CHAPTER VII.

SIXTH DAY.

_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.

Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination -- Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.

On the _sixth day_ all terrestrial animals were formed. “And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind, and it was so. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind.” According to Dr. A. Clarke, the words נפש חיה _nephesh chaiyah_, translated _living creature_, are a general term used to express all creatures endued with animal life, in any of its infinitely varied gradations; from the half-reasoning elephant down to the stupid potto, or lower still, even to the polype,[157] which seems equally to share the vegetable and animal life. The word חיתו _chaiyeto_, translated _beast_, and by Mr. Parkhurst, rendered _wild beasts_, seems to signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger, the Panther, the Lynx, the Hyæna, &c, and especially such as are _carnivorous_, or subsist on flesh. בהמה _behemah_, which we translate _cattle_, probably means those of the domestic species, such as are _graminivorous_, or live on grass and other vegetables; and are capable of being tamed, and applied to domestic purposes. The word properly means _beasts_, and is so understood by the Seventy, whose interpretation of the words of Job is, “Behold the beasts with thee, they eat grass like oxen.” According to Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it is the “name of any great beast.” But R. Levi says, that it is “an animal peculiarly called by that name.”

The Hebrew _behemah_, says Buxtorf, is taken in the singular number for the Elephant, because of its vast greatness. Ainsworth says, the word generally implies all large beasts; and of this classification the Elephant is called Behemoth. “Behold now _Behemoth_, which I made with thee; he eateth grass as an ox.” The word here is plural, and signifies beasts; but in this passage one particular beast is meant, for it is usual with the Hebrews or Jews to express great and excellent things by words in the plural number. Though some later and very learned men take the Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a creature called the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says Henry, “I confess I see no reason to depart from the opinion, that it is the Elephant that is here described, which is a very strong, stately creature, of a very large stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of such reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many four-footed beasts as we have had the natural history of, Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix, we can scarce suppose this should be omitted.”[158]

The Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength. He is the largest of all land animals. Pliny tells us, that the Elephants in India are thirteen feet and a half high, and have two teeth of such enormous size that the Indians use them for posts to their houses: those of the male being six or seven feet long, while those of the female do not exceed one foot.

“Peaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast Their ample shade o’er Niger’s yellow stream, And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave, Or mid the central depth of blackening woods, High rais’d in solemn theatre around, _Leans the_ HUGE ELEPHANT.”

His strength is also equal to that of many beasts. “His bones are as strong as pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron.” Some historians say, that in time of war people used to erect wooden towers on the backs of Elephants, and from these elevated forts men combated with their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great number of these huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in each of which were thirty-two men armed. “He is the chief of the ways of God:” that is, a signal instance of Divine power and wisdom, the most excellent of all mere animals, in size, strength, understanding, and sagacity. None of the beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none of them approaches nearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. “He moveth his tail like a cedar.” As his tail is not proportional to the bulk of his body, many understand by this term his proboscis or trunk. The original word זנב here rendered _tail_, signifies properly the extreme part of a thing; hence it is as applicable to his trunk, which hangs like a tail, though placed at the opposite extremity of his body. This he “moveth” with amazing dexterity, and, at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect it like a “cedar” growing out of a mountain.--“Behold, he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he can drink up Jordan into his mouth.” He being naturally of a hot constitution, and generally inhabiting hot climates, requires much liquid. His “drinking up a river,” is a hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and “hasteth not,” signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his parching desire be fully satiated. His “trusting” that he can drink the river “Jordan” dry, is also an hyperbolical term to express his copious draughts. “He eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him forth food;” which he gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth with his long trunk. He resides “where all the beasts of the field play.” So harmless is this strong animal, that the inferior part of the brute creation are not intimidated at his presence, but graze with him upon the mountains, and sport themselves about him in the plain, apprehending no danger from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in which are no less evinced the effects of his power, than the displays of his wisdom. The word _cattle_, also includes Horses, Kine, Sheep, Dogs, &c.

Quadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal creation. They rank higher than the class of Birds, by bringing forth their young alive; they are superior to that of Fishes, by respiration through their lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a circulation of red blood through their veins; and they differ almost from every other description of creatures, being either wholly or in part covered with hair.

What admirable wisdom is displayed in the _motion_ of animals, suited to their various occasions! Reptiles, to which a clod, a plant, a tree, or a hole, will afford the means of supporting life, and which protracted privations of food do not materially affect, require no legs to make extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is adequate to every essential purpose. Beasts, whose necessities call for a larger sphere, possess accordingly a swifter motion; and this is imparted in various degrees, suitable to their range for food, and adapted to accelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies.

In the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the smallest Mite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head is not too heavy, nor too light for its kindred parts, nor they for it. The bowels hang not loose, nor are so placed as to over-balance, or upset the system; but well-braced, and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise. The most active members also are admirably well fixed, in respect to the centre of gravity, being placed in the very point which best serves to support and convey the body. Every leg bears its share of the weight.

The _mouths_ of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits of life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and the Sheep, have full lips, rough tongues, broad cutting teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates, which qualify them for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls where the grass is long, or biting close where it is short. In those which subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated to hold and divide their food. The bore of the gullet in animals is answerable to their necessities. In a Fox, which feeds on bones, it is very large. But in a Squirrel it is exceedingly small, which prevents him from disgorging his meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally contracted in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads downward.

In all animals, the strength and size of their _stomachs_ are proportioned to the nature and quantity of their food. Those whose aliment is more tender and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and weaker: whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less nutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. Carnivorous beasts have their stomachs small and glandular, as flesh is the most nutritious. Those that derive their support from fruits and roots have them of a middle size: while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which feed on grass, have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate have in general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are nutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, Hare, and Rabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively small stomachs. The Horse is made for labor, and both he and the Hare are constructed for quick and continued motion; for these the most easy respiration, also the freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this could not be, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it, as in Sheep and Oxen.

Another very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals which have teeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; whereas most of those which have no _upper teeth_, or no teeth at all, have three stomachs. For the meat which is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which it swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.

The Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost continually: whereas the Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a short time, all the food nature requires; and then lies down to ruminate. This difference arises from the different conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose stomachs the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same time, receive grass into both of them, without inconvenience, which he afterwards ruminates and digests at leisure. The Horse, whose stomach is small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled successively in proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the intestines, where is performed the principal decomposition of the food. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, occasioned by a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains. The Ox fills the first two stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which is but a portion of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the grass it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is greatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only communicates with the other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit such dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The food must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the œsophagus, the orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit, and the animal again chews and macerates it, and moistens it afresh with its saliva: he reduces it to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into this conduit, through which it passes into the third stomach, where it is again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this last receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is reduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms this explication is, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with milk and other liquid aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer, when they eat tender grass.

