CHAPTER XI
STUDYING THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD
“Would you know how to lead the child? See and observe the child; he will teach you what to do.”
—F. FROEBEL.
“The ideal which has animated all my own feeble educational endeavor, and without which I should be without hope in the world of pedagogy, is the reconstruction of education based not so much on existing conditions in society as on child-nature. It is one thing to fit the child for a preëxisting social condition, and a very different thing to develop all his own latent powers to their uttermost and trust to their development for all future reforms. Holding, then, as I do, that childhood has in it indefinite possibilities that are some realized, some repressed or crippled, nipped in the bud in a way for which home, school, and church must share responsibility, and that if every spring of possible knowledge and power were touched, even by the lightest suggestion at its nascent psychological hour, we should in a few generations develop a superior race of men, we have in this faith in the possibilities of childhood and youth the most central and impregnable of all the fortresses of optimism.”
—G. STANLEY HALL.
=How to Study a Child.= A complete study of the child includes his physical and psychological characteristics, personality, gifts, deficiencies, his heredity, environment, training. In studying a child it is of first importance to avoid carefully any stirring of his self-consciousness, which might lead to either morbidness, introspection, priggishness, or vanity. The necessary physical measurements should be made as naturally and impersonally as possible, without discussion. The physical inspections should be made incidentally, during the processes of the daily life, without comment. Recording, except of measurements, should be done without attracting the attention of the child,—preferably not in his presence, and filed without his knowledge. The child’s traits or characteristics should not be discussed in his presence. Psychological characteristics can best be studied under natural, usual conditions:
(1) in the child’s play: what he plays; how he plays (2) his stories: what he prefers or tells (3) his handiwork, especially his drawing (4) what he observes (5) his questions
=A Score Card for Home Use.= The following score card has been especially prepared to meet the practical needs of the untrained layman and amateur in the intelligent observation and better understanding of normal young children. It does not attempt to include marked abnormalities. It is merely preliminary to a more detailed and scientific analysis by the specialist. Such a general score card is necessarily applicable only for certain ages. The following outline does not attempt to cover special development beyond ten years of age.
=Physical Measurements and Inspection.= During the first year the weight should be taken weekly, at the same hour, in order to bear the same relation to feeding, bath, elimination; other physical measurements and inspections should be recorded at least quarterly. In the succeeding years records should be made at least semi-annually and preferably quarterly. The person in charge of young children should observe daily the physical conditions, and be able to detect at once the special danger signals, or deviations from the normal.
Any person careful in details and accuracy can make these measurements and inspections, at least as preliminary to the specialist. Detailed directions are given in Pamphlet V, American Medical Association Press, and in “The Health Index of Children” (Hoag). For ordinary household use, the apparatus required includes a new, firm tape measure, yardstick, accurate beam scales, and cards for testing vision. For school or institutional work it is desirable to have also calipers, laboratory apparatus for taking heights, instruments for taking blood pressure, and a dynamometer for testing strength of muscles. Economic and social conditions, differences of race and heredity, will cause considerable variation among children of the same age.
=Psychological Analysis.= No generally accepted standards or tests have yet been devised for measuring psychological development. The standards developed by Binet and Simon for mental ability as one phase of psychological age, have been widely tested in this country but have not proven wholly satisfactory. American revisions are now being worked out. The outline here given does not provide standards for measurement, but depends entirely upon the judgment of the person making the analysis. During the first year a chronological record can profitably be kept of the psychological development, noting particularly each gain in motor control, every indication of increasing recognition of sense impressions, the development of speech.
Standards of normal and average conditions and development can be learned by:
(1) observations of numbers of children of the same age.
(2) the study of published tables of measurements.
(3) published records, studies, and stories of children.
The Tables of Indications and Summaries have been added to assist in gaining a clear picture of the child’s condition and the factors calling for special constructive measures, elimination, treatment, improvement, or development.
