CHAPTER V

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

“The child should know no other endeavor but to be at every stage of development wholly what this stage calls for. Then will each successive stage spring like a new shoot from a healthy bud; and at each successive stage he will with the same endeavor again accomplish the requirements of this stage; for only the adequate development of man at each preceding stage can effect and bring about adequate development at each succeeding later stage.”

—F. FROEBEL.

Children do not grow and develop by any haphazard process. Too often parents have had so little, either of first-hand acquaintance with other children, recollection of their own childhood, or knowledge of the literature of child-study, that they have fumbled in the dark, misunderstanding and experimenting on their own children, without either standards for comparison or principles for guidance.

There is a wealth of material, both technical and popular, available in this “century of the child.” The impetus given to the study of the child by Pestalozzi and Froebel a century ago has gained increasing momentum in Europe and America. Some investigators have made laborious studies of large numbers of children to ascertain average rates and factors of growth or development of some part of the body or some phase of spirit. Others have made painstaking, intensive studies of individual children and have reported the characteristics observed at different ages.

The outlines, main features, and basal principles are already defined. A knowledge of these is as essential to the intelligent worker with children as a knowledge of the processes of plant growth and development to the intelligent agriculturist. Many blanks and gaps in our knowledge of child development are yet to be filled. The father, mother, teacher who is sympathetic with child nature, who has the scientific mind for accuracy, definiteness and persistence of observation, has an opportunity to contribute to the common fund of knowledge of child life by making original observations of the child in the home. Hitherto most of the published studies, both of groups and of individuals, have been made by men. Doctor G. Stanley Hall has been the pioneer leader and chief inspirer of the child-study movement in America. Doctor John Dewey’s contributions and inspirations have been both profound and extensive. Madame Montessori is the one woman who has made large contributions.

It should be noted that a science of child-study and development was not possible until the idea of evolution became known and appreciated. Froebel sensed this evolution, as will be noted in reading his “Education of Man”, which was published a quarter of a century before Darwin’s “Origin of Species.”

This phase of psychology—tracing the stages of mental development as an organic process from its simple beginnings in the individual or the race to its maturity in adulthood of the individual or civilization of the race—is the field of genetic psychology.

The intelligent worker with children in the home must be acquainted with what is normal and usual at any stage, in child anatomy, physiology, and psychology. Only with such knowledge is it possible to make intelligent observations of the development of the individual child, and to supply a normal environment and guidance suited to his stage of development. Such knowledge and preparation can be acquired only through study of the literature of child psychology, and through intensive, first-hand acquaintance with children.

It requires about twenty-five years for nature to bring a human individual from birth to physiological maturity. In the nine months before birth the growth and development is very rapid. All the organs are formed, but their development at birth is immature, especially the development of the nervous system. What is accomplished in these years?

From Birth to Maturity

Total weight increases from 16 to 22 fold. Length of body ” 3 fold Size of muscles ” 37 ” Size of lungs ” 18 ” Size of heart ” 13 ” Size of brain ” 3 ” Weight of arm ” 4 ” Weight of leg ” 5 ”

Note the great differences in increase of different parts of the body.

=At Birth= =At Maturity (25 years)=

Stomach undeveloped Complete digestive development Few digestive juices All No provision for digesting Digestion of all food elements, starch until 8 or 9 months; including solids fats (except cream); protein (except curds of milk); solid food No teeth cut Two sets of teeth cut Sense organs: incomplete Senses fully developed development, especially Fine sense discrimination sight and hearing Reproductive system rudimentary Reproductive system mature Nerve cells undeveloped Nervous system complex and Few association fibers formed developed Medullary sheath not formed Motor ability limited to crying, Motor coördination of all muscles, grasping, reflex movements including accessory eye of arms and legs and finger muscles Mental ability limited to few Concentration, imagination, vague, unlocated sensations, judgment, speech, all well slight motor memory developed Language only a cry or instinctive Fluent use of language movements of head, arms, legs Emotions limited to slight Wide range of emotions, potentially pleasure-pain; no control controlled and expressed Volition rudimentary Will power to achieve any purpose Social, moral, religious instincts Sense of law and property rights undeveloped Social coöperation Moral standards, judgments, and habits Religious feeling and action

After twenty-five years there is sometimes a slight increase in height and weight; plasticity is slight; new habits are not readily formed; new ideas not readily accepted. The nervous system is capable of continued development.

There are a few foundation facts and principles that should be summarized before taking up in detail the stages of growth and development.

