Part 7

AVERROES (a-ver'o-es; corrupted from IBN ROSHD), the most renowned Arabian philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however, deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the exposition of his works as to be called among the Arabians _The Interpreter_. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries upon Aristotle appeared before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a theologian, and a theosophist.

AVERRUNCA'TOR, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder, consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a pulley is attached.

AVER'SA, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles N. of Naples, in a beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203.

AVESNES ([.a]-v[=a]n), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829.

AVESTA. See _Zendavesta_.

AVEYRON ([.a]-v[=a]-r[=o][n.]), a department occupying the southern extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron, Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron, and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital, Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.

AVEZZANO ([.a]-vet-zae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop. 11,279.

AV'IARY, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds. Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series of enclosures.

AVIATIK, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in Alsace.

AVIATION. See _Aeronautics_.

AVICEN'NA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, A.D. 980. After practising as a physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics, astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics. He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is the _Canon Medicinae_, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His _Philosophia Orientalis_, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.

AVIE'NUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the end of the fourth century A.D., and wrote _Descriptio Orbis Terrae_, a general description of the earth; _Ora Maritima_, an account of the Mediterranean coasts, &c.

AVIFAU'NA, a collective term for the birds of any region.

AVIGLIANO ([.a]-v[=e]l-yae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza. Pop. 17,413.

AVIGNON ([.a]-v[=e]-ny[=o]n; ancient, AVENIO), an old town of S.E. France, capital of department Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by lofty battlemented and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow streets. It is an archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient cathedral on a rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the Popes resided (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other old buildings. The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the principal being connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding of silk-worms are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch lived several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in the Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791, when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.

AVIGNON BERRIES. See _French Berries_.

AVILA (ae'v[=e]-l[.a]), a town of Spain, capital of province of Avila, a modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop suffragan of Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns of Spain. Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, breeding sheep and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.

AVILA, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, 1577-1658; made historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in 1641. Most valuable works: _Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid_, 1623, and _Teatro Ecclesiastico_, 1645-53.

AVILA Y ZUNIGA (ae'v[=e]-l[.a] [=e] thoe-ny[=e]'g[.a]), Don Luis d', Spanish general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born about 1490, died about 1560. His chief work, printed in 1548 and translated into five languages, was on the war of Charles V in Germany.

AVILES ([.a]-v[=e]'les), a town of Northern Spain, province Oviedo, with a good harbour. Pop. 13,660.

AVIZ, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, its first king, and having as its original object the subjection of the Moors.

AVIZAN'DUM, in Scots law, private consideration. To make _avizandum_ is to remove a cause from the public court to the private consideration of the judge.

AVLO'NA (Ital. _Valona_), a seaport of Albania on the Adriatic, with a considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and military base by the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.

AVO'CA, or OVOCA, a river and valley in Ireland, County Wicklow, celebrated as the scene and subject of one of Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The river is formed by the union of the Avonbeg and Avonmore, and below the junction receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic signifying 'the meeting of the waters'. After a course of about 9 miles it falls into the sea about a mile below Arklow. The scenery here is singularly beautiful, and attracts many visitors.

AVOCA'DO-PEAR. See _Alligator-pear_.

AVOGAD'RO'S LAW, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal number of molecules.

AVOIRDUPOIS (a-v[.e]r'd[u:]-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods of weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious metals, gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7000 grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a _cental_ of 100 pounds is common in America, and is a legal British weight. See _Weights and Measures_.

AV'OLA, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in almonds, sugar, &c. Pop. 17,711.

A'VON, the name of several rivers in England, of which the principal are: 1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing S.W. into the Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower Avon, rising in Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn N.W. of Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and Hampshire, entering the English Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also streams of this name in Wales and Scotland.

AVONMOUTH, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from Bristol, and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks belonging to the Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping accommodation of that city.