All the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. So, for instance, the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the legs. Though the Elephant has a short neck, because the weight of his head and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he is provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the defect. In other beasts, the neck is always commensurate to the legs; so that they which have long legs have necks proportioned; and so vice versa, as is observable in Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile. And creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so they have none. This equality between the length of the neck and legs is peculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass, in which these are very nearly equal; because the neck must necessarily have some advantage, for it cannot hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.

These creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward for a considerable time, which would be very laborious and painful to the muscles, were it not for a very stiff, strong cartilage, placed on each side of the neck, capable of stretching and shrinking again as need requires, which butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached to the head, and the next vertebræ of the neck; and the other is knit to the middle vertebræ of the back: and by the assistance of this, animals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day long. The head being placed at the end of a long lever, in a direction nearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in constant danger of dislocation from its own weight, had not such a substance been added, which, by its great strength and toughness, retains the parts together, while, by its pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the free motion of the neck and head.

The members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living. A Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants, is provided with a snout; long, that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the ground without injuring his eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for rooting and turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw works after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way to the food: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in discovering such roots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, the usual way of finding truffles, or subterraneous mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind leg of a pig, and driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark where he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to find a truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, though their roots are deep in the ground, and the leaves are quite gone, the Swine will find them by their scent, and root only in the places where they grow.[159]

In some animals the head is long, in order to give room for the olfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In others, it is short, as in the Lion, to give him the greater strength. In beasts of prey, as Lions, Tigers, Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity of the ear standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before them, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are turned backward, to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing enemy, lest he should assail them unseen. Beasts of prey have their feet armed with claws, which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure. The Babyrouessa, or Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in the East Indies, has two _bent_ teeth more than half a yard long, growing upward, and, which is very singular, from the upper jaw. These instruments are not wanted for defence, that service being provided for by two tusks issuing from the under jaw, and resembling those of the common Boar: nor does the animal thus use them. They might seem therefore both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their utility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to support its head, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees.

In the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the animal. It has short legs, feet armed with sharp nails, a pig-like nose, a velvet coat, a small external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all which are conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many shovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to remove the earth on each side, and throw it backwards. The cylindrical figure of the Mole, as well as the compactness of its form, arising from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor; because its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to facilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws is similar to those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work in the ground. The nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and strong. The plush covering, which, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that compose it, rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth, defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the impediment which it would otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body. Being subterraneous, of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds the brightest and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This animal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, self-security required a perception of light. The Mole did not need large eyes to compass a great range of vision; and prominent eyes would have been less easily defended, whilst working under ground. To reconcile these inconveniences, these eyes are scarcely larger than the head of a corking pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and sheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any contraction of the eye-brows, not only closes up the apertures, but offers a cushion to prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them. These apertures in their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely pervious to loose pieces of earth.[160]

The different _tastes_ of animals show the wise economy of nature. Oxen delight in low grounds, because they afford the most palatable food. Sheep prefer barren hills, on which is produced a particular kind of grass called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up the precipices of mountains, that they may browse on the tender shrubs; and accordingly have their feet constructed for jumping. Horses, not in a state of domestication, chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy plants. Nay, so various are the appetites of animals, that there is scarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left untouched by others. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to the Goat; the Cow gives up the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for that on which some animals grow fat, others abhor as poison.--Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous, but only respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a most wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals may not destroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature, they are guarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell, that thus they can easily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome; and when different animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves something for the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted to lay hold on the grass; hence there is sufficient food for all.[161] The leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals, such as the Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted for climbing. The Camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in order to obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has the Creator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse those trackless wastes where frequently no water is found for many miles. Other animals, so circumstanced, would perish with thirst: but he can endure it without much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where he reserves water for many days.[162]

Quadrupeds are furnished with such _clothing_ as is suitable to their various offices. To beasts, hair is a commodious covering, which, together with the texture of their skins, fits them in all sorts of weather to lie on the ground, and to render service to man. The thick and warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and wet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable shelter for their tender young. All the animals near Hudson’s Bay are covered with a close, soft, warm fur; and, what is very surprising, and shows the wisdom and goodness of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are taken thither from England, on the approach of winter, change their appearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair than they originally had.

Many animals are armed with _weapons_ of self-defence, some of which are used for the destruction of others. Nay, we scarcely know an animal which has not some enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the most pernicious and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by too atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these are circumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most fierce of all, it deserves to be noted, how few they are in proportion to other animals. The number of them is not equal in all countries. These fierce animals sometimes destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog infests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its own male whelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age, as animals which live on vegetables. For they are subject, from their alkaline diet, to various diseases, which tend to accelerate their death: while the Elephant, which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years before he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of vigor at about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred years. But, though animals are infested by their peculiar enemies, yet they frequently elude their violence by stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her doublings, often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and Cattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses join heads together, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with their horns. Swine unite in herds, and boldly oppose themselves to any attack, so that they are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable, all of them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, in the middle, that they may remain safe during the battle. Some animals consult their safety by night. When Horses sleep in woods, one by turn remains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil, sleep on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign when the Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard should be caught asleep, the rest tear him in pieces.

Divine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion amongst all the different species of animals: this prevents any one of them from increasing too rapidly, to the detriment of others. For the produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the animal creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by the over-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if some animals did not feed on others, the earth would be annoyed with putrified bodies. Therefore, when an animal dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c, expeditiously take the whole of it away. But if a horse die near a public road, in a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with innumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh is soon entirely consumed, and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by his poisonous stench. Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the putrefaction of dead carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of nature, the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.

Though animals should not die a violent death, still their powers only continue for a limited time: they have their determinate periods of growth, perfection, and decay: hence it becomes necessary that one race should succeed and replace another, and for this purpose they are endowed with a power of procreation. The formation of the fœtus, the manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are great secrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the _milk_ found in the female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal, the moment it enters the world. We have here, the nutritious quality of the fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory duct, annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the breast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted. The advanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill the breasts with milk. The lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it adds to other causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats or paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number of the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the Cat, the Rat, which have numerous litters, the paps are numerous, and are disposed along the whole length of the belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are few.[163] And the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted to the mouth, particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling progeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful animals are the most fruitful in their generation: whereas the species of those beasts that are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued. The historian instances in a Hare, which is always either breeding or bringing forth; and a Lioness, which bears but once and then loses all power of conception.

