Part 13

BAILLIE, Matthew, M.D., physician and anatomist, brother of the preceding, was born 1761 at Shotts, Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire, in 1823. In 1773 he was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards studied anatomy under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and entered Oxford, where he graduated as M.D. In 1783 he succeeded his uncle as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high reputation as a teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice. In 1810 he was appointed physician to George III. His work on _The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body_ gave him a European reputation.

BAILLIE, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, was born at Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as an Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce his _Book of Common Prayer_ into Scotland, and joined the Presbyterian party. In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in the General Assembly at Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was selected to go to London, with other commissioners, to draw up the accusation against Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all the other proceedings of his public life, he has left a minute account in his letters and journals, which form a most valuable collection for the history of his time. In 1642 he was appointed professor of divinity at Glasgow. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and attended its sittings from 1643-6. After the Restoration, though made principal of his college through Court patronage, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with the reintroduction of Episcopacy.

BAILLIE, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish patriot of the reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by opposing the tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the Nonconformists, for which he was fined 6000 merks (or L500) and imprisoned for four months. In 1683 he went to London in furtherance of a scheme of emigration to South Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish gentlemen, as being the only way of escaping the tyranny of the Government. He became associated with Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the rest of that party, and was charged with complicity in the Rye-house plot. After a long imprisonment, during which vain attempts were made to obtain evidence against him, he was brought before the Court of Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and condemned to be executed that afternoon.

BAILLIESTON, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles east of Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the inhabitants are employed. Pop. 5500.

BAILLY (b[.a]-y[=e]), Jean Sylvain, French astronomer and statesman, born at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays in verse, he was induced by Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and on the death of the latter in 1753, being admitted to the Academy of Sciences, he published a reduction of Lacaille's observations on the zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably but unsuccessfully for the Academy prize offered for an essay upon Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange being his opponent; and in 1771 he published a treatise on the light reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he had won distinction as a man of letters by his _Eloges_ on Pierre Corneille, Leibnitz, Moliere, and others; and the same qualities of style shown by these were maintained in his _History of Astronomy_ (1775-87), his most extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789, first deputy of the _tiers-etat_, and in the Assembly itself he was made first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the session of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate till they had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his moderation and impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend themselves to the people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, 17th July, 1791, aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat to Nantes. In 1793 he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was recognized and sent to Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and executed on 12th Nov.

BAILMENT, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a person in trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering, or for that of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment always supposes the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at the expiration of which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the responsibility of the bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the contract on which the bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are species of bailment. _Agistment_, or the taking in of cattle or live stock to feed at a rate of so much per head, is a contract of bailment.

BAILY, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol 1788, died at London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained the Academy Gold Medal in 1811, and was elected R.A. in 1821. Principal works: _Eve at the Fountain_, _Eve Listening to the Voice_, _Maternal Affection_, _Girl Preparing for the Bath_, _The Graces_, &c. The bas-reliefs on the south side of the Marble Arch, Hyde Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar Square monument, and other public works, were by him.

BAILY, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in London as a stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published _Tables for the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases_, _The Doctrine of Interest and Annuities_, _The Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances_, and an epitome of universal history. On retiring from business with an ample fortune in 1825 he turned his attention to astronomy, became one of the founders of the Astronomical Society, contributed to its _Transactions_, and in 1835 published a life of Flamsteed. He died in 1844.

BAILY'S BEADS, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the unobscured edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately before and after the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an effect of irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the depressions between the lunar mountains.

BAIN, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was born at Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a separate university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in the university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860 was appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a post which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works are: _The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855); _The Emotions and the Will_ (1859), together forming a complete exposition of the human mind; _Mental and Moral Science_ (1868); _Logic, Deductive and Inductive_ (1870); _Mind and Body_ (1873); _Education as a Science_ (1879); _James Mill, a Biography_ (1881); _John Stuart Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections_ (1882); besides an _English Grammar_; _English Composition and Rhetoric_; an _Autobiography_, &c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician, educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to psychology. He died in 1903.

BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See _European War_.