AV'OSET, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus Recurvirostra (_R. avosetta_), family Scolopacidae (snipes), ord. Grallatores. The bill is long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward the tip, the legs long, the feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with black and white. The bird feeds on worms and other small animals, which it scoops up from the mud of the marshes and fens that it frequents. It is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; but the American species is slightly different from the others.

AVRANCHES ([.a]-vrae[n.]sh; ancient, ABRINCAE), a town, France, department La Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It formerly had a fine cathedral, destroyed during the first French revolution. Manufactures: lace, thread, and candles. Pop. 7174.

AWE ([a:]), a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2 broad, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at its northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and abounds in trout, salmon, &c.

AXE, or AX, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping wood, consisting of an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, which is in line with the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right angles to it as in the adze.

AXEL. See _Absalon_.

AXE-STONE. See _Jade_.

AXHOLME ISLE (aks'[=o]m), a sort of island in England formed by the Rivers Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of Lincolnshire, 17 miles long, 4-1/2 broad.

AXIL, or AXILLA, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually appear in the axils, and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are called _axillary_.

AX'IM, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.

AX'INITE, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with boracic acid, deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges of which bear some resemblance to the edge of an axe.

AXIN'OMANCY, an ancient method of divination by the movements of an axe (Gr. _axin[=e]_) balanced on a stake, or of an agate placed on a red-hot axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, the movements at a particular name indicated the criminal.

AX'IOM, a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and therefore called a _self-evident truth_: e.g. _A_ is _A_. In mathematics, axioms are those propositions which are assumed without proof, as being in themselves independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than its part'; 'Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another'. See _Geometry_.

AXIS, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a body or magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; especially a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a magnitude, or several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the _axis of the world_, the imaginary line drawn through its two poles.

In _botany_ the word is also used, the stem being termed the _ascending axis_, the root the _descending axis_.

In _anatomy_ the name is given to the second vertebra from the head, that on which the _atlas_ moves. See _Atlas_.

AXIS (_Cervus axis_), a species of Indian deer, also known as the Spotted Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the back, with white spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many parks in Europe.

AX'MINSTER, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, at one time celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and giving name to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, and also to a cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.

AX'OLOTL (_Amblyst[)o]ma macul[=a]tum_), a curious Mexican amphibian, not unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with gills formed of three long ramified or branch-like processes floating on each side of the neck. It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some time regarded as a perfect animal with permanent gills. It is said, however, that they frequently lose their gills like the other members of the genus, though some authorities maintain that the true axolotl never loses its gills, and that merely confusion with _A. tigr[=i]num_ has led to the belief, as this species sometimes retains its branchiae, though usually it loses them. The axolotl is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. There are a number of species of Amblystoma in North America.

AX'UM, or AKSUM, a town in Tigre, a division of Abyssinia, once the capital of an important kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an _abuna_ or Patriarch, and has a pop. of 5000. The site of the town still exhibits many remains of its former greatness.

AYACUCHO (ae-y[.a]-koe'ch[=o]), the name of a department of Peru, and of its capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. miles; a pop. of 302,469. The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a cathedral and a university, and a pop. of 20,000.

AYALA ([.a]-yae'l[.a]), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet, Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, and the author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an active part in the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was taken prisoner by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he wrote part of his chief poetical work, _A Book in Rhyme concerning Court Life_. Died 1407.

AYAMONTE ([.a]-y[.a]-mon't[=a]), a seaport town, Spain, province of Huelva, 2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. 6000.

AYASS'OLUK. See _Ephesus_.

AYE-AYE ([=i]-[=i]; _Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_), an animal of Madagascar, so called from its cry; now referred to the lemur family. It is about the size of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes; long sprawling fingers, the third so slender as to appear shrivelled; colour, musk-brown, mixed with black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits, &c.; habits, nocturnal. See _Primates_, _Lemurs_.

AYESHA (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of Mahomet, though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his death she opposed the succession of Ali, but was defeated and taken prisoner. She died at Medina in 677 or 678 (A.H. 58).

AYLESBURY ([=a]lz'be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, England, with a fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, printing, making condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London market. The Aylesbury duck, also called 'white English', is famous. Previous to 1885 it and its hundred sent two members to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 12,114.