The child is not a small edition of an adult. His anatomical proportions, his physiological processes, his ways of thought and of thinking, his motives, interests, likes, emotions, methods of expression, are all different from the adult’s; and they are all different at different stages in his development.

The child lives through (recapitulates) in a general way the main stages and order of physical and psychological development that organic life and the race have passed through in the countless ages since life began. Starting as a one-celled creature, he recapitulates in the nine months of embryonic life the processes of evolution that required millions of years, from the amœba to the higher vertebrates, in the evolution of the species.

At birth the baby is less developed and more plastic than the young of any other creature at its birth. This helplessness and plasticity are due to the incompleteness in development of the nervous system. It is because of this incompleteness that the physical, mental, and spiritual life can be shaped in great measure by environment. It is this incompleteness that provides both the opportunity and the responsibility of parents and guardians.

For normal development there must be both the growth principle and power within the individual, and the growth stimulus and materials supplied by the environment.

The rate and nature of growth and development are influenced by two factors: (1) heredity (race, family); (2) environment (climate, social status, economic resources, city or country, materialistic or idealistic atmosphere, commonplace or cultured, ugly or beautiful, expressive or repressive, guiding or neglectful).

Growth and development are two different processes. Growth is increase in size; development is increase in power of function. This principle holds true for every muscle, every nerve, every special organ, every brain center.

Growth is a vegetative process, dependent upon intake of nutrition and elimination of waste. Development is dependent upon use, which involves the exercise of the organ or system and of the related brain center, and this leads to both (a) the initial use of mind and (b) mental development.

Each organ, each physiological system or process, each mental process, is controlled by its own definite nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain. By exercise of the specific organ or system, the corresponding nerve center is developed; and the development of the nerve center makes possible a more adequate and perfect use of the specific organ or system.

During the growth stage of any part, exercise of the part is not normal but injurious. When sufficient growth has been attained for development to begin, there is an instinctive desire or hunger for exercise of the part. This desire is manifested by the natural, spontaneous activity or interest of the child. For example, during some ten or twelve months the muscles of the legs and back, and corresponding nerve centers in the spinal cord and the brain, are growing. When their growth is attained, these muscles and nerve centers begin to function in the process of standing and walking, and the child makes every effort to walk. To put him on his feet and attempt to teach him before this stage, is to strain unprepared organs, bones, muscles, and nerves. To keep him lying in a vehicle so he cannot exercise when he spontaneously attempts to walk, is to retard or prevent this natural development.

The process of growth and development is not uniform during childhood; neither do all the parts grow and develop at the same time. Growth is periodic and by parts; it is variable for each part or system. There are periods of slow or rapid growth and development at different ages.

Development begins first for the oldest (racially) muscles and parts, and for those that are being used reflexly, that is, arms, legs, trunk, hands, which are known as the fundamental muscles. The finer, accessory muscles and their brain centers do not develop completely until several years after birth.

There are no average children. Every child is somewhat different. In rate of growth, children may normally vary one to two years from the average. In individual children, some factors at any stage will normally be more marked than others. Distinction must therefore be made between (1) chronological age, (2) physiological age, and (3) psychological age. The standards for (2) and (3) are at present the subject of special researches. Physiological age refers to such factors as dentition, development of bones, height, weight, sex maturity. Psychological age refers to mental ability and maturity.

In some children the hereditary force of a specific characteristic is stronger than in other children. Or the environment of one child gives greater stimulus to an instinct at its nascent (beginning) period, and greater opportunity for its use.

The individual who lives most completely in each stage the life normal to that stage, is best prepared for the succeeding stages of life.

To attempt to hurry a child through this process or to permit an arrest of development in any stage or at any point, is to seriously handicap the child’s normal and complete development. Infant prodigies and infantile youths are both abnormal.

In each stage there are some instincts to be especially fostered, some that need encouragement or stimulation, some that require careful direction into useful channels, some to be ignored as only transitory, and a few that may need inhibiting.

The following group of stages has been prepared as possibly most helpful for guidance of parents and teachers in the home. The transition from one stage to another is gradual.

In so brief a summary as the following, only a few of the most significant items can be presented, and these typical of the average. This is not a form into which every child must be expected to fit. Rather it is a suggestion of the usual, which the individual normal child will approximate in general. It presents a method for recording the development of the individual child.