BAIRAM (b[=i]'ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which follows immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and lasts three days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years makes a complete circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks reckon by lunar years. Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins the lesser Bairam. They are the only two feasts prescribed by the Mohammedan religion.

BAIRD, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to a lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a captain in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and confined in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and his fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them died or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were set at liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army under Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command of a brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was made a colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general, returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt, he landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on the Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached a few days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he returned to India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur Wellesley (Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and made K.B. With the rank of lieutenant-general he commanded an expedition in 1805 to the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, after defeating the Dutch, he received the surrender of the colony. He commanded a division at the siege of Copenhagen, and after a short period of service in Ireland sailed with 10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed a junction with Sir John Moore. He commanded the first division of Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna lost his left arm. By the death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to the chief command, receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament, and a baronetcy. In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829.

BAIRD, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died 1887. From 1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became secretary, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief Government commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural history, his chief works being _The Birds of North America_ (in conjunction with John Cassin), _The Mammals of North America_, _Review of American Birds in the Smithsonian Institution_, and (with Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) _History of North American Birds_.

BAIREUTH (b[=i]'roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated town of Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nuernberg. The principal edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after the design of the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a grand performance of his tetralogy of the _Nibelungen Ring_. Industries: cotton-spinning, sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines, leather, brewing, &c. There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter, who died here. Pop. 34,547.

BAIUS, or DE BAY, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born 1513, in Hainaut, educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there in 1552, and chosen a member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the scholastic method, he founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible and the Christian fathers, of whom he particularly followed St. Augustine. His doctrines of original sin and of salvation by grace led to his persecution as a heretic by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who succeeded in obtaining a Papal bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines imputed to him. Baius, however, remained in the possession of his dignities, was appointed in 1575 Chancellor of Louvain University; and the King of Spain even conferred upon him the office of Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589. His Augustinian views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of pure undivided love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is called _Baianism_.

BAIZE, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now generally used for linings, and mostly green or red in colour.

BAJA (bae'y[.a]), a market town of Hungary, district of Bacs, on the Danube, with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual hog fair. Pop. 20,361.

BAJADERES. See _Bayaderes_.

BAJAZET (b[.a]-y[.a]-zet'), or BAYEZID, I, Turkish emperor, who, in 1389, having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his father Murad or Amurath, who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting against the Serbians. From the rapidity of his conquests he received the name of _Ilderim_, the Lightning. In three years he overcame Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia, Thessaly, and the States of Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten years, defeating Sigismund and the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in 1395. The attack of Timur (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek Empire, Bajazet being defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra, Galatia, 1402. The story of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is improbable; but Bajazet died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His successor was Soliman I.

BAJAZET II succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the Turks, in 1481. He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the N.W. and in the E., took Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and ravaged the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in 1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of the sciences.

BAJIMONT'S ROLL. See _Bagimonts Roll_.

BAJOCCO, or BAIOCCO (b[.a]-yok'o), was a copper coin in the Papal States, the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny. The name was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan _grano_, the hundredth part of the ducato (3s. 4d.).

BAJUS. See _Baius_.

BAJZA (boi'za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and critic, born 1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various periodicals he played an important part in the development of modern Hungarian literature and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was published in 1835. He also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and edited a series of historical works.

BAKALAHA'RI, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert, S. Africa.

BAK'ARGANJ, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal; chief rivers: Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop. 2,292,000. The town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000.

BAKAU (bae'kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop. 16,187.

BAKCHISARAI (b[.a]k-chi-s[.a]-r[=i]'), or BAGTCHESERAI (Bakh-chi-Sarai) (baeg-che-se-r[=i]; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an ancient town of Russia, in the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed in by precipices. It contains the palace of the ancient Crimean khans, restored by the Russian Government. Pop. 15,000.

BAKER, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568, educated at Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed High Sheriff of Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security for a debt incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet Prison, where, after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his imprisonment he wrote some devotional books and his _Chronicle of the Kings of England_, first published in 1641, and afterwards continued by Edward Phillips, the nephew of Milton, and others--a work of great popularity in its day, though of no permanent value.