Physical Measurements[28]
Name ———————— Age: Years —— Months —— Weeks —— Height standing[29]—— In. ——— Under Average ——— Over Height sitting ———— In. ——— Under Average ——— Over Weight ————— Lb. ——— Oz. ——— Under Average ——— Over Circumferences: Head —— Chest ——— Abdomen ——— Diameter of Chest: Anterior-posterior ——— Lateral ——— Chest Expansion—————— Lengths: Arm ——— Leg ———
Physical Inspections
General Appearance: Robust Anemic Vigorous Languid Posture, standing: (2) Erect Stooping Chest sunken Head forward Abdomen forward Posture, sitting: (1) Erect Chest sunken Back curved On hips On curve of spine Gait: (4) Normal Waddling Elastic Heavy Toe forward Toe in Toe slightly outward Toe outward Head: Shape normal Box shaped Not symmetrical Fontanel closed Fontanel not closed (after 18 months) Hair: Color Scant Abundant Rough Even Brittle Fine Coarse Scalp: Clear Scurf Pink Dandruff Eruptions Vermin
Figures at right in parentheses indicate age at which observation may normally or profitably begin, if not applicable during first year.
Features: Regular Unsymmetrical Eyes:[30] Color Clear Muddy Sparkling Dull Intelligent Staring Normal Crossed Protruding Squint Good condition Inflamed Watery Discharge Frown Work held near Farsighted Nearsighted Headaches Eyelids: Normal Swollen Inflamed Sore Discharge Styes Granulated Drooping Nose: Large Small Pinched Bridge normal Bridge sunken (normal during first year) Discharge Obstructions, _e.g._ adenoids Snuffles Mouth: Well-shaped Ugly shape Large Held open Small Deformed by pacifiers or thumb sucking Breathes through mouth Canker sores Breath sweet Offensive Tongue: Clear Coated Normal Protruding Swollen Tied Teeth: Number Delayed first teeth Delayed second teeth Prolonged retention first teeth Extra teeth Regular Irregular Projecting Good condition Discolored Tartar deposits Decayed Gums: Healthy Pale Bleeding Spongy Swollen Receding Throat: Clear Swollen Enlarged tonsils Strong Subject to sore throat Coughs Lips: Full Thin Swollen Ruddy Pale Good condition Sore Chapped Fissured Chin: (2) Normal Receding Projecting Firm Weak Jaw: (2) Firm Weak Strong Ears: Large Small Projecting Normal Misshaped Good condition Sore behind ears Discharge Earache Hearing normal Defective Neck: Normal size Small Swollen glands Scars Skin: Free from blemishes Rough Scaly Pimples Eczema (where located) Ringworm Clear Muddy Ruddy Pale Tanned Freckled Firm Soft Puffiness under eyes Muscles: Firm (½) Flabby Well developed (1) Weak Especially Back Trunk Grip Leg Complementary pairs Unequal in balance balanced (1) Back and chest Right and left of trunk Right and left of neck Right and left of back Back: Straight Curvature; anterior- posterior Curvature; lateral, to right Curvature; lateral, to left Shoulders: Erect Stooped Square Sloping Equal Unequal (which lower) Blades flat Projecting Chest: Expanded Sunken Deep Flat Shallow Barrel-shaped (after 1 year) Funnel-shape (breast bone sunken) Pigeon-breast (breast bone prominent) Symmetrical Unsymmetrical Beaded ribs Good expansion (3) Poor expansion Abdomen: Firm Flabby Hard Normal Distention Rupture