dublin Bay. The principal stream is the Liffey, which intersects the county west to east. Important water communications are the Royal and the Grand Canals, both centering in Dublin, and uniting the Liffey with the Shannon. The manufactures are unimportant, but the fisheries are extensive. Since 1918 the county returns four members to the House of Commons. Pop. 172,394; Dublin (county borough), 304,802.--Cf. D. A. Chart, _The Story of Dublin_.

DUBLIN, UNIVERSITY OF, an institution founded in 1591, when a charter, or letters-patent, was granted by Queen Elizabeth for the incorporation of the "College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity", the University and Trinity College being practically the same. The corporation now consists of a provost, seven senior fellows, twenty-six junior fellows, and seventy foundation scholars. The Senate of the university consists of "the chancellor of the university, or in his absence, of the vice-chancellor, and such doctors or masters of the university as shall have and keep their names on the books of Trinity College". The Senate possesses the right of electing the chancellor of the university; it is also the body which grants degrees. The fellows are appointed for life, after an examination. The scholars are chosen from among the undergraduates, after an examination in mathematics and logic, or in Greek, Latin, and logic. The scholarships are tenable for five years, or till the degree of M.A. is attained. The course of general instruction extends over four years. The academical year is divided into three terms--Michaelmas, Hilary, and Trinity--and every student must keep at least two terms in each year in order to obtain a degree. The system of instruction is superintended by the fellows, both junior and senior, together with a large staff of professors in the various departments of science and literature. Eighteen of the junior fellows act as tutors, and every student must place himself under one of these on entering the college. The B.A. degree is given after examination in the usual subjects, and may be a pass or honours degree; the M.A., as at Oxford and Cambridge, is gained by the payment of a fee after a certain time has elapsed. There are also a law school, a medical school, and a school of engineering, and degrees are granted in these subjects, as well as in arts and divinity. The college possesses a library of about 285,000 printed volumes and 1700 manuscripts. It has also a botanic garden and museum. In 1613 James I granted to the university the right of returning two members to Parliament. One was taken away at the Union, but was restored by the Reform Bill of 1832. The number of students in 1920 was 1350.--Cf. _Dublin University Calendar_.

DUBNO, a town of the Ukraine, government of Volhynia. It was a place of some importance before the annexation of Western Poland by Russia. During the European War it was recaptured in the Russian advance in June, 1916. Pop. 14,000.

DUBOIS (d[.u]-bw[:a]), Guillaume, a French cardinal, was the son of an apothecary, born in 1656, died 1723. He became tutor to the Duke of Chartres, afterwards Duke of Orleans and Regent, and maintained his influence by pandering to the vices of his pupil. He became Privy Councillor and overseer of the duke's household, and Minister for Foreign Affairs under the regency. The archbishopric of Cambrai having become vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but he obtained the post, having in one morning received all the clerical orders, and, a few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address he obtained a cardinal's hat, and in 1721 was appointed Prime Minister. Dubois was an avaricious, lying, licentious creature, yet clever and industrious, and able to make himself very agreeable where it suited his interest.

DUBOIS (d[.u]-bw[:a]), Paul, French sculptor, born 1829, died in 1905. He first studied law, but from 1856 to 1858 gave himself up to sculpture under Toussaint at Paris, and then went to Italy, where the sculptors of the early Renaissance, Donatello and Luca Della Robbia, had a decided influence upon him. Among his works are a _St. John_, a _Narcissus_, a _Madonna and Child_, _Eve Awakening to Life_, a figure of _Song_ for the opera-house at Paris, and numerous busts; but his greatest work is the monument of General Lamorici[`e]re in the Cathedral of Nantes, with figures of _Military Courage_, _Charity_, _Faith_, and _Meditation_, which rank among the best products of French plastic art. He is also distinguished as a painter of portraits. He was director of the ['E]cole des Beaux Arts from 1878 until his death, and received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour.

DU BOIS-REYMOND (d[.u] bw[:a]-r[=a]-m[=o][n.]), Emil, German physiologist, and an especial authority on animal electricity, born at Berlin 1818, died in 1896. He studied theology, geology, and afterwards anatomy and physiology, and became professor of physiology in the University of Berlin in 1858. His principal publication is _Researches in Animal Electricity_.

DUBOV'KA, a town of South Russia, government of Saratov, on the Volga; it has an extensive river trade in wool, iron, oil, and grain. Pop. 16,530.

DUBUQUE (du-b[=u]k'), a city of Iowa, United States, on the right bank of the Mississippi. It occupies an important commercial position as a railway centre and entrep[^o]t for the agricultural and mineral products of the northern half of Iowa, and the timber of Wisconsin, and also from the valuable lead-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 39,428.

DUCANGE (d[.u]-k[:a]nzh), Charles Dufresne, Sieur, a French historian and linguist, was born in 1610 near Amiens, died at Paris 1688. He studied in the Jesuits' College at Amiens, afterwards at Orleans and Paris. At this last place he became Parliamentary Advocate in 1631, and in 1645 Royal Treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in 1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to literature, and published his great works, viz. his _Glossaries of the Greek and Latin peculiar to the Middle Ages and the Moderns_, his _Historia Byzantina_, the _Annals of Zonaras_, the _Numismatics of the Middle Ages_, and other important works.

DUCAS, Michael, Byzantine historian, flourished in the fifteenth century. His _Historia Byzantina_, which contains a reliable account of the siege and sack of Constantinople, was largely used by Gibbon.

DUC'AT (Lat. _duc[=a]tus_, a duchy), a coin formerly common in several European states. They were either of silver or gold: value of the former, 3s. to 4s., of the latter about 9s. 4d. They were named from being first coined in one of the Italian duchies.

DUCATOON', formerly a Dutch silver coin worth 3 gulden 3 stivers, or 5s. 3d. sterling. There were coins of the same name in Italy. In Tuscany its value was about 5s. 5d., in Savoy slightly more, and in Venice about 4s. 9d.

DU CHAILLU (d[.u]-sh[=a]-y[:u]), Paul Belloni, traveller, born in Paris 1835, died 1903. He spent his youth in the French settlement at the Gaboon, on the west coast of Africa, where his father was a merchant. In 1852 he went to the United States, of which he afterwards became a naturalized citizen. In 1855 he began his first journey through Western Africa, and stayed till 1859 alone among the different tribes, travelling on foot upwards of 8000 miles. He collected several gorillas, never before hunted, and rarely, if ever, before seen by any European. An account of this journey, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_, was published in 1861. A second expedition was made in 1863, an account of which, under the title _A Journey to Ashango Land_, appeared in 1867. _The Land of the Midnight Sun_, an account of a tour in Northern Europe (1881), had a considerable success. He published a number of books intended for boys, and based on his travels. One of his works is _The Viking Age_ (1889), on the ancestors of the English-speaking peoples.

DUCHESNE, or DU CHESNE (d[.u]-sh[=a]n), Andr['e], French historian, born in 1584, died in 1640. His most important works are his collection of French historians--_Historiae Francorum Scriptores_; _Historiae Normanorum Scriptores 838-1220_; _Histoire d'Angleterre, d'['E]cosse, et d'Irlande_; _Histoire des Papes_.

DUCIS (d[:u]-s[=e]s), Jean Francois, French dramatic writer, born at Versailles 1733, died 1816. Of his original works, the tragedy _Abufar_ was much admired; but he is now best known for his adaptations of Shakespeare to the Parisian stage.

DUCK, the name given to web-footed birds constituting the sub-family Anatinae of the family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are very numerous as species, and are met with all over the world. They are often migratory, going northward in summer to their breeding-places. Their food is partly vegetable, partly animal. The common mallard or wild-duck (_Anas boschas_) is the original of the domestic duck. In its wild state the male is characterized by the deep green of the plumage of the head and neck, by a white collar separating the green from the dark chestnut of the lower part of the neck, and by having the four middle feathers of the tail recurved. The wild-duck is taken in large quantities by decoys and other means. Some tame ducks have nearly the same plumage as the wild ones; others vary greatly, being generally duller or pure white, but all the males have the four recurved tail-feathers. There are several favourite varieties of the domestic duck, those of Normandy and Picardy in France, and the Aylesbury ducks in England, being remarkable for their great size and delicacy of flesh. Other species of the sub-family are: shoveller (_Spatula clypeata_), garganey (_Querquedula circia_), pintail or sea-pheasant (_Dafila acuta_), teal (_Nettion crecca_), widgeon (_Mareca penelope_), gadwall (_Chaulelasmus streperus_), sheldrake (_Tadorna cornuta_), tree-ducks (species of Dendrocygna). In a wider sense the name 'duck' is applied to species of other sub-families of the Anatidae as follows: Merganettinae: blue duck (_Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus_) of New Zealand. Erismaturinae: musk duck (_Biziura lobata_) of Tasmania and Australia. Lake ducks (species of Erismatura). Fuligulinae: eider duck (_Somateria mollissima_), q.v.; scoter or black duck (_Oedemia nigra_); harlequin duck (_Cosmonetta histrionica_); logger-head or steamer duck (_Tachyeres cinereus_) of South America: scaup (_Fuligula marila_); canvas back (_F. vallisneria_), q.v.; pochard (_Nyroca ferina_). Plectopterinae: summer duck (_Aix sponsa_) of N. America and Cuba; mandarin duck (_A. galericulata_) of E. Asia; Muscovy or musk duck (_Cairina moschata_), ranging from Mexico to the Argentine.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nourse, _Turkeys, Ducks, and Geese_; Rankin, _Natural and Artificial Duck Culture_; J. G. Millais, _British Diving Ducks_.

DUCKING-STOOL, a stool or chair in which common scolds were formerly tied and plunged into water. They were of different forms, but that most commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse movable beam on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended by a chain. The ducking-stool is mentioned in _Domesday Book_ (Chester): it was extensively in use throughout the country from the fifteenth till the beginning of the eighteenth century, and in one case--at Leominster--was used as late as 1809.

DUCKWEED, the popular name of several species of Lemna, nat. ord. Lemnaceae, plants growing in ditches and shallow water, floating on the surface, and serving as food for ducks and geese. Five species are known in Britain, and others are common in America. They consist of small fronds bearing naked unisexual flowers.

DUCKWORTH, Sir John Thomas, a British admiral, born in 1748, died 1817. He joined the navy when eleven years of age; and was post-captain in 1780. In 1793, on the breaking out of the French war, he was appointed to the command of the _Orion_, 74, forming part of the Channel fleet under Lord Howe, and distinguished himself in 1794 in the great naval victory on 1st June. In 1798 he aided in the capture of Minorca. From 1800 to 1806 he rendered important services on the West India station, in particular gaining a complete victory over a French squadron, for which he received a pension of L1000 a year and the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. In 1807, having been ordered to Constantinople, he forced the passage of the Dardanelles, but suffered severely from the Turkish batteries in returning. From 1810 to 1814 he commanded the Newfoundland fleet, and in 1817 he was appointed to the chief command at Plymouth. In 1813 he was created a baronet.

DUCLOS (d[.u]-kl[=o]), Charles Pinot, a French novelist, writer of memoirs, and grammarian, born in 1704 at Dinant, died at Paris 1772. He became secretary of the French Academy, and on the resignation of Voltaire he was appointed to the office of historiographer of France. His writings are lively and satirical. Among the best are: _Confessions du Comte de * * *_ (1741), _Consid['e]rations sur les Moeurs de ce Si[`e]cle_, _M['e]moires secrets sur les R[`e]gnes de Louis XIV et XV_, and _Remarques sur la Grammaire g['e]n['e]rale de Port-Royal_.

DUCTIL'ITY, the property of solid bodies, particularly metals, which renders them capable of being extended by drawing, while their thickness or diameter is diminished, without any actual fracture or separation of their parts. The following is nearly the order of ductility of the metals which possess the property in the highest degree, that of the first mentioned being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, nickel, palladium, cadmium, zinc, tin, lead. Dr. Wollaston succeeded in obtaining a wire of platinum only 1/30000th of an inch in diameter. The ductility of glass at high temperatures seems to be unlimited, while its flexibility increases in proportion to the fineness to which its threads are drawn.

DUDDON, an English river which flows 20 miles along the boundaries of Cumberland and Lancashire to the Irish Sea, and is the subject of a series of sonnets by Wordsworth, written in 1820.

DU DEFFAND, Madame. See _Deffand_.

DUDERSTADT (d[:o]'d[.e]r-st[.a]t), an old German town, province of Hanover, 10 miles east of G[:o]ttingen, formerly a member of the Hanseatic League and a place of some importance. Pop. 5380.

DUDEVANT, Madame. See _Sand, George_.

DUD'LEY, Sir Edmund, born 1462, executed 1510, noted in English history as an instrument of Henry VII in the arbitrary acts of extortion by the revival of obsolete statutes and other unjust measures practised during the latter years of his reign. On the accession of Henry VIII he was arrested for high treason, and perished on the scaffold with his associate Sir Richard Empson.

DUDLEY, Lord Guildford, son of John, Duke of Northumberland, was married in 1553 to Lady Jane Grey, whose claim to the throne the duke intended to assert on the death of Edward VI. On the failure of the plot Lord Guildford was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried into effect till the insurrection of Wyatt induced Mary to order his immediate execution (1554).

DUDLEY, John, Duke of Northumberland, son of Sir Edmund Dudley, minister of Henry VII, was born in 1502, beheaded 1553. He was left by Henry VIII one of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint-regent during the minority of Edward VI. Under that prince he manifested the most insatiable ambition, and obtained vast accessions of honours, power, and emoluments. The illness of the king, over whom he had gained complete ascendency, aroused his fears, and he endeavoured to strengthen his interest by marrying his son Lord Guildford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, descended from the younger sister of Henry VIII, and persuaded Edward to settle the crown on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne failed, and many of the conspirators were executed.

DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Leicester. See _Leicester_.

DUDLEY, a town and parliamentary borough of England, in an isolated part of Worcestershire enclosed by Staffordshire, 8 miles west by north of Birmingham. It is situated in the midst of the 'black country', and has extensive coal-mines, iron-mines, ironworks, and limestone quarries. It produces nails, chain-cables, anchors, vices, boilers, fire-irons, and has also glassworks, brickworks, and brass-foundries. There are the remains of a castle, said to have been founded in the eighth century by a Saxon prince called Dud, who has given the town its name. Dudley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. of municipal borough, 51,079.

DUDLEY LIMESTONE, a highly fossiliferous limestone belonging to the Silurian system, occurring near Dudley, and equivalent to the Wenlock limestone. It abounds in beautiful masses of coral, shells, and trilobites.

DUEL (Lat. _duellum_, from _duo_, two), a premeditated and prearranged combat between two persons with deadly weapons, for the purpose of deciding some private difference or quarrel. The combat generally takes place in the presence of witnesses called seconds, who make arrangements as to the mode of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and see that the laws they have laid down are carried out. The origin of the practice of duelling is referred to the trial by 'wager of battle' which obtained in early ages. This form of duel arose among the Germanic peoples, and a judicial combat of the kind was authorized by Gundebald, King of the Burgundians, as early as A.D. 501. When the judicial combat declined, the modern duel arose, being probably to some extent an independent outcome of the spirit and institutions of chivalry. France was the country in which it arose, the sixteenth century being the time at which it first became common, especially after the challenge of Francis I to Charles V in 1528. Upon every insult or injury which seemed to touch his honour, a gentleman thought himself entitled to draw his sword, and to call on his adversary to give him satisfaction, and it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels during ten years of the reign of Henri IV. His minister, Sully, remonstrated against the practice; but the king connived at it, supposing that it tended to maintain a military spirit among his people. In 1602, however, he issued a decree against it, and declared it to be punishable with death. Many subsequent prohibitions were issued, but they were all powerless to stop the practice. During the minority of Louis XIV, more than 4000 nobles are said to have lost their lives in duels. The practice of duelling was introduced into England from France in the reign of James I; but it was never so common as in the latter country. Cromwell was an enemy of the duel, and during the Protectorate there was a cessation of the practice. It came again into vogue, however, after the Restoration, thanks chiefly to the French ideas that then inundated the court. As society became more polished duels became more frequent, and they were never more numerous than in the reign of George III. Among the principals in the chief duels of this period were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Canning, Castlereagh, the Duke of York, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord Camelford. The last mentioned was the most notorious duellist of his time, and was himself killed in a duel in 1804. A duel was fought between the Duke of Wellington and Lord Winchelsea in 1829, but the practice was dying out. It lasted longest in the army. By English law fatal duelling is considered murder, no matter how fair the combat may have been, and the seconds are liable to the same penalty as the principals. In 1813 the principal and seconds in a fatal duel were sentenced to death, though afterwards pardoned. An officer in the army having anything to do with a duel renders himself liable to be cashiered. In France duelling still prevails to a certain extent; but the combats are usually very bloodless and ridiculous affairs. In the German army until 1918 it was common, and was recognized by law. The duels of German students, so often spoken of, seldom cause serious bloodshed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Millingen, _History of Duelling_; Steinmetz, _Romance of Duelling_; G. Letainturier-Fradin, _Le duel [`a] travers les [^a]ges_; C. A. Thimm, _Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling_; A. Hutton, _The Sword and the Centuries_.

DUEN'NA, the chief lady-in-waiting on the Queen of Spain. In a more general sense, an elderly woman holding a middle station between a governess and companion, appointed to take charge of the young daughters of Spanish and Portuguese families.

DUFAURE (d[.u]-f[=o]r), Jules Armand Stanislas, French orator and statesman, born 1798, died 1881. He practised law at Bordeaux; entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1834, and became an influential leader of the Liberal party. Under the Republic he was Minister of the Interior, but was driven from the public service by the _coup d'['e]tat_ of 1851, and for the next twenty years devoted himself closely to his Bar practice and pamphlet writing. Under the Government of Thiers he acted as Minister of Justice; and in 1876, and again from 1877 to 1879, he was head of the Cabinet.

DUFF, Alexander, Scottish missionary, born 1806, died 1878. Educated at St. Andrews University, in 1829 he set out for India as the first Church of Scotland missionary to that country, and reached Calcutta after being twice shipwrecked. He opened a school in which he taught successfully the doctrines of Christianity, as well as general knowledge, but on his secession (along with the other missionaries of the Church) from the Church of Scotland in 1843, he had to give up the school and begin again. In 1849 he visited Scotland, where he remained until 1856. He assisted in founding the University of Calcutta, and, having been obliged to return home for reasons of health, he raised L10,000 to endow a missionary chair in the New College, Edinburgh, becoming himself its first occupant. His chief writings are: _The Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1835); _Vindication of the Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1837); _India and India Missions_ (1840); _The Jesuits_ (1845); and _The Indian Mutiny: its Causes and Results_ (a series of letters published in 1858).

DUFF, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant, writer on political and other subjects, born in Aberdeenshire in 1829, died in 1906. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy, The Grange, Bishop Wearmouth, and Balliol College, Oxford, was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1854, and in 1857 entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Elgin Burghs, which constituency he continued to represent until 1881. He was Under-Secretary for India in W. E. Gladstone's ministry from 1868 to 1874, and Under-Secretary for the Colonies from 1880 to 1881, in which latter year he was appointed Governor of Madras. His Indian administration was most successful, and on his retirement in 1886 he was made a G.C.S.I. He was president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1889 to 1893, and of the Royal Historical Society from 1892 to 1899, and was also a trustee of the British Museum. His published works include: _Studies in European Politics_ (1866); _A Political Survey_ (1868); _Elgin Speeches_ (1871); _Notes of an Indian Journey_ (1876); _Miscellanies, Political and Literary_ (1879); _Memoir of Sir H. S. Maine_ (1892); _Ernest Renan_ (1893); and _Notes from a Diary_ (7 vols., 1897-1905).

DUFF'ERIN AND AVA, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, Marquess of, British statesman and author, son of the fourth Baron Dufferin and a granddaughter of R. B. Sheridan, born at Florence 1826, died in 1902. He began his public services in 1855, when he was attached to Earl Russell's mission to Vienna. Subsequently he was sent as Commissioner to Syria in connection with the massacre of the Christians (1860); was Under-Secretary of State for India (1864-6); Under-Secretary for War (1866); Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1868-72); Governor-General of Canada (1872-78); Ambassador at St. Petersburg (1879-81); at Constantinople (1882); sent to Cairo to settle the affairs of the country after Arabi Pasha's rebellion (1882-3); Viceroy of India (1884-8); Ambassador to Italy (1889-91); to France (1891-96). He was elected president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1878, and Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1891. Besides being a noted diplomatist, he was also a popular author. In 1847 he published _Narrative of a Journey from Oxford to Skibbereen during the year of the Irish Famine_; in 1860, _Letters from High Latitudes_; also various pamphlets on Irish questions. In 1888 he was made Marquess of Dufferin and Ava.--Cf. Sir A. Lyall, _Life of the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava_.