Infancy

Birth to 2-3 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Rapid growth, especially of brain First dentition Nervous system rapidly developing Association fibers developing between spinal centers and brain centers Bones, nervous system plastic Rapid heat radiation Rapid pulse, respiration Tissues flabby Low vitality Motor and sensory development rapid Motor coördinations developing rapidly Speech develops

Interest in pure motor activity, and sensory experiences Thinking exceeds power of expression All mental processes developing Curiosity about everything seen, handled, heard Perceptions crude, few Unconsciously imitative Activity an end in itself Imagination crude, vague Reasons by association of circumstances

Emotions crude, uncontrolled Fear of noises and strange objects Humor in surprise

Social dependence Little self-control Obedience Trust

Early Childhood

2-3 to 6-7 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Rapid growth Nervous system rapidly developing Rapid growth of brain until 7 yrs. Fundamental muscles utilized Accessory muscles immature

Activity its own end Experiments in motor control

Greatest sensory development and efficiency Curiosity, analysis, investigation, experimentation strong Interest in simple construction Constructs for use

Thought concrete Suggestibility Continued plasticity Attention flitting Asks “What?” “Why?” Memory for words Æsthetic tastes crude Frankness Crude experience and association of ideas

Vivid, concrete imagination; images distorted Imitation at its strongest Imitative dramatic play Humor in incongruity Curiosity regarding sex biology Sex feeling undeveloped Emotions strong, slight control Imaginary fears Self-control weak Selfish, thoughtless Respect for parents Wonder at universe Obedience Personification of nature Conscience begins

Infancy and Early Childhood

Birth to 6 Years

Foster:

Sensory and motor activity Trustfulness Curiosity Investigation Acquaintance with world of realities Initiative Wide range of interests Fanciful imagination Formation of permanent habits Sense of wonder

Cultivate:

Regularity Respect for authority Concentration Thoughtfulness for others Courtesy Emotional control Permanent moral prejudices Thrift

Inhibit, or Overcome:

Social dependence Fear Selfishness

Reckon with:

Slow mental adjustment

Motor awkwardness

Misunderstanding of instructions

Mischief, which is the result of an abundance of vitality, initiative, sense of humor, investigating spirit; it is not something to condemn, but for which to provide natural environment.

Rudeness, which is due to childish frankness, democracy, thoughtlessness, examples of discourtesy.

Curiosity regarding biology of sex, to be answered honestly but poetically under three years and biologically after three.

Telling of falsehoods, from 3 to 7 years of age, frequently due to the vivid, imaginative life that the child is living, his relative inexperience with the world of realities, and the difficulty, therefore, of keeping the distinction clear between the two.

Later Childhood

6-7 to 9-10 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Growth progressing Differences in growth rate of boys and girls Second dentition Sensory and motor activities prominent Heart and lungs relatively small Brain growing slowly, attains adult size Eye development still incomplete: near sight

Finger movements stronger, more precise Rapid increase in motor control Forearm and finger control develops Manual skill easily acquired

Interest in workmanship Ideals exceed ability Plasticity to habit Receptivity Routine easy Experimentation, exploration strong Interest in variety Actions not well coördinated Lack of perseverance Easily discouraged Adjustment to realities Images truer to reality Memory strong for concrete Period of imaginative activity Less direct imitation Imitative and imaginative dramatic play Emotions becoming controlled Fears strong Self-control vacillating Humor in puns, riddles

Appreciation of rules in game Beginning of social sense in group play Slight sense of property rights Slight conscience Interest in religious forms (imitative)

Foster:

Exploration Experimentation Moral habits Imaginative play Variety of interests Doll interest Motor coördinations—skating, dancing, swimming

Cultivate:

Power of voluntary attention Self-control Initiative Modesty Conventional courtesies Respect for property rights

Inhibit:

Cruelty Fears

Reckon with:

Fatigue, due to bodily conditions Discouragement, from greater increase in ideals than in technical ability

Youth

Girls, 9 to 12-14 Years

Boys, 9 to 14-16 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Slower growth Period of transition Practical adjustment Reproductive organs maturing Period of low morbidity Heart and lungs relatively small

Great motor activity Reactions vigorous Resistance to fatigue Immunity to exposure, danger, temptation Senses acute New adjustments and coördinations readily made Routine and rote enjoyed Motor skill easily acquired Keen interest in workmanship and motor skill Constructs for concrete purposes or use

Mental action better controlled, more connected, orderly Memory quick, sure, lasting More critical Sex consciousness develops