It is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion, but are endued with a degree of understanding; and have a will, including various passions. What then produces the disparity between men and brutes, the line which they cannot pass? It is not understanding: who can say that brutes have not this? We may as well assert that they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference consists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying God; the inferior creatures are not. This is the specific difference between the two: the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over.

We meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but _understanding_ in Beavers. In the northern parts of America, during the months of June and July, they assemble, and form a society, which generally consists of more than two hundred. They always fix their abode by the side of a lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant water above and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or pier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or twelve feet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, they build their several apartments, which are divided into three stories. The first is beneath the level of the mole, and is for the most part full of water. The walls of their habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet thick. If any wood project from them, they cut it off with their teeth, which are more serviceable than saws: and by the help of their tails, they plaster all their works with a kind of mortar, which they prepare of dry grass and clay, mixed together. In August or September, they begin to lay up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the birch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass the winter, in the enjoyment of ease and plenty.[164]

In the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, recollection, affection, and revenge. _Sagacity_:--In the year 1760, whilst one Richardson, a waterman of Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat, the vessel broke from her moorings, and was carried by the current under a west country barge. Fortunately, the man’s dog happened to be present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing his face, and pulling the collar of his coat, at the instant when the boat was filled with water, and on the point of sinking; by which means he had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death.[165] _Recollection_:--A Dog, which had been the favorite of an elderly gentlewoman, some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when taken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be cleaned, discovered the strongest emotions. He had never been observed, Dr. Percival believed, to notice the picture previously to this incident. Here was evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of former impressions. _Affection_:--A few miles from Aberdeen, as a gentleman was walking across the Dee, when it was frozen, the ice gave way in the middle of the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which had fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being carried away by the current. A dog, who attended him, after many fruitless attempts to rescue his master, ran to a neighboring village, and took hold of the first person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have disengaged himself: but the Dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant, and endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence, that he began to think there might be something extraordinary in the case, and suffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who brought him to his master in time to save his life.[166] _Revenge_:--A pack of ravenous Fox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, to render them more furious and eager in the chace: and were severely lashed every day by a merciless keeper, that they might be disciplined to the strictest observance of his looks and commands. It happened that this petty tyrant entered the kennel without his scourge. The dogs observed his defenceless state; and, instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their hunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces.[167]

The Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by naturalists into three classes. Those which have no tails are termed Apes, and such as have very short ones, Baboons; but by far the most numerous class consists of those which have long tails, and are known by the general name of Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several component parts of any one creature which God has made, we should find a perfection among its several powers, and an adaptation of its construction to its situation in the grand scale of existence, far surpassing human wisdom.

At the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of natural discipline, and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill and regularity. When they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard (for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples,) they go in large companies, and with preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the inclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand without the fence, and form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their rendezvous without, which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every thing being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard throw the fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it; or, if the wall or hedge be high, to those that sit on the top; and these hand the plunder to those next them on the other side. Thus the fruit is pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is safely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with amazing dexterity; and while the business is going forward, a profound silence is observed. Their sentinel, during the whole time, continues on the watch, and when he perceives any one coming, instantly sets up a loud cry, on which signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they willing to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of melons, for instance, they go off with one in their mouths, one in their hands, and one under their arms. If the pursuit be vigorous and close, they drop first that from under their arms, then that from their hands; and if it be continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept in their mouth.[168] There is another species of Monkey in the West Indies, of the size of a Fox. These are in great numbers in the woods, and make aloud and frightful noise. But it is common for one only to make a noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. Marcgrave says, “I have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon: at which time they formed a large circle, and one placing himself above the rest, began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by himself for some time, the rest all remaining silent, he lifted up his hand, and they all instantly joined in the chorus. This intolerable yell continued, till the same Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning, lifted up his hand a second time. On this they were all silent again, and so finished the business of the assembly.”

Thus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species of creatures which God has made. Every element is stocked with inhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, and the earth with quadrupeds and creeping things. All these different provinces are richly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable creatures that live in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity do some in the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who pride themselves in their reason, to blush and be confounded! Who does not admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests? the subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food? and of others in securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in weaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her prey? the sapience and industry of the Bee in building her combs, and filling them with pleasant food? and the care and foresight of the Ant, in laying up her store against winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine wisdom and power are conspicuously displayed.

The word רמש _remes_, translated _creeping thing_, and rendered _reptile_ by Parkhurst, includes all the different genera of serpents, worms, and such animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among animals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk about in the greatness of their strength, others are of a delicate and diminutive appearance, bordering on comparative insignificance. But Divine “skill and power are not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin, or Tragulus, a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all _bifed_ or cloven-footed animals, whose delicate limbs are scarcely as large as an ordinary goose quill; nor the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the smallest of the many-toed quadrupeds. In the _reptile_ race we see also the same skill and power; not only in the immense snake called Boa Constrictor, the mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal Tiger, but also in the Cobra de Manille, a venomous serpent, not much larger than a common sewing needle.”

The Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other oviparous animals. They have no shields, like the Tortoises, and are furnished with tails, which are wanting in Toads and Frogs. They are covered with scales, of greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of warts or tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two inches in length, whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six feet. The larger ones live on animals, which they seize by stratagem, and the smaller ones on insects. The aquatic species undergo a metamorphosis, from a tadpole to a perfect state. Most of them are produced from eggs, but some are brought forth alive. In many of the species the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They principally inhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and many of them serve mankind for food.

As according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems appointed to the dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone, the Eagle to rule as sovereign of the air, and the Whale to have the pre-eminence in the seas; so the Crocodile[169] and the Alligator appear to rule over the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates. All the rivers of Guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former, M. Adanson having seen in the great river Senegal more than two hundred swimming together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of America.--The Guana, which grows to the length of four or five feet, is very common in Surinam, the woods of Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico, and in many parts both of Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce in the West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after for the table.--The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail about six inches, is known in almost every part of the temperate regions of Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble Lizard, are considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species. The Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of Carolina as very useful animals, in consequence of destroying flies, and other troublesome and noxious insects. They will sometimes remain motionless for half a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they spring at it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so familiar as to enter the houses without fear, and, in pursuit of prey, ascend the tables whilst families are eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so beautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across the tables, and even the plates, without exciting the least alarm or disgust.

The Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, Africa, some of the warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and several of the countries of South America. Its usual length is about ten inches, and the tail nearly the same. All the motions of this creature are extremely slow, so that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit of food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves, in order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its long adhesive tongue, than go in search of prey. When walking on the ground, it steps forward in a cautious, groping manner, seeming never to lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest. From these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance of gravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and the activity that might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the most active in the creation. Each of its eyes is covered with a rough membrane, which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit, through which the bright pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The eyes have this singular property, of looking at the same instant in different directions. One of them may frequently be seen to move when the other is at rest; or one will be directed forward, whilst the other is attending to some object behind; or in the same manner upward and downward. The property of changing its color is singular, and has led to various conjectures as to the cause.

Serpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, by their total want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found both in North and South America, is the most dreaded of all serpents. Providence has given to man a security against its bite; for it generally warns the passenger by the rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which is extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather is very hot, its poison being introduced into a wound, often proves fatal in a short time. If not provoked, it is inoffensive, being so much alarmed at the sight of men, as always, if possible, to avoid them, and never commencing an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the serpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length, and of a proportional thickness. It is a native of Africa, India, the largest Indian Islands, and South America, where it chiefly resides in the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are assured, that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, in the island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their rapacity is often the means of their own punishment; for whenever they have gorged themselves in this manner, they seek a retreat where they may lurk for several days and digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless, sleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.[170]

The snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which differ from each other both in size and habit, and about one-fifth of the whole have been discovered to be poisonous. “The deserts of Arabia,” says Adanson, “are entirely barren, except where they are found to produce serpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive plains are almost entirely covered with them.” The apparatus of poison in the Viper is very similar to that of the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous serpents. The _fang_ of a Viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance. It is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: in its quiet state, lying down flat on the jaw, but furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk, and by the pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under the tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the perforation, lies a small bag containing the venom. When the fang is raised, the closing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath; and the force of this compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable impetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By this singular apparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most deadly bite, and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid. Yet, though in the mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile, does not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.[171]

No less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well adapted are the rings of some, and the contortions of the skins of others, not only to guard the body sufficiently, but enable them to creep, perforate the earth, and perform all the functions of their stations, better than any other covering! Virgil gives the following description of a Sicilian serpent:

“Scarce had he finish’d, when, with speckled pride, A serpent from the tomb began to glide; His hugy bulk on sev’n high volumes roll’d; Blue was his breadth of back, but streak’d with scaly gold; Thus riding on his curls, he seem’d to pass A rolling fire along, and singe the grass. More various colors through his body run, Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun.”

Even the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the completest manner, for effecting a passage in the earth, wherever instinct directs their motions. Their bodies are composed of small rings, and have a curious apparatus of muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend or contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed with stiff, sharp prickles, which they can open or close at pleasure. And under their skins is a shining juice, which they emit, as occasion requires, to lubricate their bodies, and facilitate their passage into the earth. By all these means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to work themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if they were covered with hair, feathers, scales, or such clothing as any of the other creatures.--One of the most singular properties of the serpent tribe is that of casting their skins from time to time. The beauty and lustre of their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have a tarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by the growth of the new. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat-skin, that even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it.

Among creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of Solomon who observes, that he is one of those “little things on the earth, that are exceeding wise.” This creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar insects, without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance apparently of great difficulty, yet provided for by a resource, which no stratagem nor effort of his own could have produced, had not both the external and internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the operation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the Spider discover in weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey! How wonderfully artificial is her web, or _house_! How astonishingly curious its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she spins out of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, constructed for the purpose of procuring food! It is fastened according to the rules of mathematics, for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at parallel distances.[172] When this net is spread, that she may the more effectually secure her prey, she cunningly conceals herself in her covert, to evade the discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of this geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is immediately apprized of the approach of a fly, or any other insect of the like nature, when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey. She is furnished with a very sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this weapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle themselves in her web; and, at the same instant, by means of a small white proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, which, in a moment, kills the animal. This poison must be very deleterious; for flies, and many other insects, may be mutilated by depriving them of their legs, wings, and even cutting their bodies through the very middle of their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive several days.--The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the Tarantula, are all provided with poisonous weapons.

_Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and Quadrupeds._

[If we will attentively examine the _fossil remains of fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables_, so abundantly preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, we shall easily see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these primitive creatures if we would freely describe the “Mosaic Creation.” Many of their genera and species are now extinct: and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere _dwarfs_ in comparison with their prototypes.

It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these interesting remains of the primordial world are so well preserved. They are called by one _the medals of creation_: they reveal the ancient condition of our earth; the successive events; and the attending organic appendages of sensitive beings: and it is a matter of great pleasure to the Christian, that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees expressly with the Bible.

The class of animated beings called _pisces_, or _fishes_, is not so well known in regard to their _genera_, and _species_, as the classes of quadrupeds and birds.

From the fossil remains of each, and their position in the crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that their genera were created successively, and that the most ancient genera are extinct. The same is true in regard to vegetables. It is equally true, that, connected with the successive creation, was a _successive improvement_ in the delicacy and complexity of their structure and parts. There was also a reduction in the _size_ of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great reduction in the _amount_ of vegetation, as well as the size of many of the plants.

These periodic variations in all early organized bodies, were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. The Divine Being appears to have created the different genera suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the time. The cause of their successive extinction appears to have been successive catastrophes, which altered the constitution of our earth and atmosphere.

All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and inconceivably powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom, than the delicate and beautiful beings of the present period. The same is eminently true in regard to vegetables, specially their _quantity_. They were of trunks, and spreading branches so huge as to exceed belief, did we not see them well preserved in a fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the amount of vegetable coal found in the earth.

These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods of our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for a long time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable state: the air was very moist and gross, and the temperature of the earth was much higher than at present. Hence the huge and abundant vegetable productions. These general facts shall be confirmed by a few remarks in regard to each class.

_Fishes._--Under this class is included, here, _testaceous_, and _crustaceous_ creatures, as well as _fishes_ commonly so called. The most ancient of this family seem to be entirely extinct, and their remains are found in great abundance in the lower transition rocks. There are many localities where fossil fish, of various kinds, are found abundantly. They are sometimes found in the heart of mountains, thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Their localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned. They are found in all possible _positions_, and in every degree of _preservation_--some are _contorted_, and _crushed_; indicating sudden violence. Others are inhumed in the very act of swallowing their prey, and in every easy and natural position; indicating that they expired without violence. Some of these, which are thus quietly buried, are of the most active species; thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.