DUFR['E]NOY (d[.u]-fr[.e]-nw[:a]) Pierre Armand, French geologist and mineralogist, born in 1792, died in 1857. He became director of the school of mines, and published a great variety of papers on geology and mineralogy. In 1841 he published, in collaboration with ['E]lie de Beaumont, a great geological map of France with three volumes of text, and this was followed by his _Trait['e] de Min['e]ralogie_. He introduced a new classification of minerals, based on crystallography.

DUFRESNY (d[.u]-fr[=a]-n[=e]), Charles Rivi[`e]re, a French comic poet, born in 1648, died in 1724. He was clever and versatile, and had great skill as a landscape-gardener and an architectural designer. Among his dramatic pieces may be mentioned _L'Esprit de Contradiction_, _Le Mariage Fait et Rompu_, and _Le Double Veuvage_. He also wrote _Amusements s['e]rieux et comiques d'un Siamois_, which suggested to Montesquieu his _Lettres Persanes_.

DUG'DALE, Sir William, an English antiquary, born in 1605 of a good family in Warwickshire, died 1686. He was made Chester herald in 1644; accompanied Charles I through the civil war; and after the Restoration received knighthood, and was appointed garter king-at-arms. In concert with Roger Dodsworth he produced an important work on English monasteries entitled _Monasticon Anglicanum_. Among his other works are: _Antiquities of Warwickshire_; _The Baronage or Peerage of England_; _Origines Judiciales, or Historical Memoirs of the English Law, Courts of Justice, &c._; a _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_; and various minor writings. He also completed and published the second volume of Spelman's _Concilia_.

DU'GONG, a herbivorous mammal, the _Halic[)o]r[=e] dugong_, belonging to the ord. Sirenia, which also includes the manatees. It is a native of the Indian and Australian seas; possesses a tapering body ending in a crescent-shaped fin, and is said sometimes to attain a length of 20 feet, though generally it is about 7 or 8 feet in length. The fore-limbs are in the form of flippers; hind-limbs are absent. The skin is thick and smooth, with a few scattered bristles; the colour bluish above and white beneath. Its food consists of marine plants; it yields little or no oil, but is hunted by the Malays for its flesh, which resembles veal, and is tender and palatable. It has been suggested that the appearance of this animal has given rise to the legends of mermaids and mermen.

DUGUAY-TROUIN (d[:u]-g[=a]-tr[:o]-an), Ren['e], a distinguished French seaman, born at St. Malo in 1673, died at Paris 1736. As commander of a privateer he took many prizes from the British between 1690 and 1697. He then entered the royal marine as a captain, and signalized himself so much in the Spanish War that the king granted him letters of nobility, in which it was stated that he had captured more than 300 merchant ships and twenty ships of war. By the capture of Rio de Janeiro (1711) he brought the Crown more than 25,000,000 francs. Under Louis XV he rendered important services in the Levant and the Mediterranean.

DU GUESCLIN (d[:u]-g[=a]-klan), Bertrand, Constable of France, born about 1314, died 1380. Mainly to him must be attributed the expulsion of the English from Normandy, Guienne, and Poitou. He was captured by Chandos at the battle of Auray in 1364, and ransomed for 100,000 francs. While serving in Spain against Peter the Cruel, he was made prisoner by the English Black Prince, but was soon liberated. For his services in Spain he was made Constable of Castile, Count of Trastamare, and Duke of Molinas; and in 1370 he was made Constable of France.

DUIKERBOK, species of Cephalophus, small South African antelopes with short horns (none in the female), and a tuft of stiff hairs between them.

DUISBURG (d[:o]'is-b[u:]r_h_), a flourishing town in Rhenish Prussia, 13 miles north of D[:u]sseldorf. It is an ancient place, believed to be of Roman origin. It early rose to be a free town, and became a member of the Hanseatic League. It possesses a beautiful church of the fifteenth century, and has iron manufactories, engineering works, chemical works, and cotton and woollen mills; and a large trade greatly facilitated by a canal communicating with the Rhine, which is about 2 miles distant. Pop. 229,483.

DUJARDIN (d[.u]-zh[.a]r-da[n.]), Karel, a Dutch artist, who excelled in painting landscapes, animals, and scenes in low life, born in 1640 at Amsterdam, died at Venice 1678. His paintings are rare, and command high prices. His masterpiece, _The Charlatans_ (1657), is in the Louvre.

DUKE (Fr. _duc_, Sp. _duque_, It. _duca_, all from Lat. _dux_, leader, commander), a title belonging originally to a military leader. In Britain it is the highest rank in the peerage. Royal dukes have a special status and precedence. The first hereditary duke in England was the Black Prince, created by his father, Edward III, in 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was bestowed upon him, and was thenceforward attached to the eldest son of the king, who is considered a duke by birth. The duchy of Lancaster was soon after conferred on Edward's third son, John of Gaunt, and hence arose the special privileges which these two duchies still in part retain. A duke in the British peerage, not of royal rank, is styled 'your grace', or 'my Lord Duke'; his wife is a duchess. (See _Address, Forms of_.) The coronet consists of a richly-chased gold circle, having on its upper edge eight golden leaves of a conventional type called strawberry leaves; the cap of crimson velvet is closed at the top with a gold tassel, lined with sarsenet, and turned up with ermine. (See _Coronet_.) At various periods and in different continental countries the title duke (_Herzog_ in Germany) was given to the actual sovereigns of small states. The titles 'grand-duke' and 'grand-duchess', 'archduke' and 'archduchess', were in use also on the European continent, especially in Russia and Austria until 1918. In the Bible the word _dukes_ is used (_Gen._ xxxvi) for the _duces_ of the _Vulgate_.

DUKHOBORZI (d[u:]_h_-o-bor'ts[=e]), a Russian sect of religious mystics which arose in the eighteenth century. The name means 'spirit-fighters', as the sect was accused by the orthodox priests of fighting against the spirit of God. They reject the doctrine of the Trinity, of the deity of Christ, hold property in common, and refuse oaths and military service, thus resembling Quakers. In 1899 a body of several thousands emigrated to Canada, where they received territory in Assiniboia and Saskatchewan.

DUKINFIELD, or DUCKINFIELD, a municipal borough, England, county Cheshire, separated by the Tame from Ashton-under-Lyne, and mostly within Stalybridge parliamentary borough. Collieries, cotton-factories, brickworks, and tileworks give employment to the population. Pop. (municipal borough), 19,426.

DULCE (d[u:]l's[=a]), a lake of Guatemala, on the east coast, communicating with the Gulf of Honduras by the lakelet el Golfete. It is about 30 miles long by 12 broad, and affords profitable turtle hunting.

DULCIGNO (d[u:]l-ch[=e]n'y[=o]), a small seaport town, formerly in Albania, now in Montenegro, on the Adriatic, the seat of a Roman Catholic Bishop. It was captured by the Austrians in 1916, and retaken by Italian troops in 1918. Pop. 5000.

DUL'CIMER, one of the most ancient musical instruments, used in almost all parts of the world. The modern instrument consists of a shallow trapezium-shaped box without a top, across which runs a series of wires, tuned by pegs at the sides, and played on by being struck by two cork-headed hammers. It is in much less common use in Europe now than it was a century or two ago, and is interesting chiefly as being the prototype of the piano. It is still, however, occasionally to be met with on the Continent at fairs in the country, and in England in the hands of street musicians. It was known in Persia and Arabia under the name of _santir_, and was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. The Hebrew psaltery is supposed to have been a variety of the dulcimer.

DUL'CINISTS, followers of Dulcinus, a layman of Lombardy, in the fourteenth century, who preached the reign of the Holy Ghost, affirming that the Father had reigned till Christ's incarnation, and that the Son's reign terminated in 1300. He was followed by a great many people to the Alps, where he and his wife were taken and burned by order of Clement IV.

DULCITOL, or DULCITE, is an alcohol closely allied to the sugars. It is found in Madagascar manna, from which it is extracted by boiling water.

DULI'A (Gr. _douleia_, service, from _doulos_, a slave), an inferior kind of worship or adoration, as that paid to saints and angels in the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholics recognize different degrees of worship. The lowest degree is the _dulia_, which is given to saints and angels. _Hyperdulia_ is reserved for the Virgin alone; and _latria_ is given to God and to each person of the Trinity.

DULSE, a red sea-weed, the _Rhodymenia palm[=a]ta_, used in some parts of Scotland as an edible. It has a reddish-brown, or purple, leathery, veinless frond, several inches long, and is found at low water adhering to the rocks. It is an important plant to the Icelanders, and is stored by them in casks to be eaten with fish. In Kamchatka a fermented liquor is made from it. In the south of England the name is given to the _Iridaea ed[=u]lis_, also an edible red sea-weed.

DULUTH (du-luth'), a town of the United States, capital of St. Louis county, Minnesota, at the south-west extremity of Lake Superior. The Northern Pacific and Lake Superior and Mississippi railways terminate here; and extensive docks and other works have been constructed, affording a convenient outlet for the surrounding wheat region. Pop. 97,077.

DULWICH (dul'ich), a suburb of London, in County Surrey, about 5 miles south of London Bridge, giving name to a parliamentary division of the borough of Camberwell; noticeable on account of its school, _Dulwich College_, called the 'College of God's Gift,' founded as a charitable institution in 1619 by the actor Edward Allen or Alleyn. Four parishes were benefited by the charity: St. Luke's, Middlesex; St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate; St. Saviour's, Southwark; and St. Giles', Camberwell. Having outlived its usefulness, in 1857 an Act was passed by which the college was reconstituted. It now consists of two branches, the educational and the eleemosynary, between which the surplus revenue is divided in the proportion of three-fourths to the former and one-fourth to the latter. The educational branch comprises two schools, the upper and the lower; the former giving boys a high-class education (lower fees for those of the privileged parishes), and having a number of scholarships and exhibitions. The eleemosynary branch maintains a certain number of resident and non-resident poor people. The original revenues were only L800, but now amount to L20,000. Dulwich College is celebrated for its pictures, many of which were bequeathed by the founder; but the greater and more valuable portion of them was the bequest of Sir Francis Bourgeois, a landscape-painter, who died in 1810. The collection includes many fine pictures of the Dutch school.

DUMA, or DOUMA, the Lower House of the former Russian Parliament, the Upper House being the Council of the Empire. In 1905 Tsar Nicholas II granted his country a Constitution, promising that responsible Government would be established, and that no law would be made effective without the consent of the Duma. The first Duma accordingly met in 1906, and was to have had the power of a Parliament in Constitutional countries. The Legislative Assembly could make new laws, modify existing ones, issue the national Budget, &c., but had no right to alter the fundamental laws of the empire. In spite of the promises, however, given by the Tsar, the Imperial Government paid no attention to the demands of the Assembly, and when the criticisms of the Deputies became too loud, the first Duma was dissolved. A second Duma assembled the next year, but its members, in consequence of governmental restrictions on elections, were mostly Conservatives. In the opinion of the Government, however, even the second Duma was too Liberal in its tendencies, and it was promptly dissolved. The third Duma, which met in 1907, and whose members were mostly landed proprietors, retired officers, and priests, was absolutely subservient to the autocratic Government, and, from that date to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the power and influence of the Russian Duma were almost nil. The Duma ceased to exist on 7th Nov., 1917, when the Bolsheviks came into power, and the Government of Commissaries of the People was set up.

DUMAS (d[.u]-m[:a]), Alexandre (called _Dumas P[`e]re_), French novelist and dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets 1803, died at Puys, near Dieppe, 1870. He was the son of a republican general, and grandson of the Marquis de la Pailleterie and a negress, Tiennette Dumas. In 1823 he went to Paris, and obtained an assistant-secretaryship from the Duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis Philippe. He soon began to write for the stage, and in 1829 scored his first success with his drama _Henri III et sa cour_. It was produced when the battle between the Romanticists and the Classicists was at its height, and hailed as a triumph by the former school. The same year appeared his _Christine_, and in quick succession _Antony_, _Richard d'Arlington_, _T['e]r['e]sa_, _La Tour de Nesle_, _Catharine Howard_, and _Mlle de Belle-Isle_. Dumas had now become a noted Parisian character. The critics fought over the merits of his pieces, and the scandal-mongers over his prodigality and _galanteries_. Turning his attention to romance, he produced a series of historical romances, among which may be mentioned: _Le b[^a]tard de Maul['e]on_; _Isabelle de Bavi[`e]re_; _Les Deux Dianes_; _La Reine Margot_; _Les Trois Mousquetaires_, with its continuations _Vingt Ans Apr[`e]s_ and the later _Vicomte de Bragelonne_. His _Monte-Cristo_ and several others are also well known to English readers through translations. Several historical works were also written by him: _Louis XIV et son Si[`e]cle_, _Le Regent et Louis XV_, _Le Drame de '93_, _Florence et les M['e]dicis_, &c. The works which bear his name amount to some 1200 volumes, including about 60 dramas; but the only claim he could lay to a great number of the productions issued under his name was that he either sketched the plot or revised them before going to press. He earned vast sums of money, but his recklessness and extravagance eventually reduced him to the adoption of a shifty, scheming mode of living. His _M['e]moires_, begun in 1852, present interesting sketches of literary life during the Restoration, but display intense egotism. In 1860 he accompanied Garibaldi in the expedition which freed Naples from the Bourbons. He died at the residence of his son, and was buried in Villers-Cotterets in 1872. Dumas was remarkable for his creative rather than for his artistic genius, and although he frequently squandered his gifts, he was admired even by the highly cultured, such as Thackeray and others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Blaze de Bury, _Alexandre Dumas: sa vie, son temps, son oeuvre_; A. B. Davidson, _Alexandre Dumas p[`e]re: his Life and Works_.

DUMAS, Alexandre, son of the above, born 1824, died in 1895, novelist and dramatist. His works treat mostly of the relations between vice and morals. His first novels, _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_ and _Diane de Lys_, were very successful, as were also the plays which were founded on them. His dramas, which are much superior to his novels, deal satirically with the characters, follies, and manners of French society. He was thus a pioneer in the 'comedy of manners'. His plays, besides his dramatized novel _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_, which marked a date in the history of the French stage, and which supplied Verdi with the plot for _La Traviata_, are: _Le demi-monde_, _Le fils naturel_, _L'Ami des femmes_, _La princesse Georges_, and _L'['E]trang[`e]re_.

DUMAS, Matthieu, French soldier and military writer, born in 1753, died in Paris 1837. He early entered the French cavalry, took part in the War of American Independence, and was employed in the Levant and in Holland. At the commencement of the Revolution he assisted Lafayette in organizing the National Guard. On the triumph of the extreme party in 1797 Dumas was proscribed, but made his escape to Holstein, where he wrote the first part of his _Pr['e]cis des ['E]v['e]nements Militaires_, a valuable source for the history of the period of which it treats (1798-1807). He was recalled from exile by Napoleon, who had become First Consul. His first employment was to organize the reserve for the army of Italy. In 1802 he was appointed State Councillor; in 1805 he became general of division, and was shortly afterwards Neapolitan minister in the service of Joseph Bonaparte. In 1808 he was actively employed in the arrangements for the war against Austria, fought in the battles of Essling and Wagram, and arranged the terms of the armistice of Znaim. He held the office of General Intendant of the army in the campaign of 1812. After the Restoration Louis XVIII appointed him Councillor of State, and gave him several important appointments connected with the army. In 1830 he aided in bringing on the revolution of July, and after the fall of Charles X he obtained the chief command of all the national guards of France, together with a peerage. He published a translation of Napier's _History of the Peninsular War_.

DU MAURIER (d[.u]-m[=o]'ri-[=a]), George Louis Palmella Busson, artist and writer, was born in Paris 1834, died in 1896. He was the son of an English mother and a Frenchman who had been naturalized as a British subject. At the age of seventeen he took up the study of chemistry in London, but soon adopted art as a profession. After studying in Belgium and France, he returned to London, and soon began to contribute drawings to _Punch_, _Once a Week_, _Cornhill Magazine_, &c. He succeeded Leech on _Punch_, and became famous chiefly through his drawings for that publication. He also illustrated various books, and wrote three novels, _Trilby_, _Peter Ibbetson_, and _The Martian_. His elder son, Guy Du Maurier, born in 1865, killed in France in 1915, was the author of _An Englishman's Home_ (1909).

DUMBA, Konstantin Theodor, Austro-Hungarian diplomatist, who became conspicuous as an agent of German propaganda in the United States during the European War. He went as Ambassador to the United States in 1913, and at the outbreak of the war endeavoured to organize a vast conspiracy there, with a view to hampering the productions of munitions for the Allies. Abusing his position of Ambassador, he planned explosions and strikes in American factories. On 1st Sept., 1915, J. F. J. Archibald, an American newspaper correspondent, was arrested at Falmouth, and among the papers found upon him was a letter from Dr. Dumba to Baron Burian, Austrian Minister for Foreign Affairs, wherein the former suggested a plan of crippling the munition factories in America by creating strikes. President Wilson then demanded his recall, and he left the United States in Oct., 1915, Great Britain granting him a safe conduct.

DUMBAR'TON, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport, Scotland, chief town of Dumbarton county, stands on the Leven near its junction with the Clyde, 16 miles W.N.W. of Glasgow. Shipbuilding is carried on to a great extent, and there are foundries and engine-works. Dumbarton unites with Port-Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen, and Kilmarnock in sending a member to Parliament. Originally it was called Alcluyd, and it was the chief town of Cumbria or Strathclyde. Pop. 21,989. A little to the south is the famous rock and castle of Dumbarton, rising above the Clyde. The rock, which is of basalt, is 240 feet in height, and about 1 mile in circumference at the base. It is one of the fortresses stipulated to be kept in repair by the Act of Union, and the barracks contain accommodation for 150 men. There has been a stronghold here from the earliest times, and the fortress of Dumbarton occupied an important place in Scottish history.--_Dumbartonshire_, the county of Dumbarton, is partly maritime, partly inland, consisting of two detached portions, the larger and most westerly lying between the Clyde, Loch Long, and Loch Lomond, and the far smaller portion being about 4 miles east of the former, and comprising only two parishes. More than half the area of the county is occupied by mountains, some of them attaining a height of upwards of 3000 feet. The lower lands are fertile, and in general well cultivated. More than one-half of Loch Lomond and fully two-thirds of the islands in it belong to Dumbartonshire. The Gareloch, an arm of the Firth of Clyde, forms a part of the county into a peninsula. The principal rivers are the Leven, from Loch Lomond, and the Kelvin, both belonging to the Clyde system. The chief minerals are coal, limestone, ironstone, and slate, all of which are wrought more or less. On the banks of the Leven and elsewhere are extensive cotton printing and bleaching establishments; and there are extensive shipbuilding yards along the Clyde. Besides Dumbarton, the chief town, the county contains the towns of Helensburgh and Kirkintilloch, and the manufacturing villages of Alexandria, Renton, and Bonhill. Vestiges of the Roman wall of Antoninus still exist. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. 139,831.

DUMB-CANE, a plant of the ord. Araceae, the _Dieffenbachia seguina_, of the West Indies, so called from its acridity causing swelling of the tongue when chewed, and destroying the power of speech.

DUMDUM, a military village and extensive cantonment, Hindustan, province of Bengal, 4-1/2 miles E.N.E. of Calcutta. The village is famous as being the scene of the first open manifestation of the sepoys against the greased cartridges, which led to the mutiny of 1857. Pop. 12,000.

DUMDUM BULLET (so called from the arsenal at Dumdum, a small village 4-1/2 miles from Calcutta), a hollow-nosed bullet which expands on impact, and so causes an ugly wound. It was used in Indian frontier fighting to stop the rushes of fanatical tribesmen. While the term 'Dumdum' bullet should strictly only be applied to hollow-nosed bullets, it is popularly applied to any kind of expanding bullet. Ordinary bullets can be converted into expanding ones by means of filing the cupro-nickel envelope until the lead core is exposed, by means of slitting the envelope at the shoulders, or simply by reversing the bullet in its socket. Expanding bullets are considered legitimate in big-game shooting, but in the Declaration signed at the Hague, 29th July, 1899, Germany expressly promised not to use such bullets in warfare. In spite of this the Germans freely used bullets of this kind in the European War.