at navel Inflammation at navel Rupture at groin Arms and Hands: Equal length Unsymmetrical Normal Enlarged Joints Clubbed fingers Ambidextrous Right-handed (1) Nails discolored Left-handed Nail defects Legs: Equal length Unequal Straight Bowed Knock-knee Enlarged joints Ankles strong Weak Feet: Arch normal Flat foot (1½) Stands squarely (2) Shoes run over: outer edge inner edge heels Well shaped Toes pinched Swollen Unblemished Callouses Corns Bunions Defective nails Excessive perspiration Chafed toes Genitalia: Normal Inflamed Discharge Protruding of rectum Itching Buttocks chafed Nerves: Steady Explosive Dull Fears: (specify objects) Irritable Restless Endurance Easily fatigued Normal General misbehavior Tantrums, hysteria Malicious destruction Bed-wetting Nail-biting Masturbation Headaches Convulsions Motor Coördinations: Steady (for age) Retarded Sits alone (½) Stumbling (3) Creeps (9 mo.) Dropping things (3) Stands (1 year) Speech defects (3) Walks alone (1½) Spasmodic movements Controls eliminations Twitching of eyes, Urine (1) face, muscles Feces (2) Chorea (St. Vitus’ Holds own cup (1) Dance) Holds own spoon (1) Paralysis Runs (2) (what muscles) Marches (3) Claps to rhythm (3) Feeds self neatly (3) Dresses self (3) Skips (4) Uses scissors (5) Normal Other abnormalities Nutrition: Appetite good Poor Hungry between meals Gluttonous Simple food relished Overfastidious Abnormal appetites, _e.g._, dirt, chalk Good digestion Colic Regurgitation, eructations Gas in stomach Intestinal gas Nausea Elimination: Urine: Clear Cloudy Straw color Dark Bloody Odor slight Strong Painless Painful Irritating Normal quantity Scant Excessive Retained Stools: Smooth (infancy) Well-formed Watery Mustard color (infancy) Green Black Bloody Undigested curds Slight mucus Much mucus Odor slight Strong, offensive 1 to 3 passages daily Constipation (less than 1) Diarrhea Perspiration: Slight Excessive: head, under arms, cold sweats Odor slight Sour Sleep: Quiet Restless Sound Wakes easily Dreams No. hours Nightmares Nap No nap Sufficient for age Insufficient Respiration: Deep Shallow Diaphragmatic Chest Mouth breather Regular Irregular Normal count Rapid Slow Pulse: Regular Irregular Firm Weak Normal count Rapid Slow Circulation: Efficient Sluggish Cold hands Cold feet Temperature: Normal Irregular High
The following examinations can be made only by specialists. Physician or physical education director:
Heart, lungs, genitalia; liver, spleen; hernia; sinuses, ductless glands
Enlarged tonsils, adenoids; defects of palate; blood pressure; arteries
Spinal curvature or faulty posture (except marked); asymmetry of arms, legs, chest; flat foot
Osteopath, or physician or physical director with osteopathic training: displaced vertebræ; spinal irritation
Oculist (not Optician): Defects of eyes (except marked)
Specialist: Defects of ears (except marked)
Dentist: Defects of teeth and gums (except marked)
Special chemist:
Urine, for acidity, albumen, sugar, casts
Feces, for worms, putrefactive bacteria
Blood, for hæmoglobin, leucocytes, acidity, germs of venereal disease, tuberculosis.