So extensive are the depositions of _shell-fish_, that whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be composed of them; and, indeed, in some instances, mountains are composed principally of these rocks filled with organic remains.

From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once covered these localities; and when it is recollected that some of the rock strata, composed of the exuviæ of these marine creatures, are _hundreds_ of feet thick, the conclusion will be irresistible, that the sea covered them for a long time, and that these rocks which contain them _were deposited at the bottom of the sea_, which have since become dry, by the retiring of the waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving the bed of the sea, and of course these deposits which had been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands, where the rocks lie _in situ_, the sea has exposed them by retiring.

_Amphibious Creatures._--There are yet a few animals of this class; but they can scarcely be called the types of the ancient races, now extinct, whose remains have lately been discovered, and attracted so much attention in Europe. They are principally of the _crocodile_, and _saurian_ (or lizard) families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their structure clearly indicates their proper element was wet, marshy, and reedy places, such as the crocodile delights in at this time: thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient chaotic seas retired, and was leaving the earth dry.

If a _single_ skeleton only, of any one of these creatures had been found, naturalists would have pronounced it a _lusus naturæ_. But many have been found, of different genera and species: only two or three shall be mentioned here.

One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine composed of 133 vertebræ, or joints, taken together 21½ feet in length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species are extinct; some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family.

_The Megalosaurus._ The skeleton of this huge creature has been satisfactorily examined, and ascertained to belong to the _lizard family_. Its thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said some have been found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must have been 48 feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil remains, calculates some of them were as high as our largest elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet this was a _lizard_ of the ancient world!

_The Pterodactyle._ This is a species of the saurian family as those above. Its distinctive character is the _elongation of its fourth toe_, so as to support a membrane for the purpose of _flying_: hence its name, _wing-toed_. It is indeed a curiosity. Its species is extinct.

_The Ichthyosaurus._ This is also a reptile of the lizard kind: but because it so much resembles a _fish_; it has this name, i.e. _fish-lizard_. It has a moderate tail--long pointed muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth; two huge eyes; breathed air; swam in the water; crawled in marshy, reedy places, but could not walk or run on land, having flat fins, or bony paddles, somewhat like seals. The skeletons indicate some of them to have been 25 feet long.

_The Plesiosaurus._ This animal, as its name imports, was rather akin to lizards, than decidedly of the genus. Its very peculiar characteristic is the immoderate length of its neck, and the unexampled number of _vertebræ_ of which it is composed. In other respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus. Its remains indicate an animal, according to Cuvier, at least 30 feet long.

_The Iguanodon_, was of the lizard genus, three or four times as large as the largest crocodile; having jaws equal in size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns. (DR. BUCKLAND.)

Many more creatures of the early periods of our earth might be mentioned, which would come expressly under the title of this volume; and the knowledge of which is durably preserved in the fossils of the earth, all of which would confirm the facts stated in the commencement of this paper, viz: that during the first and grossest periods of our earth previously to the creation of man, great numbers of genera and species of huge and misshapen animals existed, which are now extinct. For instance: the skeletons of animals of the _frog and toad_ families, have been found so large, as to induce some naturalists at first to call them _human remains_. A tapir has been found the _size of an elephant_; and a species of the _sloth tribe_ as long as a _rhinoceros_!!

These things will indeed appear incredible to the reader at first; but let him recollect that the evidences of these astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust of the earth, and cannot be deceptive. They may be _seen, measured, weighed, and put up so as to form the whole animal_, an object of inspection to thousands.

There are but few fossil remains of _birds_ found in the earth, and these are principally in the upper tertiary strata, and in company with the fossil remains of such animals as are companionable and serviceable to man. The reason of this is obvious: the earth was not suitable for the habitation of birds until it had become comparatively dry, and the seas had retired in a great measure, and vegetation abundant. The aquatic genera appeared first, of which there are a few remains. Moreover this class of creatures could not be overtaken with any violent catastrophe, so as to bury them in a body, or in particular strata. It is, therefore, probable that birds, as a class, have preserved their genera and species from the first; and are now nearly the same in this respect, as well as in size, as in the earlier periods of the world.

_Vegetables._--In the vegetable kingdom we are if possible, more astonished than in the animal, of the ancient periods of our earth. From their fossil remains, well and abundantly preserved, it is very evident that the vegetation of the first periods of our earth was abundant and heavy, beyond any thing which we can conceive at this time. It cannot be doubted but that the vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater than at this time, or within the memory of man. This is evident from the immense production of _vegetable coal_.

This statement may be rendered somewhat more credible when it is recollected, that the earth, in its first periods, was of a much higher temperature than now; and of course not only produced more abundantly, but _all parts_ of the earth produced vegetation in abundance. This is evident from the fact, that within the arctic circle, where now reigns eternal winter, and no vegetation can be found, there was anciently successive products of heavy vegetation. (See appendix to our paper on volcanos.) This is proven by plants being found fossilized _on the spot, and in the position in which they grew; as also the leaves and fruits of plants, which are known now to be tropical, so well preserved, and in such a natural, easy position as to prove clearly they grew on the spot on which they were fossilized_.

The _flora_ of the primordial world was expressly a part of the ‘Mosaic creation,’ and which is but little understood as yet. Some of the principal plants were of the _fern_ and _palm_ genera; but their size very far exceeded those now found growing. By closely examining these fossil plants, it will be found, _that they increase in size and quantity as the period of their growth is distant from the time in which man was created_: thus indicating _an increasing temperature of the earth as we ascend in time_. This also corresponds with the well known fact, _that the size of these plants now increases progressively from the polar regions to the equator_.

Our author has given a concise and edifying description of the principal families and individuals which now exist, and are found in the earth. The above remarks are intended to direct the attention to those _which have long since passed away_.]

The propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean beasts, mentioned in the Scripture, will appear on the first hearing of their names; for we find amongst the clean creatures, Oxen, Sheep, Goats, and Lambs: and on the other side, Lions, Tigers, Wolves, Foxes, Swine, Moles, and Serpents. It is evident that there is a wide difference between these two parties, with respect to their manners and ways of life.