DUMFRIES (dum-fr[=e]s'), a river port, railway centre, and until 1918 a parliamentary burgh, Scotland, capital of the county of same name, and the chief place in the south of Scotland; situated on the left bank of the Nith, about 6 miles from its junction with the Solway Firth. It is connected with the suburb Maxwelltown (in Kirkcudbright) by three bridges, one dating from the thirteenth century. It is a pleasing, well-built town, with various handsome public edifices. There are iron-foundries, hosiery and tweed factories, tanneries, and coach-building works. The River Nith is navigable to the town for vessels of under 60 tons, but the port has decreased in importance since the development of the railway system. Dumfries is a place of great antiquity. The church of the Minorites which once stood here was the scene of the murder of the Red Comyn by Bruce in 1306. Burns spent his closing years here, and the street in which he lived now bears his name. His remains rest under a handsome mausoleum, and a statue of him was erected in 1882. Dumfries was the head-quarters of the Young Pretender in 1745. Until 1918 Dumfries united with Annan, Sanquhar, Lochmaben, and Kirkcudbright (the Dumfries burghs) in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. 19,076.--_Dumfriesshire_, the county of Dumfries, abuts on the Solway Firth, having on its borders the counties of Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Ayr, and Kirkcudbright; area about 1100 sq. miles or 702,946 acres, of which about a third is under cultivation. The surface is irregular, but for the most part mountainous, especially in the north and north-west districts, where the hills attain a considerable elevation, some of them exceeding 2000 feet. The dales of the Nith, Annan, and Esk, the chief rivers of the county, contain fine pasture holms and good arable land. Oats, potatoes, and turnips are the most common products. Good cattle are reared, and are much in request for the English market. The sheep on the hill pastures are mostly Cheviots; on the lower and arable lands the Leicester breed prevails. The minerals most abundant are coal, lead, iron, antimony, and gypsum. Coal and lead are worked to a small extent. Limestone and freestone abound in various parts. There are no manufactures worth mentioning. The county returns one member to the House of Commons. Its principal towns are Dumfries, Annan, Sanquhar, Lockerbie, Moffat, Langholm, and Lochmaben. Pop. 72,825.

DUMONT (d[.u]-m[=o]n), Pierre ['E]tienne Louis, the friend and literary assistant of Mirabeau and Jeremy Bentham, was born at Geneva in 1759, died at Milan 1829. Ordained a minister of the Protestant Church in 1781, he attached himself to the democratic party in Geneva, and when the opposite party gained the ascendency he went to St. Petersburg, in 1782, where he was appointed pastor of the French Reformed Church. Soon after he accepted an offer to act as tutor to the sons of Lord Shelburne, afterwards Marquess of Lansdowne, which brought him to London, where he became intimate with Jeremy Bentham and Sir Samuel Romilly. Visiting Paris during the first years of the Revolution, he gained the friendship of Mirabeau, whom he assisted in the composition of speeches and reports, and of whom he wrote some interesting _Recollections_. On his return to London he formed that connection with Bentham which fixed his career as a writer; recasting, popularizing, and editing Bentham's works in a form suitable for the reading public. He returned to Geneva in 1814 and became a Senator.

DUMONT D'URVILLE (d[.u]-m[=o]n d[.u]r-v[=e]l), Jules Sebastien C['e]sar, French navigator, was born in 1790, killed in a railway accident between Paris and Versailles 1842. After completing his studies at Caen, he entered the French navy, in which he ultimately rose to be rear-admiral. From 1826 to 1829 he commanded the corvette _Astrolabe_, which was sent to obtain tidings of La P['e]rouse, and to make hydrographic observations. He made surveys of the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and found remains of the shipwreck of La P['e]rouse on one of the Pacific islands. The result of this voyage was the publication of _Voyage de D['e]couverte autour du Monde_. In 1837 he sailed with the _Astrolabe_ and _Z['e]l['e]e_ on a voyage of Antarctic discovery, and after many dangers, and having visited many parts of Oceania, he returned in 1840. On his return he began the publication of _Voyage au P[^o]le sud et dans l'Oc['e]anie_, which was finished by one of his companions.

DUMOURIEZ (d[.u]-m[:o]-ri-[=a]), Charles Francois Duperrier, a French general of great military talent, was born at Cambrai in 1739 of a noble family of Provence, died near Henley-on-Thames 1823. He served as an officer in the Seven Years' War. In 1768 he went to Corsica as quartermaster-general of the small army which was sent for the conquest of that island, and was afterwards made colonel. In 1778 he was appointed Governor of Cherbourg. At the Revolution he joined the Jacobins, and subsequently the Girondists, and in 1792 he was Minister of Foreign Affairs. War breaking out between France and Austria, he resigned in order to take command of the army; invaded Flanders, and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes and conquered Belgium. Instead of prosecuting the war vigorously, he now entered upon measures for the overthrow of the Revolutionary Government, issued a proclamation, in which he promised the restoration of the constitutional monarchy in the person of the heir to the crown, but was attacked by the Versailles volunteers, and compelled to flee (4th April, 1793). The Convention set a price of 300,000 livres upon his head. At first he retired to Brussels, and after various wanderings found a final refuge in England. His _Memoirs_, written by himself, appeared in 1794; an enlarged edition in 1822. He was also the author of a large number of political pamphlets.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Holland Rose and A. M. Broadley, _Dumouriez and the Defence of England against Napoleon_; H. Welschinger, _Le Roman de Dumouriez_.

D[:U]NA (d[:u]'n[.a]), or WESTERN DVINA, a river of Russia, which rises in the government of Tver, about 15 miles W. of the source of the Volga, falls into the Gulf of Riga, has a course of about 650 miles, and waters the seven governments of Tver, Pskov, Vitebsk, Mogilev, &c., draining an area of about 65,000 sq. miles. It is navigable for a considerable distance, but is frozen for about four months each year.

D[:U]NABURG (d[:u]'na-b[u:]rg), DVINABURG, or DVINSK, a fortified town in Latvia, formerly belonging to Russia, in the government of Vitebsk on the right bank of the D[:u]na, or Dvina, 112 miles south-east of Riga. It carries on various industries, a considerable trade, and has three yearly fairs. The official name is Dvinsk, or Daugavpils. It was captured by the Germans in Feb., 1918. Pop. 110,912.

D[:U]NAM[:U]NDE (d[:u]'na-m[.u]n-de; 'D[:u]namouth'), a fortress and port on the Gulf of Riga, at the mouth of the D[:u]na, having a large winter harbour for the shipping of Riga. Pop. 2500.

DUNBAR', William, the most eminent of all the old Scottish poets, was born, probably in East Lothian, about 1460-5. In 1475 he went to St. Andrews, where, in 1477, he took the degree of B.A., and two years later that of M.A. After this he seems to have become a begging friar of the Franciscan order, and made journeys in England and France, but he returned to Scotland about 1490, and attached himself to the court of James IV, from whom he received a pension of L10. On the marriage of James IV to Margaret of England Dunbar celebrated the event in a poem of great beauty, entitled _The Thrissil and the Rois_. His pension was ultimately raised to L80 a year, and he was the recipient of various additional gratuities, though he appears frequently to have addressed both the king and the queen for a benefice, but always without success. After the defeat at Flodden his name disappears from the royal accounts, and he probably died about 1520. His works, which consist of elaborate allegories, satirical and grimly humorous pieces, and poems full of brilliant description and luxuriant imagination, first collected by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1834), were edited by John Small and A. J. G. Mackay, for the Scottish Text Society, between 1884 and 1893.--Cf. _The Cambridge History of English Literature_ (vol. ii).

DUNBAR' (Gael., Castle Point), a town of Scotland; a royal and municipal (formerly parliamentary) burgh and seaport in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth. It is a place of great antiquity, having originated in a castle, once of great strength and importance, which underwent several memorable sieges, on one occasion being successfully defended (in 1338) against the English for nineteen weeks by Black Agnes of Dunbar, Countess of March. In 1650, at the 'Race of Dunbar', Cromwell totally defeated the Scottish army under David Leslie near the town. The harbour is not very commodious, but the town is an important fishing-station. Pop. 4830.

DUNBLANE', an old episcopal city, Scotland, in Perthshire, 6 miles north-east of Stirling, on the Allan. The ancient cathedral, partly in ruins, dates from the twelfth century. The nave is 130 feet by 58 feet, and the choir, now the parish church, is 80 feet by 30 feet. The building was restored in 1893. Bishop Leighton held the see from 1662 to 1670. About two miles from the town the indecisive battle of Sheriffmuir was fought in 1715, between the Royal forces under the Duke of Argyle, and the Jacobites under the Earl of Mar. Pop. 4600.

DUN'CAN, Adam, Viscount, a British naval officer, was born in Dundee in 1731, died 1804. He went to sea when young, and was a post-captain in 1761. In the following year he served at the taking of Havana; and in 1779 he shared in the victory of Admiral Rodney over the Spaniards. In 1789 he became rear-admiral of the blue, and in 1794 vice-admiral of the white squadron. The following year he was appointed commander of the North Sea fleet, and in Oct., 1797, won a brilliant victory over the Dutch fleet off Camperdown, for which he was rewarded with the title of Viscount Duncan of Camperdown and a pension of L2000 a year.

DUNCAN, Thomas, an eminent Scottish painter, was born in 1807, died at Edinburgh 1845. He studied under Sir W. Allan, and was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1843. His principal works were illustrative of Scottish history and character. Among the best known of them are: _The Abdication of Mary Queen of Scots_, _Anne Page and Slender_, _Prince Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering Edinburgh after Prestonpans_, _Charles Edward asleep in a Cave after Culloden_, and _The Martyrdom of John Brown of Priesthill_.

DUN'CANSBY HEAD, a promontory in Caithness-shire, Scotland, forming the N.E. extremity of the Scottish mainland, 1-3/4 miles E. of John o' Groat's House, and 18-1/2 miles N. by E. of Wick. Close by the promontory are two rocks, of fantastic form and great height, called the Stacks of Duncansby, which in spring and summer are covered with sea-fowl.

DUNDALK (dun-d[a:]k'), a seaport and former parliamentary borough, Ireland, capital of the county of Louth, on Castletown River, about 2 miles above its mouth in Dundalk Bay. It has railway workshops, tanyards, and a spinning-mill; the trade, chiefly in cattle and agricultural produce, is extensive. It was the seat of the court of Edward Bruce from 1315 to 1318. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell. Pop. 13,128.

DUNDAS' OF ARNISTON, the name of a family several members of which held a conspicuous place in the legal and political history of Scotland.--Sir James Dundas, the first of Arniston, knighted by James VI, was the third son of George Dundas of Dundas, a descendant of the Dunbars, Earls of March.--His eldest son, Sir James, was member of Parliament for Mid-Lothian, and was appointed one of the judges of the Court of Session (1662).--His eldest son Robert was also raised to the bench of the Court of Session, and filled that station for thirty-seven years. He died in 1727.--His eldest son Robert (1685-1753) was successively Solicitor-General for Scotland, Lord-Advocate, member of Parliament for the county of Edinburgh, and Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. In 1737 he was raised to the bench, and on the death of Lord-President Forbes of Culloden, in 1748, he was appointed his successor.--His eldest son Robert (1713-87) also attained to the position of Lord-Advocate, and Lord-President of the Court of Session.--His brother Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville, distinguished statesman, was born in 1741 and died 1811. He obtained the post of Solicitor-General in 1773, that of Lord-Advocate in 1775, and was made joint keeper of the signet for Scotland in 1777. In 1782 he was appointed Treasurer of the Navy and member of the Privy Council; and from that time took a leading part in all the Pitt measures, and had supreme influence in Scotland. Among other offices he held that of First Lord of the Admiralty; and in 1805 he was impeached before the House of Lords of high crimes and misdemeanours in his former office of Treasurer of the Navy, but was finally acquitted. He was created Viscount Melville in 1801, a title still borne by his direct descendant.

DUNDEE', John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount. See _Graham_.

DUNDEE (Gael. _Dun Taw_, fort on the Tay), a city, royal and parliamentary burgh, and seaport, Scotland, in the county of Forfar, on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, about 8 miles from the open sea, 37 miles N.N.E. of Edinburgh; in population the third town in Scotland. It stretches along the Tay, or east to west, and of late years has been greatly extended in both directions. The more recently made streets are spacious and handsome, but most of those of more ancient date are narrow, and irregularly built. The most conspicuous building is St. Mary's Tower, or the Old Steeple as it is popularly called, 156 feet high, erected in the middle of the fourteenth century. Three modern parochial churches have been built on to it in form of a cathedral, the nave, choir, and transept respectively forming a separate church. Among public buildings are: the town hall, several public halls, the high school, exchange, infirmary, lunatic asylum, Albert Institute and free library. University College, for men and women, was opened in 1883, and affiliated to the University of St. Andrews in 1897. It was founded by private munificence, receiving an endowment of L140,000, and has ten professorships. Dundee has several public parks and recreation grounds and a good supply of water. The town has long been celebrated for its textile manufactures, particularly those of the coarser descriptions of linen, and it is now the chief seat of the linen trade in Scotland and of the jute trade in Great Britain, there being a great number of mills and factories engaged in the spinning and weaving of flax, jute, and hemp. Shipbuilding is extensively carried on, and there are large engineering establishments. Another branch of business is the northern seal and whale fishery. Dundee is also famous for its marmalade and other preserves and confectionery. The shipping accommodation includes five large wet-docks, with a connected tidal harbour and graving-docks. The chief foreign trade is with the Baltic and Archangel in the importation of flax and hemp, with Norway, Sweden, and Canada in timber, and with Calcutta in jute. The railway facilities of Dundee were greatly increased in 1878 by the opening of a bridge across the Tay; but on the 28th of Dec., 1879, the bridge was destroyed by a violent storm, when about 100 people in a train in the act of crossing lost their lives. A new bridge, to replace the one destroyed, was opened for traffic in June, 1887; it is a very substantial structure about 2 miles in length. Dundee was made a royal burgh by William the Lion about 1200, was twice in the possession of the English under Edward I, and was as often retaken by Wallace and Bruce. In 1645 it was besieged, taken, and sacked by the Duke of Montrose; and six years afterwards it was stormed by Monk, when a great number of its inhabitants were put to death. Since 1868 the town has returned two members to Parliament. In 1888 it was raised by royal grant to the rank of a city. In 1914 the burgh of Broughty Ferry was annexed to Dundee, increasing its area to 5964 acres. Pop. 176,062; population in 1921, 168,217.

DUNDON'ALD, Thomas Cochrane, tenth Earl of, British admiral, was born in Lanarkshire 1775, died 1860. At the age of eighteen he embarked with his uncle, then Captain, and afterwards Sir Alexander Cochrane, in the _Hind_, of twenty-eight guns, and soon distinguished himself by his daring and gallantry. In 1800 he was appointed to the _Speedy_ sloop-of-war of fourteen guns, and in the course of thirteen months captured over fifty vessels, but was at last captured himself. In 1805, while in command of the _Pallas_ frigate, he took some rich prizes, and for the next four years in the _Imp['e]rieuse_ performed remarkable exploits in cutting out vessels, storming batteries, and destroying signals. On his return to England he entered Parliament, and by his attacks on the abuses of the naval administration made himself obnoxious to the authorities. He gave further offence by charging Lord Gambier, his superior officer, with neglect of duty (which was true); by denouncing the abuses of the prize-court, and the treatment of the prisoners of war. His enemies succeeded in 1814 in convicting him on a charge--since proved to be false--of originating a rumour, for speculative purposes, that Napoleon had abdicated. He was expelled from Parliament, ignominiously ejected from the Order of the Bath, imprisoned for a year, and fined L1000. The electors of Westminster immediately paid his fine and re-elected him, but he had to remain in prison till the expiration of his sentence. In 1818 he took service in the Chilian navy, his exploits greatly aiding the national independence of that country, as well as soon after of Brazil. In 1832 he was restored to his rank in the British navy. In 1831, by the death of his father, he had succeeded to the title of Earl of Dundonald; in 1841 he became vice-admiral of the blue; in 1848 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the North America and West India station; and in 1851 and 1854 respectively he became vice-admiral of the white, and rear-admiral of the United Kingdom. He was reinstated in the Order of the Bath (G.C.B.) on 25th May, 1847. He did much to promote the adoption of steam and the screw propeller in war-ships. He wrote an autobiography, which, though left incomplete, is a most interesting work.--Cf. J. B. Atlay, _The Trial of Lord Cochrane before Lord Ellenborough_.

DUNEDIN (dun-[=e]'din), capital of the provincial district of Otago, New Zealand, and the most important commercial town in the colony, stands at the upper extremity of an arm of the sea, about 9 miles from its port, Port Chalmers, with which it is connected by railway. Though founded in 1848, its more rapid progress dates only from 1861, when extensive gold-fields discovered in Otago attracted a large influx of population. There are many handsome buildings, both public and private: the municipal buildings, the post office, hospital, lunatic asylum, Government offices, the university, high schools (boys' and girls'), the new museum, several banks (especially the Bank of New Zealand), the athenaeum and mechanics' institute, the freemasons' hall, and two theatres. Wool is the staple export. Several woollen and other manufactories are now in existence. There is a regular line of steamers between this port and Melbourne, and communication is frequent with all parts of New Zealand. Through the opening of the new Victoria Channel from Port Chalmers vessels drawing 16 feet can now ascend to Dunedin at low water. Pop. 68,716.

DUNES, low hills of sand accumulated on the sea-coasts of Holland, Britain, Spain, and other countries, in some places encroaching on and covering what once was cultivated land, but in others serving as a natural barrier to protect the country from the destructive encroachments of the sea.

DUNFERM'LINE, a royal and police burgh of Scotland, county of Fife, 3 miles N. of the Firth of Forth, and 13 miles north-west of Edinburgh. The streets though narrow are well built. Dunfermline was early a favourite residence of the kings of Scotland, and at it were born David II, James I, Charles I, and his sister Elizabeth. The Benedictine abbey founded by Malcolm Canmore (1070) is now represented chiefly by the Abbey Church, in which are the remains of Queen Margaret and Canmore, Alexander I and his Queen, David I, Malcolm IV, and Robert Bruce. Dunfermline was made a royal burgh in 1588. The town has greatly benefited through the munificence of the late Andrew Carnegie, a native, who, besides other benefactions, settled on it the sum of L500,000. In the manufacture of table-linen it is unrivalled by any town in the kingdom. There are collieries adjacent. The Dunfermline burghs return one member to Parliament. Pop. 28,103.

DUNGAN'NON, a town of Ireland, County Tyrone, 35 miles west by south of Belfast. It has manufactures of linen and earthenware. Till 1885 it returned a member to the House of Commons. Pop. 3830.

DUNGARPUR (d[:o]n-g_a_r-p[:o]r'), an Indian native state in R['a]jput['a]na; area, 1000 sq. miles; pop. 153,381.--_Dungarpur_ is also the name of the chief town and residence of the Maharawal of the state.

DUNGAR'VAN, a seaport of Ireland, County Waterford, on the Bay of Dungarvan, much resorted to for sea-bathing. The harbour is shallow, and the trade depends almost entirely on agricultural produce. Till 1885 it returned a member to Parliament. Pop. 4977.

DUNG BEETLE, a name applied to a large number of lamellicorn beetles (in which the antennae terminate usually in lateral leaflets) from their habit of burying their eggs in dung. The _Geotr[=u]pes stercorarius_, 'dor' or 'shard-borne' beetle, and the _Scarabaeus sacer_, or sacred beetle of the Egyptians, are examples.

DUNGENESS (dunj-nes'), a low headland on the S. coast of Kent, 102 miles S.E. of Rye; has a lighthouse with fixed light.

DUNKELD', a small town of Scotland, on the Tay, about 14 miles north by west of Perth; pop. 613. It is a very ancient place, and from 850, when Kenneth I removed the remains of St. Columba from Iona to a church which he had built here, became the metropolitan see of Scotland, till supplanted by St. Andrews. The choir of the ancient cathedral is still used as the parish church. Near it is Dunkeld House, the seat of the Duke of Atholl, the grounds of which are the finest and most extensive in Scotland.

DUNKERS, or TUNKERS, also called DIPPERS, a religious sect in America, founded by Conrad Peysel, a German, in 1724, and which takes its name from the Ger. _tunken_, to dip, from their mode of baptizing converts. They reject infant baptism; use great plainness of dress and language; refuse to take oaths or to fight; and anoint the sick with oil in order to hasten their recovery, depending on this unction and prayer, and rejecting the use of medicine. Every brother is allowed to speak in the congregation, and their best speaker is usually set apart as their minister.

DUNKIRK' (Fr. _Dunkerque_), a seaport town, France, department of Nord, at the entrance of the Straits of Dover, surrounded by walls, and otherwise defended by forts and outworks. It has several fine churches, a college, a public library, and a gallery of paintings; manufactures of earthenware, leather, soap, starch, ropes; sugar-refineries, breweries, and distilleries, and a large trade. In 1658 Dunkirk was given up to the English by Turenne, and continued with them till 1662, when Charles II sold it to Louis XIV. It is one of the chief French torpedo stations, and during the European War was a British base and frequently bombed by the enemy. Pop. 38,891.