Emotions weaker Fear increases Teasing other children

Less submissive to elders Competitive sense increases Conscience weak Reverence weaker Religious indifference

Foster:

Muscular activity Motor and manual skill Drill, memorizing Routine, discipline Three R’s. Responsibility

Cultivate:

Fine handwork Thoroughness Reserve (in girls) Chivalry (in boys) Confidence in parents

Inhibit:

Athletic competition (too great strain on heart) Fear

Reckon with:

Less confidence in adults Group interest Secretiveness

Adolescence

Girls, 12 to 18 Years

Boys, 13 to 21 Years

Marked Characteristics:

Rapid growth and development Proportions changing Lungs, heart increase in size and function Blood pressure increases Muscular strength increases Voice changes Awkwardness Senses keen

Craving for larger experience Routine irksome Power of concentration Abstract thought Independent thought Mental speculation Larger mental perspective Memory strong, includes abstract Abstract reasoning Debating Imagination strong, comprehensive Original thought and action Organized dramatics Individuality increases Works for remote ends

Restive of restraint Sex feelings increase Romantic interest strong Social sympathy increases Social coöperation Subject to moods Shyness and bashfulness

Conscience keener or very callous Sense of duty develops Spirit of social service or rowdyism Religious feeling Conversion period Criminal period Idealism Hero-worship

Foster:

Idealism

Hero-worship Altruism Religious feeling Group interest; team work Leadership, individuality Reasoning, debating Constructive imagination Athletics; physical activity

Cultivate:

Sense of reality Emotional poise Responsibility Strength of will Mutual sympathy (parent and youth) Variety of interests Vocational choice Outdoor life

Inhibit:

Depression and pessimism Finicalness Recklessness

Reckon with:

Emotional upheaval Philosophical speculation Sex interest Awkwardness, bashfulness Self-consciousness Reserve with family

Development of Language

Children vary naturally, and according to their environment, in the rate of development in use of language. Any effort to hasten the process of talking or vocabulary during the first four or five years is an artificial forcing that is more likely to retard development. The following represents all that should be expected of a normal child.

First six months: crying, gesture language

Second six months: babbling, imitation of sounds, gesture language

One year: three to ten words

One to two years: vocabulary of 100 to 500 words; two-word sentences

Two to three years: 500 to 1500 new words; begins use of pronouns

Three to four years: 500 new words; complete sentences

Four to five years: articulation nearly perfect; interest in rhyming

Five to six years: articulation perfect; inflection of nouns and verbs nearly perfect; interest in nonsense words; use of drawing

Six to nine years: grammar usually correct; interest in puns and in secret language; use of drawing as language expression; imitative interest in symbols of language (alphabet, reading, writing)

Nine to twelve years: genuine interest in language symbols; easily learns reading and writing; with limited vocabulary, slang develops