Those only are admitted among clean animals, which “divide the hoof and chew the cud.” Animals which divide the hoof are more inoffensive with their feet, than the several tribes of wild beasts, whose paws are armed with sharp claws, to seize their prey. Quadrupeds with a divided hoof tread surer than those whose hoof is entire; there being a plain mechanical reason why a foot, which presents several angles and edges, should take faster hold on the ground. They are not only surer footed, but also more orderly and regular in their progress. Sheep have a natural tendency to follow each other’s steps. They approach the fold, or return from it, in a train; as well as traverse their pastures in the like order. Oxen tread in the very footsteps of their predecessors: so that a drove of them, on passing through a deep and narrow road, leave the surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and furrows, as if it were the work of art. If animals could reason and dispute as men can, this plodding practice of the Ox might possibly be ridiculed by the Ass; as the orthodox believer, who is content to tread in the steps of his forefathers, is scoffed at by the rambling freethinker, who uses it as the privilege of his nature, to deviate into by-ways, untrodden by those who were much wiser than himself. _Sure footing_ is an image not improperly applied to elementary truth and science: whence it will not be unnatural to suppose, that this first character of the clean animals was intended to be expressive of rectitude and certainty of principle in moral agents. Error is various and changeable in its nature: but truth, being uniformly the same in all ages, will always be productive of sobriety and regularity in those who follow it.

The other character of clean animals is that of “chewing the cud;” a faculty expressive of that act of the mind, by which it revolves, meditates, and discourses on what it has laid up in the memory; and the word _ruminate_ has the same metaphorical meaning. An animal thus employed has the appearance of abstraction in its countenance, as if it were engaged in deep meditation; and it ruminates more particularly when lying in an horizontal position, for then the food is more easily recalled into the mouth from its temporary lodgment in the stomach. This character then, is expressive of devout thought and holy conversation: for the word of God is the food of the mind, which, being laid up in the heart, should be frequently revolved; so that being properly applied to the inward man, it may contribute to a daily increase in faith, purity, and goodness.

The clean animals were also _sacred_; that is, set apart by the law for the purpose of sacrifice. The propriety of which is evident: for if the worshipper, who offered an animal to God, meant by that act to devote himself, using the animal as his substitute or proxy; then certainly it was not fit that he should represent himself by an unclean creature, whose instincts and habits would convey an odious idea of his own person and character, and consequently make his devotion appear ridiculous. In order to make a sacrifice acceptable, it was requisite that the qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those of the offering. The innocent manners of a clean victim, were a tacit reflection on an unclean offerer. When the worshippers of the true God were corrupt in their principles or morals, their oblations were no longer either proper or acceptable: which was signified to them in those words of the prophet--“He that killeth an ox, as if he slew a man: he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog’s neck: he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine’s blood.” The reason is added: “They have chosen their own ways, and their soul delighteth in their abominations.” But there is another sense in which the institution of sacrifice is to be understood: for every sacrifice had its prophetic use, and was prefigurative of the true sacrifice of Jesus Christ; with respect to whom it was necessary that every animal, preferred to this sacred application, should be recommended by every possible character of innocence, purity, and perfection: therefore the sacrifices were taken from the tribes of Sheep, Goats, and Oxen.

The diet of the Jews being thus immediately connected with the most solemn acts of religious adoration, the daily course of their living carried with it an exhortation to purity of mind and body, and directed their faith to its supreme object, the vicarious sacrifice of the Messiah. The moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death and benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice, the common substitute of all mankind: whence God has mercifully ordained, as well by the present condition of creation itself, as by the appointment of revelation, that the life of his body should be sustained in like manner: thereby to remind us every day, that the life of man is in a state of forfeiture; and that there can be neither the preservation, nor the remission of sins, without the shedding of innocent blood. Thus does mankind conspire in offering up a daily sacrifice, and attesting the truth of the Christian doctrine, and many persons with the same insensibility that Caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor, “It is necessary that one man should die, that the whole people perish not.”

These clean and unclean animals, with respect to their several ways of life, are as opposite as their dispositions. Sheep, Oxen, Goats, Deer, &c, are formed into societies, they herd peaceably together, and are subject to the laws of government, as well for their own advantage as for the service of man. But beasts of prey roam by themselves in forests and deserts, incapable of entering into any friendly communion. They are so many single tyrants, who acknowledge no superior, but fight their way, and live in a state of hostility with the whole creation. If they ever unite in gangs, it is with the spirit of thieves and murderers, who are banded together only that they may plunder the innocent with greater security. And, like other depredators, they are all fond of darkness. When the sun goes down, the Lion stalks forth from his den: at which time the Sheep, under the direction of the shepherd, are retiring to their fold. And when the cattle are climbing up the mountains to their pasture, invited by the reviving rays of the rising sun, the tyrants of the night are warned back to their hiding-places.[173]

The blindness of the Mole, the petulance and immodesty of the Dog, the subtlety of the Fox, the poisonous teeth and double tongue of the Serpent, afford ample scope for reflection. The Egyptian hieroglyphics were certain visible representations of creatures, whose inclinations and actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they intended for instruction. A profane and voluptuous man was represented by a Swine, whose filthy disposition caused it to be hated by all the eastern people. A great hypocrite, or a notorious dissembler of wicked intentions, was expressed by a Leopard, because this animal acts craftily, concealing his head that he may with less difficulty catch his unwary prey; for the creatures are as much alarmed at his presence, as they are pleased with the agreeable scent of his body: when therefore they approach him, delighted with the perfume, he will cover his head with his paws, till they come within his reach. An incorrigible person was also expressed by a Leopard’s skin, because its spots no art can remove. A Chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic of a hypocrite, who can accommodate himself to any religion that will serve his turn; for this animal can change its color. A stupid, ignorant person, an enemy to religion, was signified by an Ass; and one that was not acquainted with men and things, or knew not how to acquit himself with decency and propriety in the world, was painted with the head and ears of an Ass. The Egyptians were accustomed to put the heads of animals on the bodies of men, to express the dispositions and conduct of those persons they were intended to represent. A Tiger, being a most fierce animal, signified a savage, cruel, revengeful disposition, opposed to all goodness. A Fox is notorious for his craftiness; therefore he is an emblem of a subtile person, under the influence of wicked thoughts and intentions.[174]

Rams, and Bullocks of Bashan, Lions, or any animal of prey, are figures frequently used by the sacred writers for cruel and oppressive tyrants and conquerors. “Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, which oppress the poor.” Bashan was a very fruitful place, a fine and fattening pasture, in which were the best fed and strongest cattle. To these, the prophet compares the great men among the Israelites, especially their judges and magistrates, who were proud, insolent, wanton and mischievous, like the bulls of Bashan; who oppressed the poor, as high fed cattle push and gore the weaker sort. “The Lion is come up from his thicket, and the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way; he is gone forth from his place to make thy land desolate: and thy cities shall be laid waste without an inhabitant.” By this animal is meant Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, so termed on account of his great power and fierceness; and as the Lion is commonly in the forest among the thicket, so this terrible political ruler had his strong hold and principal seat at Babylon, which residence he left to commit awful desolation among the cities of Judah and Israel.