BAKER, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller, born in 1821. He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African travels, which lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and resulted, among other discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864, and of the exit of the White Nile from it. In Africa he encountered Speke and Grant after their discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return home he was received with great honour and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an expedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and open up to trade a large part of the newly-explored country, being raised to the dignity of pasha. He returned in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by the celebrated Gordon. His writings include: _The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_; _Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon_; _The Albert Nyanza_; _The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_; _Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition to Central Africa_; _Cyprus as I saw it in 1879_; also, _Cast up by the Sea_, a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec., 1893.

BAKER, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As a non-juror he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled to resign his fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to reside at St. John's College till his death in 1740. His _Reflections on Learning_ (1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS. forty-two folio volumes of an _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, from which a _History of St. John's College_ was edited by Professor Mayor in 1869.

BAKEWELL, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby, between Buxton and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate spring, a cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting industry. Pop. 3062.

BAKEWELL, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his improvements in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in Leicestershire in 1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in breeding sheep, about 1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for fifty years devoted himself to the acquisition and diffusion of information upon the subject. He was the originator of the new Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has since been so well known, and also of a breed of cattle very famous in their day. The demand for his rams increased so considerably, that whereas he let them for the season at L16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired at 6000 guineas. Various improvements in farm management were also introduced by him.

BAKHMUT. See _Bachmut_.

BAKHUISEN. See _Backhuysen_.

BAKING, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily applied to the baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a mode of cooking food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed to roasting or broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should not be too close, but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also applied to the hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See _Bread_.

BAKING POWDER, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, usually with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the liberation of carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'.

BAKONY (b[.a]-kon'y[.e]) WALD, a thickly wooded mountain range dividing the Hungarian plains, famous for the herds of swine fed on its mast.

BAKSHEESH', an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand for baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and Egypt to Hindustan.

BAKU (bae-koe'), a Russian port on the western shore of the Caspian, occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or petroleum springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so called from emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of pilgrimage with the Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of the petroleum industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large and flourishing town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing immense quantities of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which is led direct in pipes from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it is intended to lay a pipe for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea at Batoum, which is already connected with Baku by railway. Some of the wells have had such an outflow of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum now competes successfully with any other in the markets of the world. Baku, formerly the station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly fortified, and has a large shipping trade. The district of Baku lies within the limits of the new Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop. of the province, 1,119,600.

BAKU'NIN, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born 1814 of a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his commission after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow, with his friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski (critic). Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution, he went in 1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as the propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance, and after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to Russia in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to Siberia. Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on the staff of the _Kolokol_. His extreme views, however, ruined the paper and led to a quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having fallen into disrepute with his own party in Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone at Berne in 1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the State as a State, the absolute equalization of individuals, and the extirpation of hereditary rights and of religion, his conception of the next stage of social progress being purely negative and annihilatory.

BALA, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales, in Merionethshire. Pop. 1408.

BALAAM (b[=a]'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them instead (_Num._ xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as aiding in the perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as being, therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (_Num._ xxxi; _Josh._ xiii). He is the subject of many rabbinical fables, the Targumists and Talmudists regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in the light of an impious and godless man.

BALA BEDS, or BALA SERIES, a deposit of Upper Ordovician Age, named from the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates, grits, sandstones, and limestones, there being two limestones separated by sandy and slaty rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites of many species, and other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25 feet thick) may be traced over a large area in North Wales. See _Caradoc Series_, _Ordovician System_.

BALACHONG', an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or shrimps, pounded up with salt and spices and then dried.

BALAE'NA, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale, type of the family Balaenidae, or whale-bone whales.

BALAE'NICEPS ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging to the Sudan, intermediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (_B. rex_), also called shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds on fishes, water-snakes, carrion, &c., and makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining water. The bill is yellow, blotched with dark-brown, the general colour of the plumage dusky-grey, the head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs blackish.

BALAENOP'TERA. See _Rorqual_.

BALAGARH (bae-lae-g_a_r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab. Pop. 11,233.

BALAGHAT', a district of India, in the Central Provinces, Nagpur division; area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The surface is diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands; forests are extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is under cultivation, rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable quantities, and it is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop. 330,000, almost entirely rural.