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

==================+=================+==================+============= PHYSICAL | BIRTH | FIRST | SECOND CHARACTERISTICS | | SIX MONTHS | SIX MONTHS ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+————————————— Organs rapidly | | Muscles, bones, | As first 6 growing | | brain, viscera | months, and | | | teeth Organs | Head, surface, | Head, intestines,| ” proportionately | intestines, | liver, surface | large | liver | | | | | Organs | Stomach, | Stomach, lungs, | ” proportionately | lung capacity, | heart, legs | small | legs | | | | | Organs | | Anti-bodies, | ” proportionately | | kidneys | strong in | | | function | | | | | | Organs | Digestive and | Digestive, | ” proportionately | respiratory | respiratory, | weak in | systems; | nervous systems; | function | tissues flabby | leucocytes, | | | hemoglobin | | | | Dentition | No teeth | 2 teeth | 6-8 teeth | (rudiments of | | | both sets in | | | jaw) | | | | | Nerves | Total number of | Easily exhausted;| As first six | cells but | peripheral | months; | development | nerves sensitive;| spinal and | incomplete | sensory and | brain | | motor centers | associations | | developing | connecting | | | Sense development | No hearing; | Hearing begins; | Color sense, | sight only for | eyes begin to | sound, | light and | converge and | rhythm | darkness; touch | work together | developing | vague; | | | sensitiveness | | | to temperature | | | | | Special organs | Lungs | Muscles of arms, | As first or systems at | | legs, trunk, | 6 months; developmental | | hand; lungs | muscles of stage, needing | | | creeping, much immediate | | | hand, exercise | | | speech organs | | | Defects easily | Eyestrain; | Bones misshaped; | As first acquired | blindness | eyestrain; | six months | | nerves; | | | disposition | | | | Defects easily | Phimosis | Bones; | ” overcome | | temperament; | | | phimosis; | | | tongue-tie, | | | harelip | | | | Illness most | Cold, pneumonia,| Digestive, | ” susceptible | jaundice, | pulmonary; | | inflammation | rickets; | | of navel | nervous | | | disorders, | | | erysipelas | | | | Most common | Congenital | Congenital | ” immediate | debility; | debility, | causes | syphilis; | digestive | of death[2] | prematurity, | disturbances, | | accidents | pneumonia, | | | whooping cough, | | | bronchitis, | | | convulsions, | | | measles, | | | meningitis | | | | Nature and rate | Vague, | Slow, vague, | More of mentality | indefinite, | diffused | definite, | slow, groping | | alert, | | | quickened | | | Motor activities | Chiefly reflex | Grasping, | Sitting, | | waving arms, | creeping | | hands; kicking; | standing, | | few vocal sounds | prattle | | | Sense activity | Slight, vague | Touch, sight, | Sight, touch, | | hearing becoming | hearing, | | active | active | | | Attention | None | Begins in | Listening, | | staring, | examining | | handling | | | | Perception | ” | Dimly begins | Vague | | | Curiosity | ” | Begins, vague | Objects in | | | reach, | | | opening doors, | | | pulling; | | | exploring | | | cupboards | | | Imitation | ” | Of moods and | Mechanical, of | | vocal sounds of | vocal sounds, | | adults | moods, facial | | | expression | | | Memory | Slight | Faint, vague; | For familiar | | motor | acts and faces, | | | responses | | | to his crying | | | Imagination | None | Glimmerings | Glimmerings | | | Reasoning | ” | Dawning, by | By | | association | association, | | | increasing | | | Social instincts | ” | Egoistic, strong;| Trust, desire | | trustful, | for | | responsive to | companionship | | care | of adults | | | Sense of law | ” | Vaguely sensed, | Developed | | as association | through regular | | of cause and | regimen and | | effect; and in | beginnings of | | rhythm of | obedience, | | regular regimen | especially to | | | direct commands | | | Emotions | Slight, vague | Fear, sympathy, | Control weak | | confidence, | but susceptible | | satisfaction, | to training | | anger | | | | Sense of humor | None | None; smiling | Shown in | | begins | surprise, | | | plays, laughing | | | Will | ” | Temperamental | Persistent; | | expression | shown in temper | | | Religion | ” | Begins in trust, | Human sympathy, | | dependence | confidence, | | | obedience

——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+————————————— PHYSICAL | SECOND YEAR | THIRD YEAR | FOURTH YEAR CHARACTERISTICS | | | ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+————————————— Organs rapidly | Brain, teeth, | Trunk, brain, | Upper arm, growing | muscles, bones, | teeth | thigh; brain | viscera | | still | | | increasing; | | | bones | | | Organs | Intestines, | As second year | As second year proportionately | liver, kidneys, | | large | arteries, head, | | | surface | | | | | | | | Organs | Legs, lungs, | ” | Lungs, legs, proportionately | heart | | heart small | | | | | | Organs | | Heart, | As third year proportionately | | fundamental | strong in | | muscles | function | | | | | | Organs | As first year | Eyes, hands, | As third year proportionately | | fingers, legs, | weak in | | nerves, | function | | digestive, | | | respiratory | | | | Dentition | 6 teeth cut | Completion of | | | first set | | | | Nerves | Motor | Sensory-motor | Sensory keen, | coördinations | coördinations | motor | developing, | forming | coördinations | association | | rapidly | centers | | developing | developing | | (fundamental) | | | Sense development | Hearing | Touch, muscular, | Increasing | discriminate; | sight, sound; | keenness, | touch becoming | increasing | discrimination | keen, sight | discrimination | | definite, | | | focused | | | | | Special organs | Muscles of | Trunk, back, | Arms, legs, or systems at | walking, | arms, legs, | trunk; developmental | forearm, | hands, speech, | sensory-motor stage, needing | hand; speech, | senses, teeth, | coördinations; much immediate | sight, touch, | respiratory | sensory exercise | hearing; teeth | | nerves; | | | teeth; lungs | | | Defects easily | Bones; teeth, | Bones, teeth, | Eyes, bones, acquired | speech, nerves, | speech, nerves | speech, | disposition | | nerves, teeth | | | Defects easily | Bones; | Bones, teeth, | Eyes, bones, overcome | cleft palate, | speech, eyes | speech, teeth | temperament | | | | | Illness most | Digestive, | Digestive, | Digestive, susceptible to | respiratory; | respiratory; | respiratory; | ears, throat, | ears, throat, | measles, | nerves; scurvy, | infectious | scarlet fever, | rickets | fevers | whooping | | | cough, colds | | | Most common | Digestive | Period of | Low death rate immediate | disturbances, | low death rate; | Pneumonia, causes of death | croup, | pneumonia, | diptheria, | pneumonia, | tuberculosis, | croup, | diptheria, | croup, | tuberculosis, | bronchitis, | diptheria, | meningitis | tuberculosis, | meningitis, | | measles, | scarlet fever | | meningitis | |