DUN'LIN, a British bird (_Tringa alpina_), a species of sandpiper, occurring in vast flocks along sandy shores. It is about 8 inches in length from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail, and its plumage undergoes marked variations in summer and winter, the back passing from black with reddish edges to each feather, to an ashen grey, and the breast from mottled black to pure white. During the winter it migrates to Asia, Africa, the Canaries, West Indies, and California.

DUNMOW', GREAT and LITTLE, two villages, England, county of Essex. The latter is remarkable for the ancient custom, revived in 1855, of giving a flitch of bacon to any couple who, a year and a day after their marriage, could swear that they had neither quarrelled nor repented. The prize, instituted in 1244 by Robert de Fitzwalter, was first claimed in 1445.

DUN'NAGE, faggots, boughs, or loose wood laid in the hold of a ship to raise heavy goods above the bottom to prevent injury from water; also loose articles wedged between parts of the cargo to hold them steady.

DUNNE, Finley Peter, American humorist, born in Chicago in 1867. After serving as reporter on various papers, he became editor of the _Evening Journal_ (1897-1900). Dunne first attracted attention by a series of sketches in the _Times-Herald_, where he humorously commented upon all sorts of subjects in the name of one Martin Dooley, publican of Archey Road. His works include: _Mr. Dooley in Peace and War_ (1898), _Mr. Dooley's Philosophy_ (1900), _Observations by Mr. Dooley_ (1902), and _Mr. Dooley Says_ (1910).

DUNNET HEAD, a bold rock promontory in Caithness, with sandstone cliffs 100 to 300 feet high, the most northerly point of the mainland of Scotland, crowned by a lighthouse visible at a distance of 25 miles.

DUNNOT'TAR CASTLE, an extensive ruin on the coast of Kincardineshire, Scotland, on a precipitous rock rising from the sea. It dates from the close of the fourteenth century, and was long the stronghold of the Keiths, earls marischal. During the Commonwealth this castle was selected for the preservation of the Scottish regalia; and in 1685 it was used as a State prison for Covenanters. It was dismantled in 1720.

DUNOIS (d[.u]-nw[:a]), Jean, Count of Orleans and of Longueville; a French hero, natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, born 1402, died 1468. Dunois made the name 'Bastard of Orleans' illustrious by his military exploits. He began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to Paris. Being besieged by the English, he defended Orleans until relieved by the Maid of Orleans. In 1450 he had completely freed France from the English, and was rewarded by the title of 'deliverer of his country', the county of Longueville, and the dignity of High Chamberlain of France.

DUNOON', a town, police burgh, and watering-place of Scotland, in Argyleshire, on the shore of the Firth of Clyde, 27 miles by river from Glasgow. It extends for about 3 miles S.S.W. from the Holy Loch, and consists of Hunter's Quay to the N., Kirn and Dunoon proper to the S.; each with its separate steamboat pier. On a green rocky knoll are remains of the castle of Dunoon, once a residence of the family of Argyll. Pop. 9860.

DUNS, John, commonly called _Duns Scotus_, an eminent scholastic divine, born 1265 or 1274, but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland is uncertain. He was admitted when young into an institution belonging to the Franciscan friars at Newcastle, whence he was sent to Merton College, Oxford. In 1301 he was appointed divinity professor at Oxford, and the fame of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304 he went to Paris, and was appointed professor and regent in the theological schools, in which situation he acquired the title of _Doctor Subtilis_, 'the subtle doctor'. He opposed Thomas Aquinas on the subject of grace and free-will; and hence the _Scotists_ are opposed to the _Thomists_. Duns Scotus was the apostle of _realism_, which was opposed to the systems of _nominalism_ and _conceptualism_ promulgated by the other sections into which the schoolmen were divided. He died, it is said, at Cologne in 1308, leaving behind him numerous works. He was a genuine scholastic philosopher, who worked out ideas taken from Aristotle, St. Augustine, and the preceding scholastics.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Townsend, _The Great Schoolmen_; C. R. Hagenbach, _History of Doctrines_; E. Pluzanski, _Essai sur la philosophie de Duns Scot_; and article in _Dictionary of National Biography_.

DUNS, or DUNSE (dunz, duns), police burgh and county town of Berwickshire, Scotland, on the Whitadder; has manufactures of linen, and paper-mills. Pop. 3040. On Duns Law (700 feet) are traces of a camp formed by Leslie's Covenanters in 1639.

DUNSIN'ANE, a hill in Scotland, one of the Sidlaws, 1012 feet high, about 7 miles N.E. of Perth, with vestiges of a hill-fort locally called Macbeth's Castle, and immortalized by Shakespeare in _Macbeth_.

DUN'STABLE, a town, England, county of Bedford, 32 miles north-west of London. It was an important Roman station, and had a palace and a priory founded by Henry I in 1131. Part of the latter is used as the parish church. It has a grammar school, founded in 1715. Dunstable is famous for its manufactures of straw-plait. Pop. 8057.

DUN'STAN, ST., an English archbishop and statesman, was born at Glastonbury in 925, died at Canterbury 988. As a youth he was remarkable for his learning and his skill in music, painting, carving, and working in metals. He entered the Benedictine order, became an anchorite at Glastonbury, and in 945 was made abbot by King Edmund. After the death of Edmund, Edred, the next king, made him his Prime Minister and principal director in civil and ecclesiastical affairs. In the reign of Edwy he was banished, but was recalled by Edgar, and made Archbishop of Canterbury. He was again deprived of power on the accession of Ethelred in 978, and devoted the last years of his life to his diocese and the literary and artistic pursuits of his earlier days. He did much to improve education and to raise the standing and character of the priesthood. The old biographies of him have all a large legendary element.--Cf. W. Stubbs (editor), _Memorials of St. Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, 1874).

DUODECIMAL SYSTEM, in numeration, a system of numbers the scale of which is twelve. _Duodecimals_ is a term applied to an arithmetical method of ascertaining the number of square feet, &c., in a rectangular area or surface, whose sides are given in feet, inches, and lines. The method is similar to that of ordinary decimals, the scale being twelve instead of ten.

DUODEC'IMO (often contracted 12_mo_) is that form of volume in which each leaf forms a twelfth part of the sheet.

DUODE'NUM (Lat. _duodeni_, by twelves), the commencement of the intestinal canal, the first of the smaller intestines, so called because its length is about twelve fingers' breadth.

DUPANLOUP (d[.u]-p[:a]n-l[=o]), F['e]lix Antoine Philibert, French prelate, born at St. F['e]lix, in Savoy, 1802; became a French subject by naturalization in 1838; died at Paris 1878. He was ordained in 1825, appointed professor of theology at the Sorbonne in 1841, and Bishop of Orleans in 1849. From that time he took a prominent part in all the political and religious discussions in France. He belonged to the Gallican party, but submitted to the decisions of the council of the Vatican; and was a strenuous advocate of free education. He wrote: _La Pacification R['e]ligieuse, De l'['e]ducation_, and _De la haute ['e]ducation_.

DUPLEIX (d[.u]-pl[=a]), Joseph, a French leader in India, born 1697, died 1763. He accumulated a fortune by commercial operations in India, and in 1742 was appointed Governor of Pondicherry for the French East India Company. He formed the project of founding a French Empire in India, and soon made himself master of the Carnatic partly by conquest and partly by political intrigue. He was opposed by Clive, and a long string of British successes caused the complete overthrow of all his plans. Recalled in 1753, he died in want and obscurity in Paris.

DUPONT (d[.u]-p[=o]n), Pierre, French poet and song-writer, born at Lyons 1821, died at St. ['E]tienne (Loire) 1870. He was educated by his godfather, a priest, and began to write and compose songs at an early age. After issuing a volume of poems in 1844, he went to Paris and obtained a place in the office of the secretary of the Institute. Some of his songs, such as _Song of Bread_ and _Song of the Workers_, had a Socialistic ring which proved obnoxious to the Government which came into power in Dec., 1852. He was arrested, imprisoned, and condemned to be banished for seven years; but his release was soon procured. His poems have been collected under the titles _Cahiers de Chansons_, _La Muse Populaire_, _Chants et Chansons_, _Po['e]sie et Musique_, and _['E]tudes Litt['e]raires_.

DUPONT DE NEMOURS (d[.u]-p[=o]n d[.e] n[.e]-m[:o]r), Pierre Samuel, French political economist, born at Paris, Dec., 1739; died in America 1817. He early gained a reputation for his writings on commerce, and his exposition of the theories of the physiocrats, and was employed by Turgot and Vergennes in the public service. During the ministry of Calonne he became Councillor of State, and in 1787 was secretary to the Assembly of the Notables. He was twice president of the National Assembly. During the Revolution he opposed the extreme republicans, and narrowly escaped the guillotine at the downfall of Robespierre. From 1798 to 1802 he was in America, and on his return to France he refused all public office. He finally returned to America in 1815. Among his writings are: _Philosophie de l'Univers_, _Vie de Turgot_, and a translation of Ariosto.

D[:U]PPEL (d[.u]p'l), a fortified village in Schleswig-Holstein, on the coast of the Little Belt. The place is of considerable strategical importance, and has been the scene of some severe struggles between the Danes, to whom it formerly belonged, and the Germans. It was captured by the Prussians in 1864, after a siege and bombardment which lasted nearly two months.

DUPUY, Charles Alexander, French statesman, born at Le Puy, Haute-Loire, in 1851. Educated at the Lyc['e]e of Le Puy and the Lyc['e]e Charlemagne in Paris, he was professor of philosophy at the colleges of Nantes and Aurillac, and afterwards vice-rector of the Corsican College at Ajaccio. He entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1885, was Minister of Public Instruction in 1889, and succeeded Ribot as Premier in 1893, but resigned and became President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was again Premier from 1894 to 1895, and from 1898 to 1899, and was elected to the Senate in 1900. He was Minister of Labour from 1912 to 1914.

DUPUYTREN (d[.u]-p[.u]-i-tr[:a]n), Guillaume, Baron, French surgeon and anatomist, born in 1777, died at Paris 1835. In 1812 he became professor of surgery, and in 1815 first surgeon to the H[^o]tel Dieu, Paris. In 1823 he was appointed first physician to Louis XVIII, and retained the same situation under Charles X. He was considered the first French surgeon of his day, made important discoveries in morbid anatomy, and invented several useful surgical instruments.

DUQUESNE (d[.u]-k[=a]n), Abraham, French admiral, born 1610, died 1688. In his seventeenth year he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself during and after the year 1637 in the war against Spain. In 1647 he commanded the expedition against Naples. In the Sicilian War he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa, Louis XIV conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, with the title of Duquesne. He was a Protestant, and the only person exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the Edict of Nantes.

DURA'MEN, the name given by botanists to the central wood or heart-wood in a tree trunk. It is harder than the newer wood that surrounds it, and is often dark-coloured from being impregnated with tannin and other antiseptic substances.

DURANCE (d[.u]-r[:a]ns), a river of France, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and, after a course of about 180 miles, joins the Rhone about 4 miles below Avignon. Marseilles is supplied with water from the Durance.

DURAN'GO, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, about 500 miles N.W. of Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet above the sea. It is well built, has a cathedral, a mint, manufactures of cotton and woollen goods and leather. Pop. 34,085.--The state (area, 42,272 sq. miles) is partly mountainous and unproductive, but has valuable gold-, silver-, and iron-mines, and also fertile tracts. Pop. 436,147 (1910); estimated pop. in 1919, 509,585.

DURANTE (d[:o]-r[.a]n't[=a]), Francesco, Italian musician, born 1684, died 1755. He attained a high degree of eminence in vocal church music, and he trained the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in Naples--Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, and Jomelli.

DURAZZO (d[:o]-r[:a]t's[=o]; ancient DYRRHACHIUM, or EPIDAMNUS), a seaport of Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles south by west of Scutari. It is fortified, and has a good harbour. For four centuries the town remained under Turkish rule and lost all importance, but in 1912, during the Balkan War, it came again into prominence. It was occupied by the Serbians on 28th Nov., 1912, and in 1913 was incorporated in the newly created Principality of Albania. During the European War Durazzo was captured by the Austrians in Feb., 1916, but was reoccupied by the Italians on 14th Oct., 1918. Pop. 5000.

DUR'BAN, chief port of Natal, on a land-locked bay (Port Natal). It is well laid out, has a fine town hall, handsome churches, post office, hospital, electric tramways, and parks and gardens, and is connected by railway with Maritzburg and the interior. The harbour now admits large vessels. Founded in 1834, it was named after a governor of the Cape. Pop. 48,475.

DURBAR (d[u:]r-b[:a]r'; Pers. _dar_, door, and _bar_, court, admittance), a term signifying the court, council-chamber, or audience-room in the palaces of the native princes of India; hence, a general reception by a ruler in British India or by any officer of rank. Durbars were held on a ridge at Delhi on the proclamation of Queen Victoria (1877), of King Edward VII (1903), and of King George V (1911).

D[:U]REN (d[:u]'ren), a town in the Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 miles E. by N. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has important manufactures of woollens, paper, leather, rails, and hardware, and an extensive trade. Pop. 32,511.

D[:U]RER (d[:u]'r[.e]r), Albrecht, German painter, designer, sculptor, and engraver on wood and metal, born at N[:u]rnberg 1471, died there 1528. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary. In 1486 he left his father's trade and became an apprentice of Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in N[:u]rnberg. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his 'wanderjahre', the usual course of travels of a German youth. On his return to N[:u]rnberg he married Agnes, the daughter of Hans Frey, a mechanic, who has been falsely accused for centuries of embittering his life and bringing him to his grave. In 1505 he went to Venice to improve himself in his art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the _Martyrdom of Bartholomew_ for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the Emperor Rudolph and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. On his return to N[:u]rnberg his fame spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and Charles V confirmed him in this office. All the artists and learned men of his time honoured and loved him, and for many years he was one of the chief burghers of his native town. Profound application and great facility in the mechanical part of his art were the characteristics of D[:u]rer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the human figure. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also among the first to practise etching. He also invented the method of printing woodcuts in two colours. Among his masterpieces in painting are a _Crucifixion_, _Adam and Eve_, an _Adoration of the Magi_, and portraits of Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. Among his best engravings on copper are his _Fortune_, _Melancholy_, _Adam and Eve in Paradise_, _St. Hubert_, _St. Jerome_, and _The Smaller Passion_, in sixteen plates. Among his best engravings on wood are _The Greater Passion_ (so called), in thirteen plates; _The Smaller Passion_, with the frontispiece, thirtyseven pieces; _The Revelation of St. John_, with the frontispiece, fifteen plates; _The Life of Mary_, two prints, with the frontispiece. D[:u]rer has also much merit as a writer, and published works on _Human Proportion_, _Fortification_, and the _Use of the Compass and Square_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thausing, _D[:u]rer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst_ (2 vols.; English translation by F. A. Eaton); L. Cust, _Albrecht D[:u]rer: a Study of his Life and Works_; F. N[:u]chter, _Life and Selection from Works_.

DU'RESS (Lat. _duritia_, severity, from _durus_, hard), in law, restraint or compulsion, is of two kinds: _duress of imprisonment_, which is imprisonment or restraint of personal liberty; and _duress_ by menaces or threats (_per minas_), when a person is threatened with loss of life, or with some kind of injury. An act done under duress is voidable or excusable.

D'URFEY (dur'fi), Thomas, an English poet and wit, the grandson of a French Protestant refugee, was born at Exeter in 1653, and died in 1723. He abandoned law for literature, and wrote a large number of comedies of a licentious character. His bombastic tragedy _The Siege of Memphis_ appeared in 1676. D'Urfey's name is now principally remembered in connection with his _Pills to Purge Melancholy_, a collection of songs and ballads, partly his own, and many of them coarse or licentious. His society was generally courted by the witty, and he enjoyed the favour of four successive monarchs.

DURGA (d[u:]r'g[:a]), a Hindu divinity, one of the names given to the consort of Siva. She is generally represented with ten arms. In one hand she holds a spear, with which she is piercing Mahisha, the chief of the demons, the killing of whom was her most famous exploit; in another a sword; in a third the hair of the demon chief; and in others, the trident, discus, axe, club, and shield. A great festival in her honour, the _Durga puja_, is celebrated annually, lasting for ten days.

DURHAM, SIMEON OF, English chronicler of the twelfth century; wrote _Annals of England to the Reign of Henry I_, particularly valuable for events connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.

DURHAM (du'ram), an ancient city, capital of the county of the same name, on the River Wear, which is crossed here by four bridges, 14 miles S. of Newcastle. The principal public buildings are the ancient castle--now appropriated to the uses of the university--the cathedral and other churches, the town hall, county prison, and grammar-school. The educational institutions comprise the university, opened in 1833, the grammar-school, a training-school for school-mistresses, and other schools. There are manufactures of carpeting and mustard. The cathedral occupies a height overlooking the Wear. The larger portion of it is Norman in style, with insertions in all the English styles. Three magnificent and elaborately ornamental towers spring up from the body of the building, one from the centre 212 feet high, and two together from the west end each 143 feet high; the entire length is 420 feet. It was founded by William de St. Carilef, assisted by Malcolm, King of Scotland, in 1093. A parliamentary borough until 1918, Durham returned two members to the House of Commons from 1673 to 1885, and one member from 1885 to 1918. Pop. 17,500.

DURHAM BOOK, a Latin text of the gospels written by Bishop Eadfrith of Lindisfarne, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, finished in the year 720; now in the British Museum.

DURHAM, COUNTY OF, a county on the N.E. coast of England, having on the E. the North Sea, on the N. Northumberland, from which it is divided by the Rivers Tyne and Derwent, Cumberland on the W., and Yorkshire on the S., the River Tees parting the two counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of which two-thirds are under cultivation. The western portion of the county is hilly, enclosing fertile valleys, the eastern portion is more level, and the centre contains extensive coal-fields. Durham is the chief coal county in England, and also produces fire-clay. The chief crops are wheat, oats, turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are esteemed both for the dairy and for fattening. In connection with the commerce of the county may be noticed its foundries, ironworks, potteries, glass-houses, iron-shipbuilding, engine and machine works, and chemical works. For parliamentary purposes it is divided into eleven divisions, each of which sends one member to the House of Commons. It was formerly one of the three counties called counties _palatine_. The chief towns besides Durham are Sunderland, Gateshead, South Shields, Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. Pop. 1,369,860.-- Cf. _Victoria History of the County of Durham_.

DURHAM UNIVERSITY, founded in 1832, opened in 1833, incorporated by royal charter in 1837. It is connected with the bishopric of Durham, the office of warden being annexed to the deanery of Durham, and a canonry in the cathedral being annexed to each of the professors of divinity and classical literature. There are also professors of mathematics, Hebrew, medicine, &c. The students mostly reside within the university buildings, but in 1870 a regulation was passed dispensing with the necessity of residing in any college, hall, or house connected with the university in order to be admitted as a member. The management of the university is entrusted, under the Bishop of Durham as visitor, to the dean and chapter of the cathedral as governors, and to the warden, senate, and convocation, the last including all persons regularly admitted since the opening of the university to the degrees of Doctor in Divinity, Civil Law, and Medicine, and to the degree of Master of Arts. The academical year is divided into three terms--Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. For the degree of B.A., or a licence in theology, a residence of two years (of six months each) is necessary. The M.A. degree may be obtained by a graduate who is of the standing of nine terms since taking his degree of B.A. Armstrong College, founded in 1874, and the College of Medicine, both at Newcastle-on-Tyne, form part of the University of Durham.

DURIAN, or DURION (_Durio zibeth[=i]nus_), a large and lofty tree growing in the Malayan Archipelago. The largish flowers, of a yellow-green colour, are produced on the stem or main branches, and are followed by the large fetid fruit, which is of the size of a man's head, and is a favourite food of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season. There is usually a second crop in November. The smell is offensive, like putrid animal matter, but with this is associated the most delicious flavour, which places it, notwithstanding the odour, in the opinion of many, in the foremost place among tropical fruits.

D[:U]RKHEIM (d[.u]rk'h[=i]m), an old town in Rhenish Bavaria (the Palatinate), 14 miles W.S.W. of Mannheim, well known for its mineral water. The town was destroyed by the French in 1689. Pop. 6523.