The prophet Isaiah, with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald of the Most High, begins his prophecy with calling on the whole creation to attend, when Jehovah speaks. “Hear, oh heavens; and give ear, oh earth; for the Lord hath spoken; I have nourished and brought up children, and they have rebelled against me.” A charge of gross insensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the Jews; by contrasting their conduct with that of the Ox, and the Ass, which is the most stupid of animals. “The Ox knoweth his owner, and the Ass his master’s crib: but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.” What a cutting reproof! what an indelible reproach! to have been favored with the best means of instruction, and yet to be exceeded by the herd of the stall! To perish for lack of knowledge, after having had the best means to acquire it, evinces the grossest inattention, and most censurable insensibility.

The prophet Jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in which he lived, and the vice and immorality that every where abounded. He saw with grief of heart the holy Sabbath profaned, the worship of God neglected, and his house and ordinances defiled. While a sorrowful witness to their gross abominations, he saw the punishments that awaited their immorality, and then wept over what he could not amend. He gave them faithful admonitions from God, but they disregarded them, and drank in iniquity like water, and drew sin as with a cart-rope: because they had been _taught_ to do evil (for so the margin reads,) trained up in their evil ways, had learned to sin by precept and example, and were great proficients in vicious pursuits: from their youth their natural propensity to evil had increased by continued practice, till sinning was become habitual, and there was little hope left of amendment. Therefore he exclaims, “Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the Leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil.” The Ethiopian’s skin is of so sable a hue, that no water can wash it white. A Leopard’s skin is beautifully spotted, which is not the result of accident, but nature, and cannot be defaced. By these two similes the prophet designs to represent, not only the natural impossibility without Divine aid, but also the extreme difficulty of habitual sinners learning to do well, after they have long accustomed themselves to do evil. The least sin is to be avoided, the least growth of sin to be prevented; for sin indulged in thought will beget desire, desire will break out into action, action will grow into custom, custom will settle into habit, and then, there is the utmost danger of both body and soul being irrecoverably lost.

When our Saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the Gospel, he informed them of the hardships, dangers, and discouragements they would have to encounter, in the faithful discharge of their ministry; especially after his resurrection, when they would be deprived of his personal presence; for we do not read of any great persecutions they endured while he was with them. These sufferings he foretold, that they might not be surprised at their approach; and that, by the accomplishment of this prediction, their faith might be confirmed. “Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of Wolves.” Here we have a prediction of their perilous condition; they were to be as Sheep in the midst of Wolves. And what situation more dangerous! What can sheep, that are feeble creatures, and destitute of natural armour to defend themselves, expect, in the midst of ravenous wolves, but to be rent and torn to pieces? So those, amongst whom the apostles were to be sent, would have as great an inclination, arising from their malicious dispositions, to destroy them, as wolves have from their nature to devour sheep. Wicked men are like wolves, whose nature it is to destroy and devour sheep; they are of a diabolical disposition towards the ministers of the Gospel.

Our Saviour also gave his apostles advice, how to conduct themselves in such very unpleasant and dangerous circumstances. “Be ye therefore wise as serpents,” not cunning as foxes, whose aim is to deceive others; but as serpents, whose policy is only to defend themselves, when they are in danger. A serpent’s wisdom appears in a care to guard and secure its head, that it may not be hurt; in stopping its ears against the voice of the charmer, which it does, says a certain naturalist, by laying one ear close to the ground, and stopping the other with its tail; and in sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock, when in danger. So should Christ’s ministers, in a time of peril, use all lawful means for their own safety and preservation; they should be wary and circumspect to keep themselves from harm, either of body or soul. “And harmless as doves.” Ministers should be meek, do no person any harm, bear no ill-will, be without gall, as is said of the dove; though their enemies should be fierce and savage, like wolves, yet they must not study how to revenge the injuries done them. It should be their continual care to be inoffensive, in word and deed: wisdom and innocence should dwell together. Ministers must not be altogether doves, lest they fall into danger; nor altogether serpents, lest they injure others; but they must be both serpents and doves, the one for wisdom, the other for innocence.

“That thou mayst injure no man, dove-like be, And serpent-like, that none may injure thee!”

Our Saviour likewise cautions his followers against false teachers. “Beware of false prophets.” The term _prophet_ in the Scripture, signifies one who foretells things to come; this is the most proper signification of the word. It also means one who expounds the predictions of the Old Testament. And sometimes we are to understand by it, one employed in the ministry of the Gospel; in this sense a prophet and a teacher are reciprocal terms. So that by prophet here our Saviour means false teachers, who, pretending authority from God, exercised themselves in the ministry, and published false doctrine, or at least represented truth in a corrupt manner, with a fraudulent intention, from base motives, and for vile ends; by whose doctrine persons were in no small danger of being seduced from their simplicity, and drawn away from the truth, sincerity, and power of godliness; into a dead and lifeless formality, and an empty show of religion and piety. Now against such men, Christ, in the days of his public ministry, warned his hearers, to prevent their deception, apprising them that they would “come in sheep’s clothing.” They disguised their dangerous principles and base intentions, under a show of external religion, and fair professions of love, that, thereby they might deceive others. “But inwardly they are ravening Wolves.” They were as dangerous to the souls of men, as ravenous Wolves are to Sheep, which watch for an opportunity to seize their prey, silently approach the sheep-fold to see whether the dogs be asleep, or the shepherd be absent: so false teachers with wretched hypocrisy and sophistry, counterfeit sincerity, humility, and sanctity; and were it not for this semblance of piety, their efforts to injure the church of God would be ineffectual. He compares these false teachers to Wolves, especially on account of their cruelty. These animals are not content to satisfy their hunger, but will destroy multitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature. So false teachers strive to injure the whole church of God, and thus destroy souls.