Nature and rate | Gaining in | Impulsive, | Active, slow of mentality | definiteness, | flitting, slow | | slow | | | | | Motor activities | Alertness, but | Increasing | Quiet games | inefficient | coördination of | preferred to | Runs, throws | legs, arms, eye, | active; | | and hand | dawdling; | | | spontaneous | | | Sense activity | Keen, | Handling, | At best, most | especially | listening; sight,| active | touch | touch, sound | | Acquiring | discrimination | | discrimination | | | | | Attention | Increasing | Flitting, | Voluntary—weak | | concentration | Involuntary— | | increased in | strong | | doing | | | | Perception | Gaining | Still vague, but | Still vague, | clearness, | becoming | improving | definiteness | definite | | | | Curiosity | Insatiable; | Varied; names; | Insatiable | objects in | animals; | | environment | mechanical | | | processes | | | | Imitation | Constant, of | Adult actions, | Chiefly adult | adult actions, | speech, moods | occupations, | voice | | less | | | impulsive; | | | literal | | | Memory | For names of | Verbal and motor | Verbal, motor | things; | good; emotions | and emotional | emotions, | | strong | simple movements| | | | | Imagination | Slightly | Concrete, vivid | Auditory and | increasing | | motor images | | | more distinct | | | than visual; | | | concrete | | | Construction | Building | Persistent, for | For activity, | | motor activity | immediate use | | | Reasoning | By association | By association | By association; | of experiences | of experiences | ludicrous | | | inferences; | | | guessing period | | | Social instincts | Increasing sense| Social dependence| Self-assertive; | of ownership | on an adult; | selfish; | | slight play with | quarrels | | other children | over property | | | Sense of law | Discerned in | Dim: susceptible | Disorderliness; | regularity of | to training; | imaginative | régime: in | sense of | tales taken for | commands, | ownership | lying | rewards, | developing | | punishments | | | | | Emotions | Trust, fear, | Love, fear, | Easily aroused, | anger | anger easily | keen; pity | | stirred; | begins; | | little control | imaginary fears | | | Sense of humor | In surprises, | In grotesque | Persistent; | in tumbles | situations, being| crude; in | | caught, hiding | grotesque | | | Will | Vacillating, | Little control | Unreasonable; | temperamental | | persistent | | | Religion | Respect for | Obedience, trust,| Animistic; | parents, trust | respect for | invests | Obedience to | authority | inanimate | parents | | things with | | | life