Physical Habits
=Sleep:= Bed alone With another Outdoors Indoors, scant Indoors, windows open ventilation Regular bedtime hour Irregular Quiet before bedtime Excitement before bedtime Early Late hour Given soothing syrups =Bathing=: Daily water baths Less than one daily Number Too frequent Kind Too warm Temperatures Not followed by cool Cool sponge Air baths Not given Sun baths Not given =Feeding=: Regular hour Irregular Prescribed intervals Intervals too short ” ” long Eating between meals Simple diet Injurious foods Balanced, rational diet Dietary not analyzed ” poorly balanced Chews well (2) Eats slowly Rapidly =Motor Activity=: Encouraged Restricted by clothing ” by carriage Outdoors or open-air Indoors; poor room ventilation In raised, sanitary pen On floor
Toys sanitary Unsanitary; allowed ” harmless pacifier Dangerous Surfeit Kept from crowds Taken to stores (4) ” ” theater (10) ” ” movies (8) Handling: Moderate Excessive Rational Lifted by arms Tossed Rocked Jolted
History
Feeding: Maternal nursing 9 to Less 12 months More Cow’s milk Bottle: how long Patent foods (specify) Illnesses: (state Bronchitis Subject to colds age, duration, Convulsions coughs, constipation, permanent Diphtheria indigestion, effects) Earache nervousness, other Eczema illness Epilepsy Operations (age) for Measles adenoids, tonsils, Meningitis vaccination, others Mumps Rheumatism Rickets Scarlet Fever Scurvy Summer Complaint Tuberculosis Whooping cough Others
Heredity
MOTHER FATHER Nationality Race Height Weight Occupation Education
Predispositions
MOTHER’S[31] FATHER’S[31] BROTHERS MOTHER FAMILY FATHER FAMILY OR SISTERS (how many) (how many) (how many)
Marked mental gifts Nervous disorders (form) Alcoholism Tuberculosis Kidney disorders Cancer Pulmonary weakness Digestive disorders Blindness (form) Deafness (form) Living Dead Ages at death Causes of deaths
Congenital Factors
Rank in birth (1st, 2d, etc.) Age of brothers and sisters Living: At death: If had lived: (in years and months):
MOTHER FATHER
Age at birth Vigorous[32] Fair health[32] Sickly[32] Nervous[32] Use alcohol[32] Excess Moderate Use tobacco[32] Excess Moderate Use drugs[32] Excess Moderate
Indications
Vitality and Endurance
Sound digestion Normal eliminations Normal temperature, pulse, respiration Normal posture Normal increase in height and weight Nerves steady Sleep quiet, sound, undisturbed Diaphragmatic breathing Good chest expansion Large nose, unobstructed Large neck Eyes clear, sparkling Lips ruddy Teeth sound, normal number Muscles firm Skin clear, ruddy, elastic Active, vigorous play Good-humored, optimistic
Low Vitality
Susceptibility to colds, coughs Susceptibility to contagious diseases Sensitiveness to cold Poor nutrition Peevishness, irritability Easily fatigued Poor chest development Shallow breathing Pallor Small neck, nose Adenoids
Poor Nutrition
Underweight Overweight Indigestion No appetite Capricious appetite Rickets Languor Peevishness Delayed dentition Ridges and notches on teeth
Auto-intoxication
Low vitality Constipation Eruptions on skin Coated tongue Offensive breath Rheumatism
Rickets
Pallor, anemia Retarded growth in height and weight Enlarged joints at wrists and ankles Muscles flabby; sometimes fat Enlarged abdomen Breastbone sunken or protruding Round shoulders, bent back Delayed dentition and walking Large square head
Scurvy
Loss of appetite; pallor Loss in weight Swelling of ankles and knees Swollen gums Black and blue spots on legs Cry of pain when handled Pain when legs are moved
Nervousness
Restlessness, fidgeting Disturbed sleep Irritability, peevishness Tempers, hysteria, tantrums Spasmodic movements Stumbling, dropping things Falling easily (after 2 years) Nail-biting Bed-wetting Masturbation
Defective Vision
Squinting Frowning Book or work held near face Headaches Nervousness Irritability Indigestion
Deafness
Persistent inattention Directions persistently slighted Disinterest in music Incorrect articulation (after five years) Dull, stupid expression Head persistently held at one side Complains of roaring in ears