DURKHEIM, ['E]mile, French philosopher and sociologist, born at Les Vosges 15th April, 1858, died in Paris 15th Nov., 1917. Educated at the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure, he travelled in Germany, where he studied social conditions. In 1887 he founded the first French chair in sociology at the University of Bordeaux. Durkheim's merit consists in having separated sociology from mere psychology, and in having made a distinction between individual mental phenomena and Folk-psychology. In 1898 he founded and published annually _L'Ann['e]e Sociologique_. His other works include: _De la division du travail social_ (1893); _Les r[`e]gles de la m['e]thode sociologique_ (1894); _Le Suicide_ (1897); _Les formes ['e]l['e]mentaires de la vie r['e]ligieuse; Sociologie et sciences sociales_ (1910); _Le syst[`e]me tot['e]mique en Australie_ (1912); _La Sociologie_ (in _La Science Francaise_, 1915); _Qui a voulu la guerre?; Les Origines de la guerre, d'apr[`e]s les documents diplomatiques_ (1915).

DURLACH (d[u:]r'l[.a]_h_), a town in Baden, 4 miles E.S.E. of Carlsruhe, at the foot of the Turmberg, with manufactures of machinery, chemicals, and leather. Pop. 13,896.

DURMAST, a species of oak, _Quercus sessiliflora_, or according to some, _Q. pubescens_, so closely allied to the common oak (_Q. robur_) as to be reckoned only a variety of it. Its wood is, however, darker, heavier, and more elastic, less easy to split, not so easy to break, yet not so difficult to bend. It is highly valued, therefore, by the builder and cabinet-maker.

DUROC (d[.u]-rok), Michel G['e]raud Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a distinguished general under Bonaparte, born at Pont-[`a]-Mousson in 1772, killed, 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He served as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. In 1805 he was made grand-marshal of the palace; and was frequently employed in diplomatic missions, though he still took his full share in the wars of France till the time of his death. He was a great favourite of Napoleon, and was killed by his side.

DURRA, or DHURRA, Indian millet, the seed of _Sorghum vulg[=a]re_, after wheat the chief cereal crop of the Mediterranean region, and largely used in those countries by the labouring classes for food. Varieties are grown in many parts of Africa, one of them being known as Kaffir corn.

D[:U]RRENSTEIN (d[.u]r'en-st[=i]n), a village in Lower Austria, on the Danube, 41 miles west by north of Vienna. Here are the ruins of the castle in which Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisoned Richard Coeur-de-Lion on his return from Palestine, 1192.

DURUY (d[.u]-r[.u]-[=e]), Victor, French historian and educationist, born at Paris 1811, died in 1894. His father was a workman in the Gobelins tapestry works, and the boy did not begin his education until he was grown up. He was admitted to the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure in 1830, graduated in 1833, and was appointed successively teacher of history in the Lyc['e]e Henri IV, then at the Normal School and the Polytechnic School, inspector of the Academy of Paris, inspector-general of secondary education, and Minister of Public Instruction (1863-9). He is author of _G['e]ographie Politique de la R['e]publique Romaine et de l'Empire_, _G['e]ographie Historique du Moyen Age_, _Histoire Romaine_, _Histoire de France_, _Histoire Grecque_, _Histoire Populaire Contemporaine_, &c. Some of these are simply school-books, but his _Histoire des Romains_ (translated into English) and his _Histoire de la Gr[`e]ce Ancienne_ (translated into English) are extensive and important works, the former especially.

DUSE, Eleonora, Italian actress, born at Vigevano, near Venice, in 1859. At the age of thirteen she made her first appearance on the stage, and in 1883 she acted at Rome, when she was recognized as one of the greatest Italian, and even one of the greatest living actresses. From that time her career was one of uninterrupted success, and she gained a world-wide reputation. Duse is one of the dramatic artists who discard the customary mannerisms of the stage, and all that is conventional but unreal in modern acting. Some of d'Annunzio's best plays were specially written for her. Among her most remarkable impersonations are those of Francesca da Rimini, Marguerite Gautier in _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_, Magda, La Tosca, Paula in _The Second Mrs. Tanqueray_, and Nora in Ibsen's _A Doll's House_. She appeared for the first time in London in 1897.

D[:U]SSELDORF (d[.u]s'sel-dorf), a town of Germany, in the Rhine province, beautifully situated among villas and gardens on the right bank of the Rhine, 22 miles N.N.W. of Cologne, one of the handsomest towns in the valley of the Rhine. It is a great focus of railway and steamboat communication, and has a number of handsome public buildings, and several remarkable churches. Among the public institutions particular notice is due to the Academy of Art, founded in 1767, by the Elector Theodore, and afterwards directed by Cornelius, Schadow, and Bendemann. It has the honour of having founded a school of painting, which takes the name of D[:u]sseldorf, and has had a large number of distinguished pupils. The industries embrace iron, machinery, railway plant, cotton, leather, chemicals, and beer, and the trade is large. Pop. 358,728.

DUST, solid matter in a fine state of division. Spores of plants, bacteria, &c., are found in the atmosphere, but in general organic particles are numerous only over thickly populated districts. Inorganic particles are derived from various sources. Where the soil is dry, dust is whirled aloft by the winds, this cause giving rise to the great sand-storms of tropical desert regions. Volcanoes in eruption eject large quantities of dust. It is estimated that millions of meteors are encountered by the earth per day. Most of these are excessively minute. They are speedily disintegrated, and generally entirely reduced to dust at high levels. Evaporation is almost always proceeding over seas and oceans, and from foam thrown up and swept along by the winds the dissolved salts are liberated as solid particles. Again vast quantities of dust are produced in the consumption of fuel.

The late Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, contrived a means of gauging the dust contents of the atmosphere. This consists of a glass box about a centimetre in thickness. Two pieces of wet filter paper inside serve to keep the contained air damp. The bottom of the box is a micrometer plate, divided rectangularly in millimetres. It can be examined from above by a lens. An air-pump can withdraw definite volumes of air as desired. When the air is partially withdrawn, the expansion of the remainder produces cooling. The dust particles form nuclei for condensation of the vapour. They are thus precipitated on the plate, and counted, leaving the air dust-free. A measured quantity of the air to be tested is next drawn in and shaken up. Further operation of the air-pump causes its expansion, and the deposition of its dust particles, which can then be counted. Dr. Aitken found the proportion of dust on Ben Nevis to vary at different times from under 100 particles to over 14,000 per cubic centimetre. Over oceans the numbers were from about 500 on the Indian to 2000 on the Atlantic. But over cities 100,000 per cubic centimetre are frequently present. A puff of cigarette smoke was estimated to contain 4,000,000,000 particles.

Many phenomena are connected with the existence of dust in the atmosphere. As a result of Dr. Aitken's discoveries the belief largely prevailed that the formation of fog, of rain, and other varieties of precipitation, was necessarily dependent on dust particles as nuclei of condensation. Though they certainly function to a preponderating extent, it has been shown that gaseous particles can act similarly, particularly when air is ionized. Dust is the main cause of the scattering of the sun's rays which produces twilight, the blue of the sky, the gorgeous red and golden hues of sunrise and sunset, and the purple lights of advancing dusk. After the great Krakatoan eruptions of 1883, dust was carried in the upper atmosphere several times round the earth, and caused extraordinary colour effects. To a lesser degree similar phenomena followed the West Indian eruptions of 1902. The unusual sunlessness of the summer of 1912 was attributed to dust expelled in the preceding great eruptions at Katmai, Alaska.

DUTCH CLOVER, _Trifolium repens_, commonly called white clover, a valuable pasture plant. It has a creeping stem; the leaflets are broad, obovate, with a horse-shoe mark in the centre; the white or pinkish flowers are in a globular head.

DUTCH EAST INDIES, forming a large and important colonial possession of the Netherlands Government, lie between 6deg N. and 11deg S., and 95deg E. and 141deg E. The colony includes Java and Madura, with the 'Outposts', which comprise Sumatra, the south-east and west portions of Borneo, Banca, Billiton, Celebes, the Timor and Riau-Lingga Archipelagos, the smaller Sunda Islands, and the north and west of New Guinea. The total area is about 735,000 sq. miles; the population of about 47,000,000 is composed of 46,000,000 natives of Malay race, 832,000 Arabs, Chinese, and other Orientals, and some 80,000 whites. The origin of the colony may be traced to the treaty made by the Dutch with the Sultan of Bantam in Sumatra (1595), which was followed by the formation of the Dutch East India Company (1602), the establishment of Batavia (1619) on the ruins of the native town of Jacatra, and the settlement in Sumatra (1677). The Dutch East India Company was dissolved in 1798, since which date the colony has been administered from the Netherlands by a Governor-General, who, assisted by a Council of five members nominated by the queen, has the power to pass laws, subject to the general regulations adopted in 1854. Some of the outlying islands are, however, administered by their native princes under the 'advice' of a Netherlands Resident. Batavia (population about 234,000), a town in the province of the same name on the north-west coast of Java, is the administrative capital and an important centre of trade. Java and Sumatra, containing about three-fourths of the total population of the colony, are self-supporting as regards food, besides producing for European consumption large quantities of tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, cinchona, tin, rubber, and copra. The colonial army numbers some 1200 officers and 40,000 men; compulsory service for white men within certain age-limits was adopted in 1918. There is also a small naval force.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bemmelen and Hooyer, _Guide to the Dutch East Indies_; W. Cool, _With the Dutch in the East_; J. M. Brown, _The Dutch East_.

DUTCH METAL, an alloy containing 84.5-84.7 per cent of copper and 15.5-15.3 per cent of zinc, with a fine golden-yellow colour, ductile, malleable, and tenacious. When beaten out by a process analogous to that for gold-leaf, until the sheets are less than 1/50,000th part of an inch thick, it constitutes Dutch leaf or Dutch foil, and is used as a cheap substitute for gold-leaf for ornamental purposes.

DUTCH PINK, a bright yellow colour used in distemper, for staining paper-hangings, and for other ordinary purposes. It is composed of chalk or whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, French berries, and alum.

DUTCH RUSH, _Equis[=e]tum hyem[=a]le_, one of the plants known as horse-tails, with a firm texture and so large an amount of silica in the cuticle that it is employed as a fine sand-paper for polishing delicate woodwork. The plant is found in marshes and woods in Britain, but for economic use it is imported from Holland, whence its popular name.

DUTROCHET (d[.u]-tro-sh[=a]), Ren['e] Joachim Henri, a French physiologist, born in Poitou in 1776, died at Paris in 1847. He served for some time as medical attendant to Joseph Bonaparte during the Spanish campaign 1808-9; but afterwards returned to France, and retired to the estate of Ch[^a]teaurenault, where he devoted himself exclusively to physical and physiological studies. His chief works have been published in a collective form with the title _M['e]moires pour servir [`a] l'Histoire Anatomique et Physiologique des V['e]g['e]taux et des Animaux_ (1837, 2 vols.).

DVINA, NORTHERN, a Russian river formed by the union of two small streams in the government of Vologda. It flows in a north-westerly direction, and falls by four mouths into the White Sea. At Archangel, before it divides, it is 4 miles broad. It is navigable as far as Suchona, and is connected with the Volga and Neva by canal.

DVO[VR]['A]K (dvor-sh[:a]k'), Anton, a Bohemian musical composer, born in 1841, died in 1904. He studied at the Prague Conservatoire, and composed several operas on national Bohemian subjects, songs, orchestral arrangements of Bohemian dances, several symphonies, a _Stabat_ _Mater_, a cantata (_The Spectre Bride_), and an oratorio (_St. Ludmila_). In 1892 he was director of the New York National Conservatory, and after 1895 he lived in Prague, where he wrote, in 1889, the opera _Der Teufel und die wilde K[:a]tze_.

DWARF, a term applied to any animal or plant greatly below the usual size of its kind, particularly to a human being of small dimensions. Strictly speaking, the term should be used with reference to individuals and not to races. When a whole population consists of people of small stature, the proper term to apply to them is pigmies, not dwarfs. Accounts of pigmy tribes have been common from early times, such tribes being located especially in Africa; and it would appear from the accounts of Du Chaillu, Schweinfurth, and other travellers that there are several pigmy tribes throughout this continent. The Obongo, a race of dwarfs, are described as living in woods near the Okanda River, in wretched huts made of branches. Other races are the Mabongo, and the Akka dwarfs of Central Africa (see _Akkas_); and a race exists in the Congo State, not as a distinct community, however, but mixed with other tribes. Individual dwarfs occur in all races, and were formerly a fashionable appendage to the courts of princes and the families of nobles. Jeffery Hudson, the favourite dwarf of Charles I, at the age of thirty is said to have been only 18 inches high, though he afterwards grew to 3 feet 9 inches. B['e]b['e], the celebrated dwarf of Stanislas of Poland, was 33 inches; Wybrand Lolkes, a Dutch dwarf, when sixty years of age was only 27 inches; Charles H. Stratton, 'General Tom Thumb', was 31 inches high at the age of twenty-five; Francis Flynn, 'General Mite', was only 21 inches at sixteen. In most of the extreme cases the dwarfing is the result of some defect in the ductless glands which regulate the normal growth of the body. Stories of dwarfs and brownies are to be found in the folk-lore of many tribes on earth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. J. Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_; E. Tyson, _Philological Essay concerning Pygmies of the Ancients_.

DWARFING, the process of training up trees or shrubs for ornament in houses so as to cause them never to reach more than a very small size, by keeping them in poor soil, giving them little water, pinching off strong shoots, &c. It is much practised among the Chinese and Japanese.

DWIGHT (dw[=i]t), Timothy, American divine, born in Massachusetts 1752, died 1817. His father was Colonel Timothy Dwight, and his mother was a daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He served as chaplain in the revolutionary army, and ultimately became president of Yale College. His _Theology Explained and Defended_ (1818) was for long a standard work both in Britain and in America.

DY'AKS, the aborigines of Borneo, chiefly inhabiting the interior of the island. They are a finely formed race, of a yellow complexion, and are described as docile, industrious, and superior to the Malays. The more advanced of them practise agriculture and dwell in neatly-constructed and tolerably comfortable houses. In Sarawak they have made considerable advances in civilization. The practice of head-hunting (hunting their enemies to make trophies of their heads) is practised among them, but has been abolished where European influence prevails.--Cf. Hose and McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (2 vols.).

DYAUS (dyous), the god of the sky in the older mythology of the Hindus. His name is etymologically connected with that of the Greek Zeus.

DYCE (d[=i]s), Alexander, Shakespearean editor, born at Edinburgh 30th June, 1798, died 15th May, 1869. He was educated at Edinburgh and Oxford, but in 1827 settled in London, where most of his life was passed. He first became known by his editions of Collins, Peele, Webster, Marlowe, and Skelton, accompanied by notes and biographies of the authors. His chief work was an edition of Shakespeare in six volumes, with notes (1853-8).

DYCE, William, painter, born at Aberdeen in 1806, died near London, 1864. He studied in London and Rome, and practised his art in Edinburgh. In 1840 he became director of the School of Design in London, and in 1844 was appointed professor of fine art in King's College, London. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1848. Amongst his chief works are: _Francesca da Rimini_ (1837): _Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance_ (1844); _King Lear in the Storm_ (1851); _Christabel_ (1855); _The Good Shepherd_ (1856); _The Baptism of Ethelbert_, a large fresco for the Houses of Parliament, and a series of frescoes illustrative of the legends relating to King Arthur, for the same. He also executed for the Prince Consort, at Osborne, the fresco _Neptune giving the Empire of the Sea to Britannia_.

DYEING is the art of colouring textile and other materials in such a way that the colours are not readily removed by the action of light, washing, &c. Like spinning and weaving, it was originally a home industry, as it still is in many places. The natural dyes formerly employed are now largely displaced by dyes derived from coal-tar products, the first discovery of which was made by Perkin in 1856; a few mineral colours are employed in cotton dyeing. Before dyeing, the materials have generally to be cleansed or bleached to get rid of undesirable colouring matters or impurities; and frequently a textile material is subjected to some subsidiary treatment in order to obtain special effects. For example, cotton yarn may be subjected to the action of strong caustic soda ('mercerizing' process) while in a state of great tension, in order to give it a permanent silky lustre. Dyeing is not only an art, it is also a branch of applied chemistry. One fundamental principle is, that the colouring matter and other necessary substances must be applied in a state of solution, and while in direct contact with the fibre they must be rendered insoluble, so that they are precipitated within or upon the fibre and fixed permanently. The method of effecting this varies greatly, according to the fibre and the colouring matter employed. As a rule, the vegetable and the animal fibres are dyed by very different methods. The affinity of the animal fibres for certain colouring matters is often so great that they are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot colour solutions; but this simple process is not generally sufficient. According to the method of their application in dyeing, the following groups of dye-stuffs may be distinguished: _Acid Dyes_, _Basic Dyes_, _Direct Dyes_, _Developed Dyes_, _Mordant Dyes_, _Vat Dyes_. A dye is _substantive_ to a particular fibre when it dyes that fibre directly, and _adjective_ when the presence of a third substance known as a _mordant_ is necessary.

The _acid dyes_ are so called because they are of an acid character and are applied in an acid dye-bath. As a rule, they are only suitable for dyeing the animal fibres, e.g. wool and silk, also leather, horn, feathers, &c., and they are substantive to these materials. The purple vegetable dyestuff _orchil_ belongs to this class. The acid dyes derived from coal-tar are very numerous, and yield a great variety of hues--red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, brown, and black. The _basic dyes_ are so called because their essential constituents, to which they owe their dyeing power, are organic bases. The bases themselves are colourless and too insoluble in water to be of use, hence they are employed in the form of their soluble coloured salts, usually the hydrochlorides of the colour-bases. Their solutions are precipitated by tannic acid, because it combines with the colour-bases to form insoluble tannates. Wool, silk, and animal substances generally have a direct attraction for colour-bases, and hence these fibres are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot aqueous solutions of the basic dyes. Cotton and linen, on the other hand, are not dyed so readily; they need first to be mordanted or impregnated with the _mordant_ tannic acid. Most of the colours of this class are fugitive to light, and all but one, viz. _barberry root_, are derived from coal-tar products.

The _direct dyes_ are so called because they dye cotton without the aid of any mordanting process. The first of this class derived from coal-tar was _congo red_, discovered in 1884; at present this group includes a very great variety of fast colours, and forms, indeed, one of the most important and valuable series of dye-stuffs employed. Cotton, linen, and the vegetable fibres generally are dyed in the simplest possible manner by merely boiling them in a solution of the dye-stuff, with or without the addition of a little soap, carbonate or sulphate of soda, &c. Wool and silk are frequently dyed in the same manner as cotton. Very few vegetable dye-stuffs belong to the direct colours, e.g. _Safflower_, _Turmeric_, _Saffron_, _Annatto_ (see the articles). They are all fugitive, and are now of little or no importance to the dyer. The coal-tar colours of this class, on the other hand, are extremely numerous. The _developed dyes_ are formed _in situ_ upon the fibre by the successive application of two or more substances. They include _aniline black_, a permanent black produced by the oxidation of aniline, and the _ice colours_, which are _azo dyes_ derived from certain coal-tar products containing nitrogen.

The _mordant dyes_ form one of the most important classes of colouring matters, for they include not only most of the vegetable dye-stuffs, e.g. madder, logwood, fustic, &c., but also many valuable fast coal-tar colours, commonly known as the _alizarin dyes_, after their typical representative, alizarin. These mordant dyes have by themselves very little colouring power, as a rule, and if employed alone in dyeing give little or no result. If applied, however, in conjunction with metallic salts, notably those of chromium, aluminium, iron, tin, and copper, they each yield a variety of colours, according to the metallic salt employed. In employing them two distinct operations are usually involved: first, that of applying the metallic salt or _mordant_, called the _mordanting process_; and second, that of _dyeing_ proper, in which the mordanted material is boiled in a solution or decoction of the dye-stuff. During the dyeing operation the colouring principle of the dye-stuff combines with the metallic salt already upon the material, and the colour is thus produced and fixed upon the fibre. The method of mordanting varies with the fibre and the metallic salt employed. The vegetable dye-stuffs of this class include _Madder_, _Sapanwood_, _Camwood_, _Barwood_, _Old Fustic_, _Young Fustic_, _Quercitron Bark_, _Persian Berries_, _Weld_, _Logwood_ (see these separate articles). _Madder_ was formerly the most important and highly valued of the dye-stuffs of this class, being especially employed to produce the fine 'Turkey-red' dye; but it is now entirely superseded by the coal-tar colour alizarin. Similarly, the employment of _cochineal_ (an insect dye) has also greatly diminished through the introduction of the cheaper colours. _Camwood_ and _barwood_ are almost entirely used in wool-dyeing, either in conjunction with the indigo-vat or for the purpose of dyeing various shades of brown. _Old fustic_ is the most important of the yellow mordant dye-stuffs, and the colours are fast although not very brilliant. _Quercitron bark_ is an excellent dye-stuff employed by wool-dyers for the production of bright orange and yellow colours. _Persian berries_ and _weld_, a species of wild mignonette, are both excellent dye-stuffs, but their employment is now limited. _Logwood_ is largely employed by wool, silk, and cotton dyers for dyeing black and dark-blues, which, although fast to washing, are only moderately so towards light. The important vegetable dye _catechu_ (q.v.) is used in dyeing cotton and wool brown. On wool, catechu yields _khaki_ browns in single bath by using copper sulphate as the mordant. On silk, it is largely employed for weighting purposes in the process of dyeing black. Although dyewoods are still much employed, they are being steadily replaced by coal-tar colours. The _vat dyes_ are insoluble in water, but yield reduction products which are soluble in aqueous alkali, and can be readily reoxidized to the dye-stuff. In this class may be included the _sulphur dyes_, substances of uncertain composition obtained by fusing certain compounds containing nitrogen with sulphur and sodium sulphide, which are now extensively and increasingly employed, especially as direct dyes for cotton. _Indigo_, a typical vat dye, is prepared both artificially and from natural sources. It is a dark-blue powder quite insoluble in water, but when reduced it yields _indigo-white_ which dissolves in aqueous alkali, the solution thus obtained being called an _indigo-vat_. Cotton, wool, or silk steeped for some time in the clear yellow solution of such a vat, and then exposed to the oxidizing influence of the air, is dyed a permanent blue. The indigo-white absorbed by the fibre loses its acquired hydrogen, and thus insoluble indigo-blue is regenerated within and upon the fibre.