——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+————————————— PHYSICAL | FIFTH YEAR | SIXTH YEAR |LATER CHILDHOOD CHARACTERISTICS | | | 6-9 years ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+————————————— Organs rapidly | See 4th year | Legs, arms, | Motor cells in growing | | chest girth | brain | | | Period of | | | slower physical | | | growth; | | | cessation | | | of rapid | | | brain growth | | | Organs | Surface, | As 5th year | Digestive proportionately | intestines, | | system, large | kidneys, | | liver, kidneys, | arteries | | surface, legs | | | Organs | As 4th year | As 4th year | Trunk, heart, proportionally | | | lungs small | | | | | | Organs | Digestive and | Digestive and | Leg muscles proportionately | respiratory | respiratory | strong in | ability | ability | function | increasing | increasing | | | | Organs | Accessory | As 5th year | Heart; low proportionally | muscles and | | blood pressure; weak in | nerves; eyes, | | teeth function | fingers, throat | | | | | Dentition | | Sheds some first | 2nd dentition | | teeth | | | | Nerves | Association | As 5th year | Rapid growth | fibres rapidly | | of association | developing; | | fibres | see 4th year | | in brain; | | | easily fatigued | | | in 8th year | | | Sense Development | Keen | Senses | Eyes developed | development | correlated; | for finer work | | finer | | | discrimination | | | | Special organs or | As 4th year | As 4th year | Muscles of systems at | | | arms, developmental | | | legs, trunk stage, needing | | | Muscles of much immediate | | | forearm, exercise | | | 8 years | | | Muscles of | | | fingers, | | | 9-10 years | | | Defects easily | ” | ” | Spinal acquired | | | curvature, | | | defective teeth | | | speech | | | disorders, | | | eyestrain | | | Defects easily | ” | ” | Speech overcome | | | disorders | | | Illness most | Digestive, | As fifth year | Infectious susceptible | respiratory, | | diseases, | ears, | | rheumatism, | diphtheria, | | nervousness, | rheumatism, | | anemia, | measles, | | digestive | scarlet fever | | disturbances; | | | illness | | | increases | | | 8th year | | | Most common | Period of low | Period of low | Low mortality; immediate | death rate | death rate | pneumonia, causes of death | As 4th year | As 4th year | tuberculosis, | | | diphtheria, | | | croup, | | | measles, kidney | | | and heart | | | disease | | | Nature and rate | Steadier, | More definite, | Hesitating, of mentality | quicker, more | alert, quicker | impulsive, | alert | | restless | | | Motor activities | Increasing | Increasing | Finger | coördinations, | correlation | movements | rhythmic | Steadier action, | stronger, more | movements, | marching, | precise; | skipping | dancing | actions | | | not well | | | coördinated | | | Sense activity | Finer | Improvising on | Senses become | discriminations;| piano; eagerness | practically | notices | to color; | perfected; | sound, color | tasting | sensory | | | interest | | | weaker | | | Attention | Voluntary—weak; | Purposive | Flitting; lack | involuntary- | inattention; | of endurance, | strong | keener | application | | concentration in | | | play | | | | Perception | Clearer, many | Clearer | Truer to | groups | | realities, | | | more distinct; | | | differentiates | | | between real | | | and imagined | | | Curiosity | Intense | Physical | Asks “What is | (see 4th year) | properties; | it for?” Wider | | processes; | range of | | causes; birth | interests | | | Imitation | Dramatic, of | Dramatic; | Decreasing, | adult | adults’ | imitates idea | activities, | activities, | rather than | animals; | animals; | action | literal | less literal | | | | Memory | Verbal, strong; | Verbal, strong; | Literal, | learns nonsense,| poetry, stories; | increasing | poetry | motor, emotional,| in ability | | strong | | | | Imagination | Strong visual, | As 5th year; | Less fanciful; | lives in | fanciful tales | related more | imagination; | of personal | to facts and | invents stories | experience | needs of life | | | Construction | Follows idea; | Things for use; | Begins to be | for activity, | æsthetic | creative; | use, æsthetic | interest | interest | interest | | begins in | | | finish, | | | workmanship | | | Reasoning | See 4th year, | As 5th year | Little use for | reasons by | | explanations | analogy; | | or logic | attempts | | | arguing | | | | | Social instincts | Prefers child to| Self-sufficiency;| Group play, | adult; love of | homesickness; | circle | emulation; | begins group | games; slight | selfish; | play | respect for | ownership | | property rights | | | Sense of law | No sense of | As 5th year | Expects to be | property rights;| Increasing; | held to law and | disobedience | rigid, literal | consequences; | increases | | respects power | | | that requires | | | obedience | | | Emotions | See 4th year; | Degree of | Increasing | jealousy; fears | control | control, | animals; | | reserve | imaginary fears | | | | | Sense of humor | See 4th year | As 5th year | Incongruities | Drawings, | Silliness | of action; play | practical jokes | | on words; | | | disasters | | | Will | Increasing | As 5th year | Vacillating | force | | | | | Religion | Wonder in | As 5th year; | Period of | nature; | imitative | ceremony, | reverence; | interest in | forms, rites | prayer; | formal worship | Animistic | obedience | | tendency | | | weakening ——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————