Adenoids (or other nasal obstruction)
Small nose Sunken bridge (after 1 year) High arched palate Mouth breathing Chronic cold Nasal voice Stupid expression Nervousness Irritability Imperfect articulation
Temperament
I. Active: quick, vivacious Phlegmatic: slow, inert Balanced II. Positive: decisive, firm, determined, not easily influenced Negative: vacillating, easily influenced, weak impression Balanced III. Intellectual: theoretical; tendency to think about things rather than to act Emotional: acts upon impulse rather than thought; expends energy in emotion rather than action or thought. Motor: eager to do, execute (Note which tendency is strongest, which weakest) IV. Optimistic: irrepressibly good-natured, cheerful, blithe Pessimistic: easily gloomy, discouraged, unhappy, fearful, morose Intermediate V. Leader: initiative, positive, executive; inspires confidence, loyalty, and coöperation of colleagues Follower: compliant, easily led, lacks initiative Intermediate VI. Original: creative Copyist: reproduces others’ ideas, principles Intermediate VII. Democratic: cordial, warm-hearted, hospitable, friendly, responsive Autocratic: snobbish, inhospitable, reserved, exclusive Intermediate VIII. Progressive: open-minded, temperamentally a radical, reformer Conservative: conventional, biased by public opinion, customs; suspicious of the new Intermediate IX. Mystic: sees spiritual phases of a situation Realist: lacks imagination; has Yankee “common sense”, practical Balanced X. Idealist: interested primarily in spiritual aspects and values Materialist: interested only in material values, advantages, or disadvantages Balanced XI. Responsible: thoughtful, conscientious, good judgment Irresponsible: absent-minded, heedless, foolish, unreliable Intermediate XII. Sees large aspects of problem or work Concerned with details Balanced XIII. Self-reliant: ready to care for self; furnishes own initiative and encouragement Dependent: relies on others for initiative, action, service, encouragement Intermediate XIV. Reaction Time: Deliberate Impulsive Rapid Slow Moderate
Psychological and Social Analysis
Mental Activity: Alert Slow Responsive Dull Curiosity Disinterested Experimenting Inert Exploring Listless Persistent will Vacillating Interest in variety Involuntary concentration Flitting Feeling strong Slight Imaginative (1) Unimaginative Self-reliant (1) Dependent Initiative Inactive Profits by experience Repeats same errors Normal intelligence Backward Precocious Thought: Definite (2) Vague Clear (2) Confused Able to follow directions (1) Unable Open-minded (4) Self-satisfied Attention: Well focused Superficial Flitting Dreaming Concentration: Involuntary, marked Slight Voluntary, marked (4) Slight Senses: Keen: Discrimination Undeveloped Sound of differences Rhythm Musical sound Color Beauty (pictures, sculpture, Nature) Rhyme Time: Day and night Yesterday To-morrow Season Year Historic time Imitation: Marked Slight Mechanical Slavish Creative (3) Memory: Retentive Poor. Due to: Motor Inattention Emotional Lack of clearness Auditory Lack of repetition Visual Verbal Logical Association Marked Slight of Ideas: Poetic (2) Prosaic Logical (2) Superficial Imagination: Vivid (1) Lacking Overwrought Clear Hazy Constructive (3) Reproductive Resourceful (3) Unresourceful Visual Auditory Reasoning: By association Easily satisfied Logical (2) Undeveloped Sensible (5) Foolish Judgment: Sensible (6) Foolish Erratic Requires Proof (4) Credulous Tastes and What kind of Stories Interests: (2) Songs Games Handwork Humor How spends free time Æsthetic: Marked Slight Rhythm Music Color Pictures Nature Poetry Mechanics: Marked Slight Watching Examining Contriving (1) Philosophical: (3) Marked Slight (Seeks reasons for life, God, death, immortality) Questions: Numerous Few “What?” “Where?” “Why?” “How?” Waits for answer Disinterest in answer Asks for information For sake of talking Seeks further information Easily satisfied Self- expression: Free Reserved Natural Self-conscious Affected Quiet Ostentatious Artistic Awkward Impressive Weak, hesitating Charm Unattractive Speech: Articulation perfect (4) Imperfect (Note which sounds) Stammers Stutters Lisps Clear (1) Indistinct Slovenly Forcible Weak Fluent (4) Reticent Halting Sentences complete (3) Incomplete Grammar correct (5) Incorrect (Note errors) Good vocabulary (5) Limited vocabulary Slang Vulgarity Voice: (1) Soft Loud Musical Harsh Nasal Shrill Clear Husky Vital Drawl Range (Test with Monotone musical instrument)