In the classification adopted above, the following _mineral colours_ employed in cotton dyeing belong to the group of developed dyes, since they are formed on the fibre: _chrome yellow_, obtained by immersing cotton successively in solutions of acetate of lead and bichromate of potash; _iron buff_ (oxide of iron), produced by the successive application of sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda; _Prussian blue_, developed by passing the buff-dyed cotton through an acidified solution of potassium ferrocyanide; _manganese brown_ (oxide of manganese), deposited similarly to iron buff. The mineral colours are very useful for certain purposes, and are very fast to light.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Crookes, _A Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico-printing_; W. P. Dreaper, _Chemistry and Physics of Dyeing_; Knecht, Rawson, and Loewenthal, _Manual of Dyeing_; Rawson, Gardner, and Laycock, _A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, &c._

DYER, John, English poet, born in Carmarthenshire about 1700, died in 1758. Educated at Westminster School, he became a painter, but, not succeeding in that vocation, took orders and was appointed to a small living. In 1727 he published his poem of _Grongar Hill_, in 1740 _The Ruins of Rome_, and in 1757 _The Fleece_, a didactic poem in five books.

DYER'S-BROOM, a European and now also N. American shrub (_Genista tinctoria_), formerly used with woad for dyeing green.

DYER'S-WEED, _Res[=e]da Lute[)o]la_, a British plant of the same genus as mignonette, otherwise called _Yellow-weed_, _Weld_, or _Woad_, nat. ord. Resedaceae. This plant grows in waste ground; it affords a beautiful yellow dye, and is cultivated for that purpose.--_Dyer's Greenweed_ is _Genista tinctoria_.

DYING DECLARATION, a deposition made by one who is in prospect of death. Such declarations are as a general rule admissible as evidence only in criminal and not in civil cases, and must be made, according to English, though not Scottish law, in the full consciousness of the danger of death.

DYNAM'ICS is the science which deals with the laws of force in their relation to matter at rest or in motion, and as such it is differentiated from _kinematics_, which considers motion mathematically, and apart from the forces producing it. Dynamics is divided into two great branches: _statics_, which treats of solid bodies at rest under the action of forces; and _kinetics_, which treats of the action of forces in producing motion in solid bodies. Formerly the latter alone was called dynamics, and to this, in conjunction with statics, the general name _mechanics_ was given. In the wide sense dynamics includes also hydrodynamics. It is to Newton that we owe the clear statement of the three primary laws of force on which the science of dynamics is based. These are: (1) that every body remains in a state of rest, or of uniform motion along a straight line, unless it is compelled by force to change that state; (2) that rate of change of momentum is in proportion to the force employed, and occurs along the straight line in which the force acts; (3) that, as the result of every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction. These laws, which were formulated from experiment, involve the conception of force as a primary influence or action expressed in terms of space, time, and matter. Now, in dealing with the laws of force, a standard of measurement is required which shall be applicable to all forces at all times, and we therefore require to begin by establishing units of space, time, and mass. There are two systems of units in use, the one British, the other French. In the British system the foot is taken as the unit of length, and the second as the unit of time. In the French the centimetre is the unit of length, the second the unit of time; the unit velocity in the one case being that of one foot per second, in the other one centimetre per second. The British unit of mass is the pound (the mass of a certain lump of platinum deposited in the Exchequer Office, London); the French the gramme; and accordingly the French units of space, mass, and time are commonly known as the C.G.S. (centimetre, gramme, second) units. As the weight of a pound (or a gramme) is not the same at all parts of the earth's surface, it cannot give us of itself an absolute or dynamical unit of force, that is, an invariable unit; but taking it in conjunction with unit time and unit velocity, we do obtain such a unit. Two absolute units of force are in common use in dynamics, the _poundal_ and the _dyne_, the latter being the absolute unit in the C.G.S. system. The former is _that force which, acting on the mass of one pound for one second, generates in that mass a velocity of one foot per second_. The latter is _that force which, acting on the mass of one gramme for one second, generates in that mass a velocity of one centimetre per second_. It is important in dynamics to distinguish between _mass_ and _weight_. The _mass_ of one pound is the quantity of matter equal to a certain standard quantity (a certain lump of metal) and is quite independent of force. The _weight_ of one pound is the force with which the mass of one pound is attracted to the earth's surface by the force of gravity. Another important term is _momentum_: the momentum of a body in motion at any instant is the product of the mass of the body and the velocity at that instant. See _Couple_; _Elasticity_; _Energy_; _Force_; _Hydrodynamics_; _Kinematics_; _Kinetics_; _Statics_; _Thermodynamics_; _Waves_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kelvin and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_; A. Gray, _Dynamics_; P. G. Tait, _Dynamics_; S. L. Loney, _Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners_.

DYN'AMITE. See _Explosives_.

DY'NAMO. See _Generator_.

DYNAMOM'ETER, an apparatus for measuring the power or rate of working of a machine. There are two types, the transmission dynamometer, which measures the power of the machine without sensibly diminishing it; and the absorption dynamometer, which measures the power by using it all. The instrument is generally employed to determine the horse-power transmitted by a shaft or by belting.--Cf. Aspinall Parr's _Electrical Engineering Testing_.

DYRRHACHIUM. See _Durazzo_.

DY'SART, a royal and municipal burgh of Scotland, in Fife, on the Firth of Forth. It is an old place, and is a member of the Kirkcaldy district of parliamentary burghs. Pop. of royal burgh, 4197.

DYS'ENTERY is a disease of an acute type, due to the action of a bacillus, characterized by pain and frequent passage of blood and mucus. Owing to improved sanitation, dysentery has become less frequent. In temperate countries sporadic cases occur from time to time, and occasional epidemics break out, but in the tropics widespread epidemics occur, and the disease is a serious menace. It is a very frequent camp disease, and has been the scourge of all armies in tropical and semi-tropical regions. The bacilli are widely spread by the faeces of infected persons, and usually the infection takes place by the mouth. The onset is rapid, and marked by fever, pain in the abdomen, and frequent stools. At first mucus only is seen in the stools, but soon blood appears. In very acute cases the patient is seriously ill in forty-eight hours, and may die on the third or fourth day. Moderate cases may go on for several weeks, with resulting convalescence. Some cases become chronic in type, and a person may have chronic dysentery for years. Bismuth in large doses is given, and morphia is a most useful drug to relieve the pain and quieten the bowel. Normal saline solution is given by rectum after the acute stage, whenever possible. Chronic dysentery requires dietetic treatment for the persistent dyspepsia and irritability of the bowel. Amoebic dysentery, due to the _Amoeba dysenteriae_, is a distinct disease.

DYS'ODILE, a yellowish or greenish foliated carbonaceous substance found in Sicily originally, and derived from the decay of minute organisms. When ignited, it burns and emits a very unpleasant smell.

DYSON, Sir Frank Watson, F.R.S., LL.D.(Edin.), British astronomer, born at Ashby 8th Jan., 1868, the son of a Baptist minister. Educated at Bradford Grammar School and Trinity College, Cambridge, he became chief assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in 1894, and secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1899. Astronomer Royal for Scotland in 1905, he was appointed Astronomer Royal for England in 1910. He was knighted in 1915.

DYSPEP'SIA, or GASTRITIS, may be either acute or chronic. _Acute dyspepsia_ may follow when more food is taken than the stomach can digest, or when unsuitable articles are taken. The symptoms are headache, depression, nausea, vomiting, with pain, varying from a feeling of discomfort in the abdomen to marked tenderness. The tongue is furred, and usually there is diarrhoea, while in the more severe attacks the onset is marked by chill and a rise of temperature. An attack may last from one day to four days. Treatment for mild cases is simply a dose of castor-oil (children) or blue pill (adults), but in severe cases vomiting should be promoted by warm water, or the stomach tube if necessary, and a dose of calomel (3 grains), followed by salts, should be given. Absolute rest to the stomach is necessary, and only small quantities of water allowed. Repeated attacks lead to the establishment of the chronic form. _Chronic dyspepsia_ is a condition of disturbed digestion due to the prolonged use of unsuitable, or improperly prepared, foods. Hot cakes, excess of tea, coffee, or alcohol, rapid and irregular meals are all common causes. It may also arise in the course of diseases like anaemia, chronic tuberculosis, gout, Bright's disease, chronic heart disease, cirrhosis, and in diseases of the stomach itself, as cancer, gastric ulcer, and gastric dilatation. The most common symptoms are a feeling of oppression after food, tenderness over the stomach, headache, nausea, flatulence, constipation, and occasionally vomiting. Treatment consists of dietetic measures, regulated exercises, change of air and surroundings, and avoidance of depression. Milk should be used freely, and in severe cases should be given alone till improvement sets in. Fats and greasy dishes should be avoided. Fruits are sometimes well borne, and at other times the reverse. Drugs do not play so important a r[^o]le, but bitter tonics, like nux vomica, quassia, gentian, &c., are the best. Constipation should be treated when necessary.

DYSPHO'NIA is difficulty in speaking, and is the result of some forms of laryngitis. The condition is aggravated by attempts to use the voice, and complete rest is necessary to bring about an early and satisfactory recovery. Tonics, moderate exercise, and a holiday hasten recovery.

DYSPNOEA (dis-pn[=e]'a) is difficult or laboured breathing. It is a symptom of diseases of the heart or lungs, and is produced by any condition which interferes with normal respiration. It is sometimes present in nervous disturbances.

DZE'REN, or DZE'RON, the Chinese antelope, a remarkably swift species of antelope (_Procapra guttur[=o]sa_) inhabiting the dry arid deserts of Central Asia, Tibet, China, and Southern Siberia. It is nearly 4-1/2 feet in length, and 2-1/2 feet high at the shoulder.

DZIG'GETAI, or KIANG (_Equus hemi[)o]nus_), a species of wild ass native to Central Asia, allied both to the horse and ass. Its head is large like that of the ass, but in form resembles that of the horse. The ears also resemble those of the horse. It runs with a rapidity exceeding that of the best Arabian horses.

DZOUNGARIA, or SUNGARIA, a Chinese territory in Central Asia, stretching from about 43deg to 48deg N. lat. and from about 82deg to 86deg E. long. It has an area of 147,950 sq. miles, and pop. 600,000. It is administratively connected with Kuldja, and since the surrender of Kuldja by the Russians in 1880 is again under Chinese rule. Dzoungaria, once the centre of an independent empire, was first conquered by the Chinese in 1757.

* * * * *

E

E, the second vowel and the fifth letter of the English alphabet. It occurs more frequently in English words than any other letter of the alphabet. Its long or natural sound in English coincides with the sound of _i_ in the Italian and French languages, as in _here_, _mere_, _me_. It has also another principal sound, a short one, heard in _met_, _men_. It has besides a sound like _a_ in _bare_, as in _there_, _where_, &c., and the obscure sound which is heard in _her_. As a final letter in English it is generally silent, but it serves to indicate that the preceding vowel is to have its long sound, as in _mane_, _cane_, _plume_. When two _e_'s come together the sound is generally the same as that of the single _e_ long, as in _deem_, _esteem_, _need_ (compare, however, _pre-exist_, &c.).

E, in music, is the third note or degree of the diatonic scale, answering to the _mi_ of the Italians and French.

EADIE ([=e]'di), John, D.D., a Scottish preacher and theologian, born 1810, died 1876. He was educated at Glasgow University, and entered the ministry of the Secession Church, becoming in 1843 professor of biblical literature in the Divinity Hall of the Church, a post which he continued to hold after the Secession body was merged in the United Presbyterian Church (in 1847). Among his works are _Biblical Cyclopaedia_; _Analytical Concordance to the Scriptures_; _Ecclesiastical Cyclopaedia_; _Commentary on the Greek Text of Ephesians_, and similar works on _Colossians_, _Philippians_, and _Galatians_; and _The English Bible_. He was one of the scholars engaged on the Revised Version of the New Testament.

EAD'MER, an English monk, the friend and biographer of St. Anselm. In 1120 he was chosen Bishop of St. Andrews; but as the Scottish king refused to recognize the right of the Archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate him, he returned to England and died a simple monk about 1124. Besides the life of St. Anselm, Eadmer wrote lives of St. Wilfrid, St. Dunstan, St. Odo, and other English saints, as well as a valuable history (_Historiae Novorum_) of events in England and the English Church from 1066 to 1122.

EAGLE (Lat. _aquila_, Fr. _aigle_), the general name of raptorial birds that form a group or sub-family (Aquil[=i]nae) of the great family Falconidae, which includes the eagles, falcons, and hawks. The eagle is popularly regarded as the noblest and most courageous of the rapacious birds. It soars to a greater height than any other European bird, from which circumstance the ancients considered it as the bird or messenger of Jove. The genus Aqu[)i]la, which includes the most typical eagles, is distinguished by its long and powerful bill, the curve commencing at the cere, by its wings reaching to the tip of the tail, and by its tarsi being feathered to the toes. The imperial eagle (_A. mogilnik_) of Central Europe, North-East Africa, India, and China is probably the species to which the popular belief in the courage, strength, and nobleness of eagles is to be traced. _A. chrysaetus_, the golden eagle, is the chief British species. It measures over 6 feet from tip to tip of the expanded wings, and 3 feet from the beak to the end of the tail. The adults have the body brownish, becoming darker with age; the feathers of the head and neck pointed, and of a golden-red hue. This species is found all over the northern hemisphere. It was once common in the Highlands of Scotland, but is now becoming rare. The Kirghis and other tribes of Central Asia use the golden eagle to kill antelopes, foxes, and even wolves. Another British eagle is the erne or sea-eagle (_Haliaetus albicilla_) found near the sea-coast or lakes, and feeding largely on fish. The general colour is greyish-brown, the head pale-coloured, the tail white. The bald eagle (_Haliaetus leucoceph[)a]lus_), found in North America and North-East Asia, is the symbol of the United States, though Franklin deplores the selection on account of his mean and dishonest habit of robbing the industrious osprey of the fish caught by him. Like all members of the genus, his diet is less restricted than that of the true eagles; and he even takes carrion. See also _Harpy Eagle_.

EAGLE, as a symbol. The eagle first appears as a war standard amongst the Persians, through whom it reached the Egyptians. As the standard of the Roman armies it was first used by Marius, and afterwards took the place of all the other emblems at the head of the legions. It was first made of wood, then of silver, and finally, under Caesar and his successors, of gold. In the Mediaeval Ages the eagle became the heraldic emblem of the Holy Roman Empire, and was made double-headed in the fourteenth century. When the Holy Roman Empire fell to pieces in 1806, the double-headed eagle was retained by Austria. The double-headed eagle was assumed by Tsar Ivan III in 1472, and became the national military symbol of Russia; the single-headed eagle was assumed by the modern German Empire in 1871, and by the United States of America. The American eagle stands with outspread wings guarding a shield, with the motto _E pluribus unum_. The eagle was also the badge of several orders, the chief of which were the order of the _Black Eagle_, founded by the Elector of Brandenburg in 1701, and the highest order in Prussia; the order of the _Red Eagle_, also a Prussian order, and founded in 1705; and the Russian order of the _White Eagle_, originally Polish, and instituted in 1325.

EAGLE, a gold coin in the United States of the value of ten dollars, or L2 sterling, first coined in 1795. There are also half-eagles, quarter-eagles, and double-eagles.

EAGLE-HAWK, a name sometimes applied to small South American eagles (genus Morphnus), with short wings and long legs.

EAGLEHAWK, a gold-mining town in Victoria, Australia, 4 miles from Bendigo. Pop. 8130.

EAGLE-OWL, a name for several large horned owls, such as _Bubo ignavus_ (the great horned owl), little inferior in size to the golden eagle, found in many parts of Europe and sometimes in Britain. An allied species, the Virginian horned owl (_B. virginianus_), is common in the United States.

EALING, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Middlesex, the former a few miles west of London. Pop. 61,222.

EAR, the organ of hearing. In the higher vertebrates it is divided into the outer, middle, and inner ear. The external ear, which is a cartilaginous funnel for collecting the sound waves and directing them inwards, is composed of the _concha_, or projecting part, and of the _auditory canal_, which extends from the _concha_ to the membrane of the _tympanum_ or _drum_. This membrane is a partition stretched obliquely across the bottom of the auditory canal, which it separates from the middle ear or tympanum; it is semi-transparent and very delicate. It vibrates with the waves of sound which strike against it, and transmits the vibrations to certain little bones of the cavity of the tympanum. These bones, which have been named respectively the hammer (_malleus_), the anvil (_incus_), and the stirrup (_stapes_), transmit the vibrations to the internal ear, forming a chain communicating at one end with the membrane just mentioned, and at the other with the inner ear. The internal ear consists of a complicated system of tubes known as the _membranous labyrinth_, containing fluid in which waves are set up by the vibrations transmitted to it by the little bones from the drum membrane. The lower part of the labyrinth is coiled like a snail shell, and is called the _cochlea_. It is the real organ of hearing. The upper part consists of three _semicircular canals_, the function of which is to record the position and movements of the body in space. The middle ear communicates with the pharynx by the Eustachian tube, through which air from the mouth may be introduced into the tympanic cavity, so as to permit vibrations of the drum membrane. In the external auditory canal of the ear is produced the cerumen or ear-wax. The cut shows P the concha, E.C. the external canal, D the drum membrane partly removed, S the stirrup, A the anvil and H the hammer, the small bones communicating with the drum and vestibule, C cochlea, S.C semicircular canals, E Eustachian tube.--Cf. Sir Thomas Wrightson, _An Enquiry into the Analytical Mechanism of the Internal Ear_.

EAR-COCKLE, a disease in wheat caused by the presence in the grain of worms belonging to the genus Vibrio. It is called in some parts of England _purples_.

EARL (A.Sax. _eorl_; Dan. _jarl_), a degree of the British nobility between marquess and viscount, the title of highest antiquity in England. The title was made hereditary by William the Conqueror, and for a time was used interchangeably with that of _count_, the corresponding title on the Continent. The wife of an earl is still called a _countess_. The earl was the highest in rank of the nobility until Edward III created a duke in 1357, and Richard II a marquess in 1385. The first earl of England is the Earl of Arundel. An earl's coronet is composed of eight pearls raised upon points, with small leaves between, above the rim. See _Peer_.

EARLE, John, English bishop and writer, born about 1601, died 1665. He was educated at Oxford, and, after writing some short poems, gave to the world anonymously in 1628 _Microcosmographie, or a Piece of the World discovered in Essays and Characters_--a work full of wit, humour, and admirable character-painting. He was tutor to Charles II, accompanied him during his exile, and was held by him in the highest esteem. In 1662 he was consecrated Bishop of Worcester, and next year was translated to Salisbury.