———————————————————————+———————————————————————+——————————————————————— PHYSICAL | YOUTH | EARLY ADOLESCENCE CHARACTERISTICS | Girls, 9-12 years | Girls 12-16 years | Boys, 9-13 years | Boys 13-18 years ———————————————————————+———————————————————————+——————————————————————— Height | Slow growth; girls | Rapid increase (Girls, | more rapid than boys | 11-14) (Boys, 13-17) | | Weight | Slow growth | Rapid increase ” ” | | Organs rapidly growing | Legs, arms | Trunk, legs, arms, | | lungs, | | reproductive organs, | | heart, liver, kidneys; | | proportions changing | | Organs proportionately | Arteries | Hands, feet, arms, large | | legs | | Organs proportionately | Heart, trunk | Trunk, internal organs, small | | arteries | | Organs proportionately | Muscles, legs, eyes | Heart, lungs; blood strong in function | | pressure high; muscles, | | fundamental and | | accessory | | Organs proportionately | Heart, lungs; blood | Nerves; internal weak in function | pressure; elimination | organs, elimination; | | motor coördinations | | because of change in | | bodily proportions | | Dentition | Complete (except | | wisdom teeth) | | | Nerves | Reactions vigorous | Under strain; easily | | unbalanced | | Sense development | Complete, including | Senses keen | eyes | | | Special organs or | Muscles of trunk, | Muscles of trunk, arms, systems at | forearm, fingers; | legs, fingers; lungs developmental stage, | motor adjustments; | needing much | lungs | immediate exercise | | | | Defects easily | Spinal curvature, | Of reproductive system; acquired | eyestrain; precocious | shallow breathing | sex development | | | Defects easily | Bones, teeth | Bones, lung capacity overcome | | | | Illness most | Anemia, rheumatism, | Anemia, nervousness, susceptible | heart weakness, | malnutrition; | nervousness; period | tuberculosis (girls); | of low morbidity | increased morbidity | | Most common immediate | Period of low | Pneumonia, causes of death | mortality | tuberculosis, | Pneumonia, | kidney and heart | tuberculosis, | disease, accidental | diphtheria and croup, | drownings | heart and kidney | | diseases, accidental | | drownings | | | Nature and rate of | Direct, alert; more | Well coördinated, mentality | orderly, controlled | more abstract, | | logical, comprehensive; | | routine irksome | | Motor activities | Well coördinated; | Muscular awkwardness | need much exercise; | during growth | new adjustments | | readily made | | | Sense activity | Sure, acute, | Acute; all senses | subordinate to | | thought | | | Attention | Voluntary increasing | Potential voluntary | | attention strong | | Perception | Clearer | Clear | | Curiosity | Less keen | Wide range; persistent; | | craving for larger | | experience | | Imitation | Less marked; of idea | Of ideals, strong; | rather than action | originality marked; | | individuality | | Memory | Quick, sure, lasting; | At best; logical | period of rote | | learning | | | Imagination | Clear, creative | Vivid, comprehensive, | | creative; works for | | remote ends | | Construction | Constructs for | Interest in technique, | purpose; interest in | use, æsthetic qualities | workmanship, skill | | | Reasoning | Immature; by analogy | Logical, abstract; | or suggestion; logic | mental speculation | premature | | | Social instincts | Less sympathy with | Strong sympathies; | adults, more with | group loyalty; | companions; | altruism; sex | competition increases | instincts developing | | Sense of law | Increasing through | Conscience keen; | games; contempt for | marked lawlessness | artificial laws, | or law abiding; | customs; less | restive of restraint | submissive to | | authority | | | Emotions | Weaker; fears | Keen, subjective, | increase; sex | whimsical; shyness | consciousness | and bashfulness; | developing | romantic love develops | | Sense of humor | Keen, expressed in | Strong; riddles, puns | teasing, practical | | jokes, puns | | | Will | Self-will increasing; | Self-will strong; | tendency to | potential will power | vacillation, inertia | | | Religion | Conscience weak; | Deep religious | reverence weak; | feeling or irreverence | religious | Idealism; mysticism; | indifference; formal | altruism | interest in religious | Conversion period | ceremonies, forms | | | =======================+=======================+========================

The tables of physical characteristics are based upon the work of Vierordt, Uffelmann, Schmid-Monnard, Pfaundler and Schlossmann. Holt, Kerley; the tables of mental characteristics upon the studies of G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Earl Barnes, and their disciples, and the summaries of Kirkpatrick, Tanner, Taylor, Tracy. The author’s personal experience with children, as a medium for developing these data into a composite grouping, has been supplemented by the criticisms and suggestions of individual physicians, biologists, and psychologists. The subject deserves much additional research in the comparative study of children.

FOOTNOTES:

[2] Based on U. S. Census Report for 1913; causes arranged in decreasing rank.