Part 21

BARBER, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the Company of Surgeons--the company being then known as the Barber-surgeons--with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession--the pole which the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and the basin to catch the blood--are still sometimes retained. The barbers' shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres of classic and mediaeval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate.

BARBERINI (b[.a]r-be-r[=e]'n[=e]), a celebrated Florentine family, which, since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.

BAR'BERRY, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceae. The common barberry (_Berb[)e]ris vulg[=a]ris_) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have pinnate leaves. _B. aristata_ is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the south. See _Irritability_ and _Rust_.

BAR'BERTON, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal, about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000 (whites).

BAR'BETS (Bucconidae), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The _barbicans_ (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on fruit; the _barbets_ proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the _puff-birds_ (Tamatia), inhabiting America, and feeding on insects.

BARBETTE (b[.a]r-bet'), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See _Fortification_.

BARBEYRAC (b[.a]r-b[=a]-r[.a]k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and Groningen; died 1744.

BARBICAN. See _Barbacan_.

BARBIE DU BOCAGE (b[.a]rb-y[=a] due b[=o]-kaezh), Jean Denis, a distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of his fame in 1788 by his _Atlas_ to Barthelemy's _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis_. His maps and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., exhibit much erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient geography. He also prepared many modern maps, and published various excellent dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825.

BARBIER (b[.a]rb-y[=a]), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'Etat in 1798; Napoleon made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis XVIII. His _Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Conseil d'Etat_ (1801-3), and _Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes_ (1806-9), are both valuable works.

BARBIERI (b[.a]r-b[=e]-[=a]'r[=e]), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as _Guercino_ (the squinter) _da Cento_), an eminent and prolific historical painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the latter school. Chief work, a _St. Petronilla_ in the Capitol at Rome; but most of the large galleries have pictures by him.

BARBIERI, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640.

BARBITONE. See _Veronal_.

BARBIZON (b[.a]r-b[=e]-z[=o]n), a French village about 25 miles south by east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupre, and Daubigny.

BAR'BOUR, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief poem, _The Bruce_ (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571, and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS. remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having compiled a _Book of Legends of Saints_, existing in a single MS. at Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his _Legenden Sammlung_. He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his _Bruce_ is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high moral dignity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_; Irving, _History of Scottish Poetry_.

BARBUDA (b[.a]r-boe'da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in 1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop. 580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco are the principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the west side. It is a dependency of Antigua.

BARBUSSE, Henri, a French author born at Asnieres in 1874. He served in the French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include _Le Feu_ and _Clarte_.

BARBY (baer'b[=e]), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.

BAR'CA, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt, annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses, honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed 300,000. See _Cyrenaica_ and _Tripoli_.

BARCAROLLE (-rol'), a species of song sung by the _barcaruoli_, or gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's _Tales of Hoffmann_.

BARCELLONA (b[.a]r-chel-[=o]'n[.a]), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina, immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town with it. Joint pop. 26,172.

BARCELONA (b[.a]r-thel-[=o]'n[.a]), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain, capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens, machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics, machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal, cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909. Pop. 618,766.--The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386 (1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the most thickly peopled in Spain.

BARCELONA, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.

BARCELONA NUTS, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain.

BAR'CLAY, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely; subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died 1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled _The Shyp of Folys of this Worlde_, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's _Narrenschiff_ (Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote _The Myrrour of Good Maners_, and some _Egloges_ (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as well as translations, &c.

BARCLAY, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at Pont-a-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits' College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin politico-satirical romance, entitled _Euphormionis Satyricon_, having as its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome, received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a singular romance in Latin, entitled _Argenis_ (Paris, 1621), thought by some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work, among others Fenelon's _Telemaque_ and Calderon's _Argenis y Poliarco_. It has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems appeared in the _Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum_,

BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles, published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of _Truth Cleared of Calumnies_, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, _An Apology for the True Christian Divinity_, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere with the highest respect. The last of his productions, _On the Possibility and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation_, was not published in England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family. He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire, in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II.

BARCLAY, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876 as correspondent of _The Times_. He has been greatly instrumental in bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include: _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; _The Turco-Italian War and its Problems_; _Law and Usage of War_.

BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818.

BAR-COCHBA (b[.a]r-ko_h_'b[.a]), or BAR-COCHEBAS, Simon, a Jewish impostor, who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.

BAR'COO. See _Cooper's Creek_.

BARD, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws, &c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin, Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan. Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism, and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion, &c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of their old bards still preserved.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Jones, _Relics of the Welsh Bards_; Walker, _Memoirs of the Irish Bards_; Dottin, _Manuel de l'Antiquite Celtique_; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_; D. D. Evans, _Ancient Bards of Britain_.

BARDESA'NES, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154 or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in Syrian hymns (_Hymn on the Soul_), the first in the language. His son, Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically adopted Manichaeism.

BARDWAN', or BURDWAN', a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum. Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.--The district _Bardwan_ has an area of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice, grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500 sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.--The town of _Bardwan_ has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022.

BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some time, but his subsequent history is unknown.

BAREFOOTED FRIARS. See _Monasticism_.

BAREGE (ba-r[=a]zh'), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Bareges. It is now made chiefly at Bagneres-de-Bigorre.

BAREGES (b[.a]-r[=a]zh), a watering-place, south of France, department Hautes-Pyrenees, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September.

BAREGINE (ba-r[=a]zh'in; from _Bareges_), a gelatinous product of certain algae growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the colour and odour of flesh-broth.

BAREILLY (ba-r[=a]'li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces, capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop. 129,462.--The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550.

BAR'ENTS, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century, who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage, discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before reaching home.

BARET'TI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came to England, and in 1753 published in English a _Defence of the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire_. In 1760 he brought out a useful _Italian and English Dictionary_. After an absence of six years, during part of which he edited the _Frusta Letteraria_ (Literary Scourge) at Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an _Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy_. Not long after, in defending himself in a street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An _English and Spanish Dictionary_, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789.

BARFLEUR (b[.a]r-fl_eu_r), at one time the best port on the coast of Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304.

BARFRUSH', or BARFURUSH', Same as _Balfroosh_.

BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands, tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See _Conveyancing_.

BARGE, a term similar in origin to _barque_, but generally used of a flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure.

BARGE-BOARD (perhaps a corruption of _verge-board_), in architecture, a board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath which the barge-board runs, is termed the _barge-course_.

BARHAM (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose, Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell, rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St. Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, _Baldwin_ and _My Cousin Nicholas_, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's _Biographical Dictionary_, and contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_. In 1824 he was appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the starting of _Bentley's Miscellany_, he laid the main foundation of his literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the _Ingoldsby Legends_. He died in 1845.

BARHEBRAE'US. See _Abulfaragius_.

BARI (bae'r[=e]; ancient, BARIUM), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport. In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.--The province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil, &c.; pop. 935,982.

BARI, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile, between lat. 3deg 30' and 6deg N. They practise agriculture, cattle-rearing, smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for Egypt.