EARLE, Rev. John, Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born in 1824, and died in 1903. He studied at Oriel College, Oxford, where he obtained first-class honours in classics, and was elected a fellow (1848). In the following year he took orders, and was appointed for five years university professor of Anglo-Saxon. In 1857 he became rector of Swanswick, near Bath, and in 1871, a prebendary of Wells. The five years' rule having been rescinded, he was re-elected professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1876, and continued to hold the position, together with the rectory of Swanswick, until his death. Among his contributions to the study of Anglo-Saxon and modern English are the following: _Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel_ (1865); _The Philology of the English Tongue_ (1871); _A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon_ (1877); _English Plant Names from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century_ (1880); _Anglo-Saxon Literature_ (1884), a very useful and informing little manual; _Handbook to the Land Charters and other Saxonic Documents_ (1888); _English Prose: its Elements, History, and Usage_ (1890); _The Deeds of Beowulf_ (1892), a translation of the well-known Anglo-Saxon epic; _The Psalter of 1539_ (1894); and _A Simple Grammar of English now in Use_ (1898). He also wrote a book on _Bath, Ancient and Modern_ (1864).

EARLESTOWN, a town of Lancashire, England, 14 miles east of Liverpool. There are here engineering-works, sugar-works, and other establishments. Pop. 9020.

EARL-MARSHAL, a great officer of England, who had, anciently, several courts under his jurisdiction, as the court of chivalry and the court of honour. He is the head of the College of Arms (Heralds' College), grants armorial bearings, and determines all claims in connection with them. Since 1672 the office is hereditary in the family of Howard (Dukes of Norfolk). There was also an earl-marshal of Scotland, the office being hereditary in the Keith family until 1716, when it was abolished.

EARLOM, Richard, English mezzotinto engraver, born 1743, died 1822. His engravings from Reynolds, Hogarth, Van Huysum, &c., and from Claude's _Liber Veritatis_, are exceptionally fine, and are standard works in their department.

EARLSTON (originally ERCILDOUN), a village of Scotland in Berwickshire. Near it are the ruins of the ancient tower, which belonged to the famous Thomas the Rhymer. Pop. 1749.

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, the first of the Pointed or Gothic styles of architecture that prevailed in England. It succeeded the Norman in the reign of Richard I (1189), and continued to the end of the reign of Henry II in 1272, a period of 123 years, when it gradually merged into the Decorated style. One of the leading peculiarities in this style is the form of the windows, which are narrow in proportion to their height, and terminate in a pointed arch, resembling the blade of a lancet (and therefore often called the _Lancet_ style). Throughout the early period of the style they are very plain, particularly in small churches; but in cathedrals and other large buildings the windows, frequently combined two or more together, are carried to a great height, are richly and deeply moulded, and the jambs ornamented with slender shafts. On the eastern and western fronts of small churches the windows are often combined in this manner, with a circular window above and a richly moulded door below; but in large buildings there is often more than one range of windows, and the combinations are very various. Though separated on the outside, these lancets are in the interior combined into one design, thus giving the first idea of a compound window. The doorways are in general pointed, and in rich buildings sometimes double; they are usually moulded, and enriched with the tooth-ornament. The buttresses are often very bold and prominent, and are frequently carried up to the top of the building with but little diminution, and terminate in acutely pointed pediments, which, when raised above the parapet, produce in some degree the effect of pinnacles. In this style, likewise, flying-buttresses were first introduced (see _Buttresses_), and the buttresses themselves much increased in projection owing to the comparative lightness of the walls, which required some counter-support to resist the outward pressure of the vaulting. The roof in the Early English style appears always to have been high pitched, and the towers surmounted by lofty pointed spires, as at Salisbury Cathedral. In the interior the arches are usually lancet-shaped, and the pillars often reduced to very slender proportions. As if to give still greater lightness of appearance, they are frequently made up of a centre pillar, surrounded by slight detached shafts, only connected with the pillar by their capitals and bases, and bands of metal placed at intervals. These shafts are generally of Purbeck marble, the pillar itself being of stone, and from their extreme slenderness they sometimes appear as if quite inadequate to support the weight above them. The earliest example of Early English architecture is the choir of Canterbury, followed by the choir of Lincoln Cathedral, but some of the best examples are to be seen in Salisbury Cathedral. The architects of this style carried their ideas of lightness to the utmost limits of prudence, and their successors have been afraid to imitate their example. The abacus of the capitals is generally made up of two bold round mouldings, with a deep hollow between. The foliage is peculiar, generally very gracefully drawn, and thrown into elegant curves; it is usually termed _stiff-leaved_, from the circumstance of its rising with a stiff stem from the neck-mould of the capital. The trefoil is commonly imitated, and is very characteristic of the style. The mouldings of this style have great boldness, and produce a striking effect of light and shade. They consist chiefly of rounds separated by deep hollows, in which a peculiar ornament, called the _dog's-tooth_, is used, whenever ornament can be introduced. This ornament is as characteristic of the Early English as the zigzag is of the Norman. See _Dog's-tooth_.--Cf. F. Bond, _An Introduction to English Church Architecture, from the 11th to the 16th Century_.

EARNEST, in law, any sum paid in advance, to bind parties to the performance of a verbal agreement, or something given by a buyer to a seller as a pledge of adherence to a bargain. The party is then obliged to abide by his bargain, and is not discharged upon forfeiting his earnest. In England the general view is that the sum paid as earnest, however small, is part of the price.

EAR-RING, an ornament for the ear, consisting of a ring or hook passing through the lobe, with a pendant of diamonds, pearls, or other jewels frequently attached. Ear-rings were commonly worn amongst the Oriental nations, and by both sexes, especially in Babylonia and Assyria, from the earliest times. Amongst the Greeks and Romans the wearing of ear-rings was usually confined to women. In England the Romanized Britons and the Anglo-Saxons wore them, but the fashion declined in the tenth century, and was again introduced in the sixteenth century, in Queen Elizabeth's time.

EARSDON, an urban district or town of England, South Northumberland, several miles north-west of Tynemouth, with productive collieries. Pop. 10,568.

EARTH, the planet which we inhabit, a nearly spherical body which every twenty-four hours rotates from west to east round an imaginary line called its axis--this axis having as its extremities the north and south poles--while in the course of a year it completes a revolution round the sun. To an observer whose view is not obstructed, the visible part of the earth appears as a circular and horizontal expanse, on the circumference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote antiquity, the earth was regarded as a flat, circular body, floating on the waters. But even in antiquity the spherical form of the earth began to be suspected. It is only on this supposition that we can explain how the horizon of vision grows wider and wider the higher the position we choose, how the tops of towers and mountains at a distance become visible before the bases, how the hull of a ship first disappears as she sails away, and how, as we go from the poles towards the equator, new stars become visible. Besides these proofs there are many others, such as the circular contour of the earth's shadow seen on the moon during an eclipse. The mere fact that the earth can be circumnavigated does not, as is sometimes assumed, prove it to be globular. But its surface, land and ocean, has been almost all explored and accurately mapped, and the relative distances and directions found to obtain between the places on its surface are consistent only with its possessing such a shape.

The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is very slightly flattened at the poles, so as to have the form known as an _oblate spheroid_. In this way the _polar diameter_, or diameter from pole to pole, is shorter than the diameter at right angles to this--the _equatorial diameter_. The most accurate measurements make the polar diameter almost 27 miles less than the equatorial, the equatorial diameter being found to be 7926.7 miles, and the polar 7900 miles. The earth is regarded as divided into two halves--the northern and the southern hemisphere--by the _equator_, an imaginary line going right round it midway between the poles. In order to indicate with precision the position of places on the earth additional circles are imagined to be traced upon the surface in such a manner that those of the one set all pass through both poles, while those of the other are drawn parallel to the equator. The former are called _meridians_, the latter _parallels of latitude_, and by reference to them we can state the latitude and longitude, and thus the exact position, of any place.

Many experiments by various methods have been made in order to determine the average density of the earth, and the total quantity of matter it contains. Amongst these methods may be mentioned: (1) that of measuring the deflection of a plumb-line due to a mountain's attraction, and thereby comparing the mass of the earth with that of the mountain; (2) that founded on the difference of oscillation period of a pendulum when placed at the summit of a mountain and when at the sea-level; (3) by the determination of the difference of gravity at the top and the bottom of a deep mine, by pendulum experiments; (4) Cavendish's experiment with the torsion balance, which attempts to compare the attractive force of two large lead balls upon two small lead balls with that exercised by the earth. From these and other experiments it has been calculated that the mean density of the earth is to that of water as about 5-1/2 to 1.

The earth, in common with the other planets, moves round the sun, completing its revolution in about 365 days and 6 hours. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, with the sun in one of its foci. Hence the earth is not equally distant from the sun throughout the year; it is over 3,000,000 miles nearer at one time than another, its least distance (_perihelion_ distance), according to recent calculations, being about 91,340,000 miles; its greatest (_aphelion_ distance), 94,450,000; and the mean distance, 92,897,000 miles. From this it may be calculated that the velocity of the earth in its orbit is about 18-1/2 miles a second. About 3rd Jan. the earth is nearest the sun, and about 4th July farthest from it. This position of matters, which is subject to slow alteration in the course of ages, at present tends to moderate the seasonal variations in the northern hemisphere, and to intensify them in the southern. The passage of the earth round its orbit causes the sun to appear as if it described an annual circuit of the heavens; and hence it is that at one time of the year one group of stars is seen in the neighbourhood of the sun near sunrise or sunset, and at another time another group. This apparent path of the sun is the _ecliptic_, and corresponds with what would be the path of the earth as seen from the sun; and the groups of stars through which the sun successively passes form the _zodiac_.

The earth's daily motion about its own axis takes place in twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, and four seconds of mean time. This diurnal revolution is the occasion of the alternation of day and night. As the axis on which the earth performs its diurnal rotation is inclined towards the plane of its path about the sun at an angle of 66-1/2deg, and the angle between the plane of the ecliptic and the plane of the earth's equator is therefore 23-1/2deg, the sun ascends in the heavens, as seen from our northern latitudes, from 21st March to 21st June (the summer _solstice_), to about 23-1/2deg above the celestial equator, and descends again towards the equator from 21st June to 23rd Sept.; it then sinks till 22nd Dec. (the winter _solstice_), when it is about 23-1/2deg below the equator, and returns again to the equator by 21st March. This arrangement is the cause of the seasons, and the inequality of day and night attending them. For all places removed from the equator, day and night are equal only twice in the year (at the _equinoxes_). At the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere the north pole of the earth is turned towards the sun, and the south pole away from it, and for places within 23-1/2deg of the former there is a period of longer or shorter duration during which the sun is continually above the horizon throughout the twenty-four hours of each day, while round the latter there is an equal extent of surface within which the sun for similar periods is below the horizon. (See _Day_.) The reverse state of matters occurs at the winter solstice. The circles bounding these regions are called respectively the _arctic_ and the _antarctic_ circle, and the regions themselves the _polar_ or _frigid zones_. Throughout a region extending to 23-1/2deg on each side of the equator the sun is directly overhead at any place twice in the year. The circles which bound this region are called the _tropics_, that in the northern hemisphere being the tropic of _Cancer_, that in the southern the tropic of _Capricorn_, while the region between is the _torrid zone_. The regions between the tropics and the polar circles are respectively the _north_ and _south temperate zones_.

From the evidence furnished by volcanoes, hot springs, sinking of mines, &c., it is known that the earth has a high internal temperature. Taking the average of the various observed rates of increase this temperature seems to increase 1deg F. for every 60 feet of descent. Assuming this to continue, the rocks at a depth of 2 miles would be as hot as boiling water, and at a depth of 50 miles the heat would be such as at the surface would melt every known solid. This being so, various theories as to the internal condition of the earth have been proposed: (1) that a thin envelope or crust surrounds a molten interior. It can be shown, however, that as tides must be produced in such a molten mass the cool outer crust would be unable to withstand the enormous force of these unless it were about 2000 miles thick. (2) That the interior is solid, with spaces here and there filled with liquid or gaseous material. This theory assumes that there are within the earth enormous cavities filled with molten rock, which escapes, when local pressure is removed, in the form of volcanic outbursts. (3) That the earth consists of a thin crust, a large solid nucleus, and a liquid film between the nucleus and the crust. (4) That the earth is solid to the centre, but any part may become liquid if local pressure is removed. On this theory it is supposed that if water should percolate to liquefied rocks, it would be converted into steam, and produce the various volcanic phenomena.

The question of the constitution of the earth's interior has in recent years been much investigated by means of seismographic records. These appear to indicate that there are three distinct divisions. The outer crust has a thickness of from 20 to 40 miles. It possesses a high power of resistance to all kinds of stress. Beneath it is a large shell possessing a density and elasticity resembling fine steel. This shell has a high rigidity against changing forces of shorter duration, like tidal action, but in its outer parts at least yields in time to unvarying long-continued stress. The third or innermost division of the earth is probably molten, as it can transmit compressional waves, but yielding immediately to distortional or twisting forces, is unable to transmit distortional waves. This innermost portion appears to be a sphere of radius approximately one-half that of the earth as a whole. The transition between the crust and intermediate shell is abrupt, but that between the latter and the central portion is more gradual.

The earth (like the other planets) is believed to have condensed and solidified from a gaseous or nebular condition, and to have once had a far higher temperature than now. If such were the case, the outer surface, losing heat by radiation, would be the first part to cool quickly; while the interior, losing its heat by conduction, would not cool so rapidly, and, therefore, would naturally have a higher temperature than the portion at the surface. This is what all observations indicate the condition of the earth to be, and the shape of the earth also indicates that it must once have been in a fluid state. Calculations have been made of the time which has elapsed since solidification commenced, the estimates being in general of the order of hundreds of millions of years. See _Nebular Hypothesis_.

Another feature that the earth as a whole presents is its magnetism. When a magnetic needle is balanced on a point, it remains at rest in one position only, pointing then nearly due north and south. This can be explained only on the supposition that the earth acts as a great magnet. It has, in fact, two poles--a north and a south magnetic pole--which are not very far from the geographical poles. The magnetic equator, where the vertical force is zero and the dipping needle takes a horizontal position, does not diverge greatly from the geographical equator. The earth acts upon all magnets as they act upon each other, and it is for this reason that they point north and south.

The surface of the earth contains over 196,000,000 sq. miles, of which about two-sevenths is dry land, the remaining five-sevenths being water. The land is arranged into masses of irregular shape and size, the greatest connected mass being in the eastern hemisphere. The chief masses receive the name of continents, detached masses of smaller size being islands. The surface of the land is variously diversified, exhibiting mountains, valleys, plains, plateaus, deserts, &c. The water area of the earth is divided into oceans, seas, bays, gulfs, &c., while rivers and lakes may be regarded as features of the land surface. The great phenomena of the oceans are currents and tides. The population of the whole earth is estimated at from 1600 to 1700 millions. The earth is attended by the moon as a subordinate or secondary planet. See also such articles as _Climate_, _Currents_, _Ocean_, _Earthquake_, and _Seasons_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. von Humboldt, _Cosmos_; E. Reclus, _The Earth and its Inhabitants_; T. G. Bonney, _The Story of our Planet_; T. M. Reade, _The Evolution of Earth Structure_; _Theory of Geomorphic Changes_; A. T. Swaine, _The Earth: its Genesis and Evolution, considered in the Light of the most Recent Scientific Research_.

EARTHENWARE, a name applied to the commoner sorts of pottery-ware. The older kinds of earthenware, such as Majolica, Delft-ware, Faience, and Palissy-ware, are not only glazed, but are besides elaborately coloured and enamelled and ornamented with raised figures of various kinds. See _Pottery_.

EARTH-HOUSES, a name generally given throughout Scotland to underground buildings, also known as 'Picts' houses' or 'Picts' dwellings'. The earth-house in its simplest form consists of a single irregular-shaped chamber, formed of unhewn stones, the side walls gradually converging towards the top until they can be roofed by stones of 4 or 5 feet in width, all covered in by a mound of earth rising slightly above the level of the adjacent ground. In the more advanced form of these structures two or three chambers are found. Earth-houses are frequent in the north-east of Scotland, occasionally thirty or forty being found in the same locality. Querns, bones, deers' horns, earthen vessels, cups and implements of bone, stone celts, bronze swords, and the like, are occasionally found in connection with them. Very similar structures, known as beehive-houses, occur also in Ireland and Cornwall.

EARTH-NUT, the _Conopodium denudatum_, an umbelliferous plant common in woods and fields in Britain. The leaves are ternately divided, and the small white flowers are in terminal umbels. The tuber or nut is about 4 or 6 inches below the surface, at the termination of a long slender root. It is brown, the size of a chestnut, of a sweetish farinaceous nature, resembling in taste the common chestnut. Swine are very fond of the nuts, and fatten rapidly where they are abundant. The name is frequently applied to _Carum Bulbocast[)a]num_, which has a similar tuber. See _Ground-nut_.

EARTHQUAKE, a shaking of the earth's surface, propagated from place to place by a wave motion. It may vary in intensity from the slightest perceptible tremor to a violent shock which bursts open chasms and changes the appearance of the ground. Earthquakes originate in the crust of the earth, generally at only a very few miles depth, and probably never lower than about 30 miles. The point of origin is called the centre or seismic focus, and the place on the surface vertically over it the epicentre. It is rather difficult to tell the depth of the focus. Mallet estimated this by projecting backward the direction of travel of the wave at different points, as judged from the inclinations of the rents in buildings, &c., assumed to be at right angles to the line of propagation. The accuracy of this method has been improved by substituting evidence of direction as given by seismographs. The focus of an earthquake is often submarine, and subsequent to the shock transmitted through the solid earth a great sea-wave may invade the land and produce far more disastrous effects.

In some cases an earthquake may be caused by a fall of rock in some subterranean cavity. This gives only a minor and local shock. The vast majority of earthquakes are certainly _tectonic_, originating from the snapping of strata under great strain, or the further slipping of portions of the earth's crust along previously existing fault planes. Such dislocations probably arise sometimes from the variations of weight supported by the earth's crust in neighbouring regions, due to the transport by rivers of material, which they erode at one place and deposit at another. A further cause is the contraction undergone by the earth in its secular cooling. There are also earthquakes of _volcanic_ origin, accompanying eruptions, but these are not usually of any great violence, nor do they involve any large area. The coasts of the Pacific Ocean--American, Asiatic, and East Indian--are much visited by earthquakes, in especial the Japanese Islands. The other band of greatest frequency has a direction outlined by the Azores, Alps, Mediterranean, and the Caucasus and Himalaya Mountains. It may be noted that all the regions specially affected are distinguished by steep gradients of the earth's surface.

In recent years much information has been obtained by the investigation of earthquakes by various kinds of seismograph. One single instrument at a particular station, e.g. a Milne seismograph, will enable the distance of the epicentre to be calculated. From the results of three stations, the precise locality can practically always be told. With additional or particular forms of instruments, this may even be possible by means of the records at one station. Earthquake waves are found to consist of distinctly defined types. The first to arrive are the preliminary tremors or first-phase waves, then the second-phase waves, next the third-phase or large waves, and lastly the concluding waves, consisting largely of 'echoes' or reflected vibrations. The speed of the preliminary tremors is found to be only about 2 miles per second for very short distances, but for a quadrant of the earth's surface they travel at an average of about 7 miles per second, a speed which is only slightly exceeded for still greater distances. The second-phase waves travel with a little under two-thirds of these velocities. These two classes of wave have been proved to travel through the earth, approximately along chords, but with the path slightly bent, convex towards the earth's centre. The first-phase waves are longitudinal, or waves of compression; the second-phase are transverse, or waves of distortion. The greater speed for greater distances is due to the track being more through the earth's interior and less through its outer portions, as the interior transmits wave-motion much more rapidly than the crust. The rigidity at some depth from the surface has been shown to be of the same order of magnitude as the rigidity of steel. The third-phase waves are of much longer vibration period and wide amplitude, and have been compared to a groundswell on the sea. Their time of passage from the epicentre to any place is proportional to the distance measured round the earth's surface, and it is clear that they travel on the surface, and not through the interior. Their speed is nearly 2 miles per second. The difference in time between the arrival of the preliminary tremors at any station and the arrival of the second-phase waves, or between the second-phase and third-phase waves, enables the distance of the epicentre to be easily found, as these differences, of course, become greater with increasing distance.

The number of earthquakes has been found to be enormously greater than was at one time supposed; in fact, small tremors are occurring daily in one part or another of the earth. Great and destructive shocks are generally preceded by minor shocks in the same district, and they are always followed for months afterwards by a series of gradually lessening after-shocks. Among the most remarkable earthquakes of modern times were those which destroyed Lima in 1746, and Lisbon in 1755; more recently destructive earthquakes visited Calabria in 1857, Peru and Ecuador in 1868, the Island of Ischia in 1884, Japan in 1896, North India and Calabria in 1905, San Francisco in 1906, Messina and Reggio in 1908. One of the greatest earthquakes of recent times was that which visited the provinces of Kansu and Shensi in North-West China, on 16th Dec., 1920. (See _Seismograph_.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Milne, _Earthquakes and other Earth-Movements_; C. Davison, _A Study of Recent Earthquakes_; C. G. Knott, _The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena_.