Emotions: Strong Dull Supersensitive Wholesome Morbid Silly Deep Superficial Poised Explosive Moody Good control Poor control Capricious Hysterical Eccentric Self-respect Undue humility Pride Sense of humor Prosaic Trustful Suspicious Jealous Buoyant Easily discouraged Courageous Fearful Daring Timid Cheerful Melancholy, petulant Patient Impatient Tantrums Easily imposed upon Contented Dissatisfied Sensible Vain Conceited Overaffectionate Enthusiastic Apathetic Easily guided Contrary Obstinate Rebellious Overdocile Deliberative Impulsive Social: Loyal Changeable Jealous Tattling Treacherous
Generous Selfish Sympathetic Hard-hearted Silly Considerate of others Thoughtless Criticizing Courteous Rude Bullying Winsome, manly Indifferent Gracious Priggish Conciliatory Ill-mannered Peacemaking Quarrelsome
Manners: (2-3) Charm Indifference Repulsion Self-possessed Self-conscious Bashful Taciturn Seeking attention Simpering Gentle Aggressive Boisterous Respectful Impudent Interrupting Contradicting Trained in conventions Untrained, awkward Industry: (4) Industrious Lazy, shirking Prompt Dilatory Dawdling Procrastinating Thorough Careless Painstaking Indifferent Orderly Disorderly Systematic Erratic Thrifty Spendthrift Economical Extravagant Miserly Foresighted Short-sighted Shrewd Easily imposed upon Moral: (3) Conscientious Supersensitive Indifferent Callous Generous Selfish Self-seeking Honest Prevaricating Thieving Frank Hypocritical Affected Sly Underhanded Tricky Brusque Mischievous Destructive Teasing Malicious Modest Immodest Pure-minded Uncouth Bold Brazen Unchaste Desires and appetites Uncontrolled desires controlled and appetites Will: Firm Weak Persistent Vacillating Subject to reason Stubborn Motives that Ambition Fear of punishment influence: (1) Pain to others Vanity Pleasure to others Rivalry Ideal good (the right) Selfishness Joy in right doing Mercenariness Love (of others, Material reward cause, God) Response to Friendly Sullen reproof: (1) Rebounds Sulks Acknowledges justice Resentful Revengeful Religion: (2) Wonder Apathy Awe Reverence Irreverence Sense of gratitude Thoughtless Interest in theological Disinterest questions Interest in religious Disinterest ceremonies
Natural Gifts and Talents (5). Expressiveness in any of following: Music: vocal, instrumental; rhythm, dancing, dramatics; drawing, painting, modeling, sculpture; literature, handcrafts, mechanics; nurturing, organizing, leadership
Ideals, Ambition, Expectations (8). Extent and nature of following: Vocational: (Will change with periods of development, environment) Professional: technical, artistic, industrial, manual Educational: economic, social, family
Training: Sturdy Coddling Simple Pampered Consistent Inconsistent Sympathetic Unsympathetic Just Unjust Persistent Intermittent Scope for self-activity Repressed Intelligent Irrational Emotional Sincere Superficial
Summary
Marked Traits, Physical and Psychological
Making for Efficiency: Inefficiency: Need uprooting: Correction: Developing: Making for social attractiveness: Unattractiveness:
Fundamental traits to be especially cultivated:
Energy Expressiveness Self-reliance Persistence Concentration Imagination Curiosity Initiative Orderliness Responsibility Self-control Will Altruism Courtesy Cheerfulness Honesty
FOOTNOTES:
[28] Lefthand column includes normal and desirable characteristics; righthand column includes abnormal or undesirable.
[29] Measured as length, child lying down, during first year.
[30] Snellen cards may be used for testing vision.
[31] Parents, brothers, sisters.
[32] During year before child’s birth.