AY'LOFFE, Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, died 1781; member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a commissioner for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor of several works, of which the best known is his _Calendars of the Auntient Charters_, &c.

AYMARAS ([=i]'m[.a]-r[.a]z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, speaking a language akin to the Quichua.

AY'MON, the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne cycle of romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, _Les Quatre Fils d'Aymon_, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvere of the thirteenth century, and Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's _Orlando_.

AYR ([=a]r), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde. It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion built a castle there in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; and the Parliament which confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely situated, and has excellent public and other buildings. Two bridges connect Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and Wallacetown, a third stands farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in 1788) had to be replaced by a new structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig' (built in 1252) still stands, after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods, leather, iron goods, &c., are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is good, and in particular coals are largely exported. The house in which Burns was born stands within 1-1/2 miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's auld haunted kirk', and a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with Ardrossan, Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. 32,986.--The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is divided into the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly, but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar, Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; and there are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone are also abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal crops being oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is extensively practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth century as the Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese ('Dunlop' and 'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are extensive, particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made; Kilmarnock is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods made include explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief towns, Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, Maybole. Ayr and Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 (1918).

AYRER ([=i]'rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth century, who almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He was a citizen and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His works, published at Nuremberg in 1618, under the title _Opus Theatricum_, include thirty comedies and tragedies and thirty-six humorous pieces.

AYRTON, William Edward, English physicist and electrical engineer, born in 1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural philosophy and telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokio. In 1879 he was appointed professor of applied physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, &c., in conjunction with Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He published _Practical Electricity_, and many papers on scientific subjects.

AYTOUN ([=a]'tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, 1570, died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for some time in France, whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin verse to King James on his accession to the crown of England. By the grateful monarch he was appointed one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to the queen, receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of his life he was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems are few in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of his Latin poems are preserved in the work called _Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum_, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John Scot of Scotstarvet.

AYTOUN, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in 1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and passed as advocate in 1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 was a contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_, and in 1840 he published the _Life and Times of Richard 1_. In 1848 he published a collection of ballads entitled _Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers_, which has proved the most popular of all his works. It was followed in 1854 by _Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy_ (intended to ridicule certain popular writers); the _Bon Gaultier Ballads_ (parodies and other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin), 1855; in 1856 the poem _Bothwell_; and in subsequent years by _Norman Sinclair_, _The Glenmutchkin Railway_, and other stories. In 1858 he edited a critical and annotated collection of the _Ballads of Scotland_. A translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was executed by him in conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric and English literature in the University of Edinburgh--a position which he held till his death. In 1852 he was appointed Sheriff of Orkney and Shetland.

AYUNTAMIENTO ([.a]-y[u:]n-t[.a]-m[=e]-en't[=o]), the name given to the town and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.

AYU'THIA, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a scene of splendid ruin.

AZA'LEA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceae, or heaths, remarkable for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and distinguished from the rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten. Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous leaves are known under the name of _azalea_ in gardens. The azaleas are common in North America, and two species of these--_A. visc[=o]sa_ and _A. nudifl[=o]ra_--are well known in Britain. An Asiatic species, _A. pontica_, famous for the stupefying effect which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf. _Anabasis_, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and shrubberies; and another, _A. indica_, is a brilliant greenhouse plant.

AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a town of India, United Provinces, capital of district of same name. Pop. 18,835.--The district has an area of 2418 sq. miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.

AZEGLIO ([.a]d-zel'y[=o]), Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian 'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, statesman, and soldier, born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining some reputation in Rome as a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, and achieved success in literature by his novels _Ettore Fieramosca_ (1833) and _Niccolo dei Lapi_ (1841). These embodied much of the patriotic spirit, and in a short time he devoted himself exclusively to fostering the national sentiment by personal action and by his writings. Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him. He commanded a legion in the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely wounded at Vincenza. Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies, he was, after the battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in 1859 appointed to the military post of general and commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman States.