EARTHS, a term applied in geology to certain loosely aggregated siliceous and aluminous materials, the detritus of pre-existing rocks. In chemistry the term earth is given to certain metallic oxides, such as the 'alkaline earths' lime, baryta, and strontia; also to alumina and a series known as the 'rare earths'. The earths were regarded as simple bodies until Sir H. Davy proved them to be compounds of oxygen with metals.

EARTH-SHINE, in astronomy, a name given to the faint light visible on the part of the moon not directly illuminated by the sun, due to the illumination of that portion by the sunlight which the earth reflects on her. It is most conspicuous when the illuminated part of the disc is small, as soon after new moon. This phenomenon is popularly described as 'the old moon in the new moon's arms'.

EARTH-TONGUE. See _Geoglossum_.

EARTHWORKS (in fortification) are military works formed chiefly of earth and designed either as permanent or temporary defences. They are cheaper, more easily repaired, and expose their defenders to less risk from broken stone than stone-works. See _Entrenchments_.

EARTHWORM, the name applied to segmented worms (Annelids) that burrow in the soil, and belong to the ord. Oligochaeta, a subdivision of the bristle-worms (Chaetopoda). They have a long, cylindrical body, divided by transverse furrows into numerous rings. The mouth is destitute of jaws, and they have no eyes, tentacles, or other head appendages. They are hermaphrodite. The commonest British forms are chiefly species of Lumbricus and Allolobophora. They feed on earth and various kinds of animal and vegetable matter, and move by the contractions of successive parts of the body aided by a double row of bristles. They are of great service to the agriculturist by loosening the soil and increasing its depth. This is chiefly the result of their mode of nourishment, since they deposit the soil they have swallowed, after digestion, in heaps called _worm castings_ which bring up rich fine soil to the surface, gradually covering the upper layer sometimes to the extent of several inches.

EAR-TRUMPET, an artificial instrument for aiding the collection of the vibrations or waves of sound, and carrying them in an intensified form to the internal parts of the ear. They are generally made of tin, vulcanite, or gutta-percha, and are of various forms. A small kind known as ear-cornets or acoustic auricles, attached to the ear by a spring, is sometimes used in slight cases of deafness.

EARWIG (_Forfic[)u]la_), a common orthopterous insect whose name is derived from its supposed habit of insinuating itself into the ears of persons. This is practically impossible, yet the notion is widely spread, as appears from the names given to the earwig in different languages, as in Fr. _perceoreille_ (pierce-ear), in Ger. _ohrenh[:o]hler_ (ear-borer). Much damage is sustained by gardeners from the depredations of these insects among fruit and tender vegetables, which constitute their proper food. The earwig is about three-quarters of an inch in length, having the wings folded under very short and truncate elytra or wing-cases, and the extremity of the abdomen armed with a horny forceps.

EASEMENT, in law, a right or privilege which one proprietor may have to use the land of another in connection with the needs of his own land, as the use of a way, a water-course, &c. The right to an easement may be acquired either by grant or by uninterrupted enjoyment for a period of years.

EAST, one of the four cardinal points, being the point in the heavens where the sun is seen to rise at the equinox, or the corresponding point on the earth; that point of the horizon lying on the right hand when one's face is turned towards the north pole. By _the East_, in an indefinite sense, is often meant Syria, Arabia, Persia, India, and the eastern part of the world generally.

EASTBOURNE, a municipal borough and flourishing watering-place of England, county of Sussex, on the English Channel, near Beachy Head; also a parliamentary division of Sussex. The town is handsomely built, having fine parades and well-planted walks and drives. Pop. 52,544.

EAST CAPE, the most easterly point of Asia, projecting into Behring's Strait nearly opposite Cape Prince of Wales in Alaska.

EASTER, the festival commemorating the resurrection of Christ, observed in the Roman Catholic, the Greek, Anglican, Lutheran, and other branches of the Christian Church. By the first Christians it was considered to continue the feast of the _passover_, at which the paschal lamb, a type of Christ, was sacrificed. Hence its name in Greek (_pascha_), French (_p[^a]ques_), and other Romance languages is taken from the Hebrew _pesach_, passover. The English name, according to the Venerable Bede, comes from the Anglo-Saxon _Eostre_ (from Teutonic _Austr[=o]_), a goddess of light or spring, whose festival was celebrated in April. There was long a dispute in the Christian Church as to the proper time for holding Easter, the Christians of the East celebrating it on the same day as that on which the Jewish passover fell, that is, the 14th of Nisan (hence they were called _quarto decimani_), while the majority of the Church celebrated it on the Sunday next after this day. The controversy was decided by the Council of Nice (Nicaea) in 325, which settled that it was to be reckoned as at present, namely, that Easter is the first Sunday after the full moon which happens upon or next after the 21st of March; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday after, but, properly speaking, for the 'full moon' in the above the 'fourteenth day of the moon' should be substituted.--Cf. Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_.

EASTER DUES, or OFFERINGS, in the Church of England, certain dues paid to the parochial clergy by the parishioners at Easter as a compensation for the tithe for personal labour.

EASTER EGGS. The egg was anciently a symbol of the mother goddess and of birth: the sun emerged from the cosmic egg. The Saxon goddess Easter was a life-giver. On Easter Day, the day of Christ's resurrection, eggs (Pasche eggs) were dyed in symbolic colours, and boiled hard to be rolled or used in egg-breaking contests. The Jews have eggs at the Passover Feast.

EASTER ISLAND, or RAPANUI (discovered by the Dutch Admiral Roggeven, on Easter, 6th April, 1722), an island, 12 miles long, in the South Pacific Ocean, long. 109deg 17' W., lat. 27deg 6' S., and utilized for grazing sheep and cattle. It now belongs to Chile, from which it is 2000 miles distant. Pop. 250 in 1916. The Routledge Expedition reported, in 1919, that the inhabitants are of mixed Polynesian and Melanesian origin. Their ancient bird-cult shows very close resemblances to that of the Solomon Islands. Numerous gigantic stone images of a soft 'volcanic ash' were being worshipped when the island was first visited by Europeans in the eighteenth century. Some still lie partly constructed in a crater quarry. These images date back a few centuries, and resemble those made until recently in wood on this island and elsewhere in Oceania, and bear symbols used on these and in tattooing. Local legends of the earliest settlements from distant islands and of local tribal wars still survive. The present inhabitants are undoubtedly descendants of the image-makers and worshippers. Cf. K. Routledge, _The Mystery of Easter Island_.

EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM, a province of India, under a Lieutenant-Governor, formed in 1905 by disjoining from Bengal the three divisions of Chittagong, Dacca, and Rajshahi (with the exception of Darjeeling) and uniting Assam with them, as also the state of Cooch Behar. It was formed in order to provide for the better government both of the area belonging to it and of that of Bengal, which was regarded as having become rather unwieldy, its population being still 54 millions. On 1st April, 1912, however, Assam was separated from Eastern Bengal and reconstituted. Its area is about 53,000 sq. miles, and the pop. nearly 6,750,000.

EASTERN CHURCHES, a collective term for the Greek, Armenian, Coptic, Abyssinian, Syrian, and other kindred Churches, as distinguished from the Latin, or Western Church.

EASTERN QUESTION, THE, an international political problem which occupied the attention of European statesmen during the last two centuries, and even since 1453, when the Turks established their empire and gained sway over the Balkans. It deals with the relations of the Balkan nationalities, Turkey, and the Great Powers to each other. Russia, Germany, Austria, Greece, France, Italy, and Great Britain were all interested in the Near East and in the Eastern Question ever since the Treaty of Kutshuk-Kainardji in 1774. The Levantine commerce and the Mediterranean ports were, and still are, of vital importance not only to Russia, but also to the Balkan States and to the neighbouring European powers. The occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878, the proclamation of Bulgaria's independence, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, all contributed to the complication of the Eastern Question. This complication was further increased by Italy's occupation of Tripoli in 1911, by the Balkan Wars (1912-3), and by the construction of the Bagdad Railway with the aid of German capital. It is no exaggeration to say that the Eastern Question was one of the causes which led to the outbreak of the European War of 1914. The Peace Treaties of Versailles, S[`e]vres, and St. Germain have not yet settled the Eastern Question, and the peace in the Near East is still a problem which occupies the attention of European diplomatists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Phillips, _Modern Europe_; R. W. Seton Watson, _The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans_.

EASTERN RUMELIA. See _Bulgaria_.

EASTER TERM, one of the four regular terms of the courts of common law in England, beginning on the 19th April, and continuing till the middle or end of May.--In Oxford University, a term beginning 13th April, ending 27th May; in Cambridge, beginning 18th April, and ending 24th June.

EAST INDIA COMPANY, a great English company, originally simply a trading association, which played an important part in the history of Hindustan. It was formed in 1599 in London, with a subscribed capital of about L30,000, for the purpose of trade with the East Indies. A charter was granted to it by Queen Elizabeth on 31st December, 1600, for fifteen years, renewable for a similar period. In this charter the Company is styled, "The Governor and Company of the Merchants of London trading into the East Indies". The first voyages resulted in large profits. In 1609 the charter was renewed by James I, and made perpetual, reserving power to the Crown to recall it at three years' notice. Additional power was granted to the Company of seizing and confiscating ships and goods of contraband traders, either in the British dominions or in any of the places where they were authorized to trade. Among the motives which had induced the Company to press for this renewal of their charter was the necessity they had experienced from the jealousy of the Dutch and Portuguese to send out vessels fitted not only for trade, but for defence and indeed attack. Accordingly Captain Best, who commanded the eighth expedition, attacked four Portuguese war galleons, convoying 200 sail of merchantmen, off Surat, and gained a complete victory, which so impressed the Great Mogul that he immediately made a treaty with Captain Best, giving the English full liberty to trade in his dominions. This treaty was concluded on 6th Feb., 1613. It was followed at once by a resolution of the Company to trade on a joint-stock. L429,000 was raised as capital, and apportioned in fitting out four voyages for 1613, 1614, 1615, 1617. In 1617 and 1618 the Company was so enlarged as to include 954 proprietors, while a new joint-stock of L1,600,000 was subscribed. In 1619 a treaty was made with the Dutch, by which the two companies were to work in harmony for twenty years; but in 1629 the Dutch massacred the leading members of the English factory at Amboyna. In the feeble reigns of James and Charles I, however, the outrage remained unredressed, and the English Company, ill supported by the Crown, was often reduced to great straits. Their trade, impeded by the Dutch, became unprofitable, and, to add to their difficulties, Charles I in 1635 gave a licence to a rival company. At length, under Cromwell, the Company received a new charter. A territorial footing had been acquired in Madras in 1640, to which settlement was given the control of all the factories in Bengal and the Coromandel coast, the Supreme Council in India still remaining at Surat. A new charter, granted by Charles II in 1660, enlarged the powers of the Company, giving it political and judicial authority in the factories and colonies established by it, with the right to appoint governors. On the Revolution of 1688 the Company was involved in new difficulties, and in 1692 the Commons presented an address to the Crown praying for their dissolution. At this time, by an accidental failure to pay a tax upon their stock, the Company formally forfeited their charter, and were compelled to accept its renewal with the important proviso of a reservation to the Crown of the right to alter or modify its conditions. The maximum stock to be held by any individual was fixed at L10,000, every L1000 of which was to give a vote, while the right of membership was thrown open to all British subjects. The Scottish Parliament also sanctioned a company, but a war with Spain and the bitter opposition of the English Parliament made difficulties under which this company succumbed. Meantime the misconduct of the English company had so strengthened its enemies that, in spite of all its opposition, a resolution in favour of the formation of a new company passed the House of Commons on 4th May, 1698, and this company was actually constituted by Act 9 William III cap. xliv. This Act provided for the extinction of the old company, but an amalgamation was eventually arranged in 1708. The possessions of the old company at the time of amalgamation, upon which the valuation of L330,000 was placed in 1700, included a large number of places in India, a footing having been by this time acquired in each of the three presidencies, besides possessions in Persia, Cochin-China, and Sumatra. The dividends of the Company rose rapidly after the amalgamation, and finally settled at 8 per cent; and it procured without difficulty, at various periods, a prolongation of its exclusive privileges until 1780, still with three years' notice. In the meantime the French possessions had, as well as the English, been growing in power and importance in the East, and on the outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession in 1741 commenced those struggles (Clive being the first great English leader) by which a mercantile company was led on to establish British supremacy over nearly the whole of India. In 1766 the right of the Company to acquire territorial possessions formed a subject of parliamentary inquiry; and the question of the political rights of the Company being thus opened up, the ministry began to act on their view of it by sending out a Crown plenipotentiary to India. A regulating Act was passed in 1773 remodelling the powers of the Company, and placing it completely under the control of Parliament, providing for the establishment by the Crown of courts of judicature in India. The charter, which expired in 1780, was renewed till 1791. The Renewal Act provided that the Company, which was already bound to submit to the Government all dispatches received from India, should submit for approval all dispatches proposed to be transmitted thither. In 1784 another Act established a board, afterwards known as the Board of Control, to superintend, direct, and control all acts, operations, and concerns relating to the civil and military government or revenues of India. The board was to consist of a principal Secretary of State, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and four Privy Councillors nominated by the Crown. The directors of the Company were bound to submit all their papers except those referring to commercial matters to this board, and obey its instructions. From this time the political power of the Company was little more than nominal. While the right of nominating the servants of the Company was still left to the directors, the absolute right of recall was vested in the Crown. A subsequent Declaratory Bill regulated the power of the Board of Control to send out troops at the expense of the Company. In 1813 the charter was renewed on condition that the right of exclusive trade should be restricted to China, while the India trade should be thrown open to all British subjects. A Church establishment for India was also provided by this Act. The appointment of governors-general, governors, and commanders-in-chief was no longer to be valid without the direct sanction of the Crown. The renewal of the Company's charter in 1834 took place amid continued opposition to their mercantile, and even to their legislative privileges. It continued them in all their possessions except the Island of St. Helena, put an end to the exclusive right of trade with China, and enacted that the Company should with all convenient speed close their commercial business, and make sale of all their property not retained for Government purposes; all their other property was to be held in trust for the Crown, which was to take over their debts and guarantee their dividend out of the revenues of India. The stock was valued at L6,000,000, which was to bear interest at 10 per cent, and be redeemable after 30th April, 1874, on payment of L12,000,000. The Company was now fairly in liquidation, and on the outbreak of the mutiny of 1857 it was felt indispensable to vest the government of India directly in the Crown, and this was accordingly done in 1858. Henceforth the Company existed only for the purpose of receiving payment of its capital, and of the dividends due upon capital until its repayment.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Bruce, _Annals of the East India Company_; Sir W. W. Hunter, _History of British India_; W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Trade in Modern Times_; J. Macpherson, _The History and Management of the East India Company_; W. Foster and F. C. Danvers, _Letters received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East_ (6 vols.).

EAST INDIES, the name loosely applied to Hindustan, the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and a portion of the Eastern Archipelago, but excluding the Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and Australia.

EASTLAKE, Sir Charles Lock, English painter, president of the Royal Academy, born at Plymouth 17th Nov., 1793, died at Pisa 23rd Dec., 1865. He studied at the Royal Academy, London, and at Paris. In 1817 he visited Italy and Greece, and painted besides other pictures his _Pilgrims arriving in Sight of Rome_. In 1830 he was elected member of the Royal Academy, and in 1850 became its president, receiving at the same time the honour of knighthood. From 1843 to 1847 he was keeper of the National Gallery, of which he was afterwards director for about ten years. Sir Charles is also known as a writer on art by his _Materials for a History of Oil-painting_. Among his most noteworthy pictures are: _Lord Byron's Dream_ (in the Tate Gallery), _Greek Fugitives_, _Escape of the Carrara Family_, _Christ blessing Little Children_, _Christ lamenting over Jerusalem_.

EAST LONDON, a seaport on the east coast of Cape Province, at the mouth of the Buffalo River, now an important outlet for the produce of this region, connected by railway with Cape Town. Pop. 20,867.

EAST MAIN, a considerable river of Canada, having a westward course to James Bay, the southern extension of Hudson Bay, and forming the boundary between Quebec province and Ungava territory.

EASTON, a city of Pennsylvania, United States, at the junction of the Delaware and Lehigh Rivers, 75 miles S.W. of New York. It contains iron-foundries, tanneries, and breweries. Pop. 32,000.

EAST RIVER, a strait in New York State, separating New York from Brooklyn and connecting Long Island Sound with New York Bay, about 20 miles long. The Brooklyn Bridge, and the Williamsburg, Queensboro, and Manhattan Bridges now cross the river.

EAST ST. LOUIS, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the east bank of the Mississippi, opposite St. Louis, and connected with it by a great steel arch bridge and another bridge, carrying numerous lines of railway. Pop. 58,547.

EASTWOOD, a town of England, in Notts, on the Derbyshire border, with coal-mines, 8-1/2 miles W.N.W. of Nottingham. Pop. 4692.

EAU ([=o]), a French word signifying _water_, and used in English with some other words for several spirituous waters, particularly perfumes, as _eau de Cologne_, and _eau de Luce_.--_Eau de Cologne_ is a fragrant water, made originally and in most perfection in Cologne by a manufacturer named Farina, by whose successors the only genuine water is said still to be manufactured. It consists of spirits of wine flavoured by different essential oils blended so as to yield a fine fragrant scent. It was invented in Northern Italy by one of the Farina family, who afterwards settled in Cologne.--_Eau Cr['e]ole_, a highly esteemed liqueur made in Martinique by distilling the flowers of the mammee apple with spirit of wine.--_Eau de Luce_ ('water of Luce'), so called from the name of its inventor, is made by dissolving white soap in spirit of wine, and adding oil of amber and sal ammoniac. It is a milky fluid, antispasmodic and stimulant.--_Eau de Vie_ ('water of life'), a term used by the French for the coarser kinds of brandy, _cognac_ being the name of the best.

EAU CLAIRE ([=o] kl[=a]r), a city of Wisconsin, United States, at the junction of the Eau Claire and Chippewa Rivers, a great lumbering centre. In 1910 Eau Claire adopted the commission form of government, being the first city in the state to do so. Pop. 18,310.

EAUX-BONNES ([=o]-bon), a watering-place, France, department of Basses Pyr['e]n['e]es, about 25 miles south of Pau. The hot sulphur springs are said to have great efficacy in affections of the chest. Pop. 622.--Near it is _Eaux Chaudes_, also with warm springs.

E'BAL, a mountain of Western Palestine about half-way between Jerusalem and Nazareth, on the north side of a narrow valley, on the south side of which and directly opposite stands Mt. Gerizim with Nablous almost between. Here the Israelites set up an altar on their entrance into the Holy Land and had the law solemnly read to them by Joshua (_Jos._ viii 30-35). At the east end of the valley are Jacob's Well and Joseph's Tomb.

EBBSFLEET, a hamlet in the Isle of Thanet, county Kent, memorable as the place where the first Anglo-Saxon invaders landed.

EBBW-VALE, a town of England, in Monmouthshire, with ironworks, steelworks, and collieries. Pop. 30,540.

EBENA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of trees and shrubs, of which the wood is very hard, and frequently of very dark colour in the centre, as ebony. The leaves are alternate, and generally coriaceous and shining; calyx gamosepalous and persistent, with three or six equal divisions; corolla with imbricated divisions. The fruit is a globular berry containing a small number of compressed seeds. The principal genus is Diosp[)y]ros, which yields ebony and iron-wood.

EBERS ([=a]'b[.e]rz), Georg Moritz, German Egyptologist and novelist, born 1st March, 1837, at Berlin, died in 1898. He studied at G[:o]ttingen, and afterwards at Berlin, where he devoted himself to Egyptology. In 1870 he was made professor at the University of Leipzig, but he had to resign in 1889. In 1869 and 1870 he travelled extensively in Egypt and Nubia. Two years later he again visited Egypt, where he discovered the medical papyrus, known as the _Papyrus Ebers_. His most important works have been translated into English, such as _Egypt, Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque_; and the novels _An Egyptian Princess_, _Uarda_, _Homo Sum_, _The Emperor_, _The Sisters_, all dealing with old Egyptian life; _The Burgomaster's Wife_, and _Only a Word_.

EBERSWALDE ([=a]'berz-v[.a]l-de), a town in Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, on the Finow Canal, 27 miles north-east of Berlin. It has a school of forestry, piscicultural establishment, botanic gardens, well-frequented mineral springs, and industrial works of various kinds. Pop. 26,064.

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