Our Saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of Christian prudence, in the dispensing of spiritual things. “Give not that which is holy unto the Dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before Swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you.” The deep things of God, relating to doctrines, are not to be divulged to those who are wallowing in sin; neither are the great things he has done in his people to be declared to profane, furious persecutors: but both classes of wicked men may be reproved on proper occasions. By Dogs, our Saviour means froward, perverse, malicious, revengeful, boisterous, incorrigible, and irreclaimable sinners, who scorn holy institutions, mock at every thing sacred, scoff at religion, deride the word of God, and all serious reproofs and admonitions, whether given by parents, masters, ministers, governors, and others; who are ready to persecute those who preach the Gospel, and endeavor to promote their salvation. By Swine, he means such sinners as are profane and sensual, and like Swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness; to whom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts, as it is for Swine to wallow in the mire; and to disregard, abuse, and trample on holy things.

St. Peter, in showing what all men are in the sight of God, before they receive his grace, and what those are who turn apostates from the truth, alludes to two offensive actions of Dogs and Swine. “It has befallen to them according to the true proverb, the Dog is turned to his vomit, and the Sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire.” Blackwall says, this proverb, with great propriety and strength, marks out the sottishness and odious manners of persons enslaved to sensual appetites and carnal lusts; and the extreme difficulty of reforming vicious and inveterate habits. As a Dog, observe Bishop Patrick, when he has vomited up his meat which made him sick, is no sooner well but he returns to it, and eats it up again, forgetting how ill it agreed with him; so an imprudent person commits the same error over again, for which he formerly smarted. The evil nature remaining, and at last gaining the ascendency, in a man, who had through grace reformed his life, renders him like the loathsome and detestable Sow, as Dr. Doddridge remarks; for the Sow that was washed from the filthiness she had before contracted, having still the same unclean nature prevailing, is returned to wallow in the mire, and so makes herself as filthy as she had ever been before. And, adds Dr. Whitby, these two proverbs are expressive of the folly of those men who return to those vices they had formerly renounced.

* * * * *

_Section_ II.--MAN.

BODY: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion --Respiration -- Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense -- Bones -- Sinovia --Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane -- Skin. SOUL: -- Its Immateriality -- Freedom --Immortality -- Moral Image -- Adam’s Dominion over the Creatures -- Woman -- Paradise.

All things necessary, convenient, and delightful, being prepared for the accommodation of Man: light, that he might see; air, that he might hear and breathe; dry land, on which he might walk; herbs and fruit-trees, for his gratification and sustenance; fish, fowl, cattle, and creeping things, for his service: then God proceeded to make him, as the last and greatest display of his wisdom and power, the master-piece of all sublunary creatures, whose creation alone is represented in the sacred History, as an effect resulting from a divine consultation. “And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.” It appears from the ingenious Parable of Protagoras in Plato, it was a very ancient opinion that _man_ was last created after the other living creatures.

In all the former works, God only said, Let such and such things be, and they were; he spake the word, and it was done. But now, when Man was to be made, God is spoken of as calling a council, “Let _us_ make man, in _our_ image, after _our_ likeness.” This imports that Man was to be a creature different from all that had been produced, and far more excellent and wonderful in his constitution; a compound of flesh and spirit, heaven and earth, put together, the visible image of the Divine glory, and dedicated and devoted to his Creator’s service. Man was the work of ELOHIM, the Divine Plurality, marked here more distinctly by the plural pronouns US and OUR; all the Three Subsistencies in the Godhead are represented as united in counsel and effort to bring into existence this astonishing creature.

Aben Ezra, a Jewish Rabbi, imagined that the souls of all men were made on the first day of the creation, and that God consulted them to obtain their consent before he would assign them bodies of flesh, hereafter to be created. This is a groundless hypothesis, derived from the Platonic philosophy; for God says, “Let us make man in our image,” which shows that Adam’s soul had then no existence, for in that case, it doubtless would have been in the image of God.

Some other Jewish Doctors, as Manasseh ben Israel, ridiculously conceived that God spake to the elements. But this is more absurd than the former; for the expression, “Let us make man,” implies capacity of consultation in those spoken to, and real efficiency. But the elements are not intelligent beings, neither efficient, but only material parts of man.

Nor does God here speak to the angels, as the authority of the Paraphrase, which is called Jonathan’s, suggests. The words of the Paraphrase are these: “God said to the angels, which ministered before him, Let us make man.” It is a noted saying of the Jewish Rabbis, that God does nothing without consulting his family above: they mean, his holy angels. Several heretics, in the first and second centuries of Christianity, were of opinion, that this lower world was made by angels. This notion is likewise erroneous: God here speaks to those in whose image man was to be formed, but he was not made in the image of angels.

It is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, that this is a figurative way of speaking, only to express the dignity of God, not to denote any plurality in him; that he here speaks in the plural number after the manner of princes, who say, We will and require, or, It is our pleasure. But this is only a far-fetched invention, to evade the doctrine of the Trinity, by persons in latter times, and no way agreeable to the first ages of the world, or the Hebrew style. Melchizedeck, Abimelech, Pharoah, and Balak, all speak in the singular number. The kings of Israel used the same style, as did Saul, David, and even Solomon in all his glory. And also the Eastern monarchs: “I (Darius) make a decree. I, even I, Artaxerxes the king, do make a decree.” Nor is there in the Scriptures one example to the contrary.

Beside, how absurd it is to suppose that God would borrow his mode of speaking from a practice which did not exist! And even granting this possible, yet the cases are not parallel. For though a King, or Governor, may say _us_ and _we_, there is certainly no figure of speech that will allow a single person to say, _one of us_, when he speaks of _himself_. It is a phrase that can have no meaning, unless there be more persons than one concerned. Yet in addition to US and OUR, this we find is the style in which God has spoken of himself.

There are some persons who maintain, in opposition to the clear light of revelation, that there is but one Subsistence in the Divine Nature. This was the opinion of the Sabellians, a denomination which arose in the third century; and, certain persons, in modern times, have embraced the same. These contend that God here speaks to himself, as consulting with himself, to create man, and that, though the words be plural, yet the sense is singular, as if he had said, Let _me_ make man.

One of the Persons, or Subsistencies in the Godhead, here speaks to the other Two, and who more likely than the Father, who is first in the order of arrangement, as given by the sacred Writers. The Father, not the Son, is the first; the Son, not the Holy Spirit, is the second; and the Holy Spirit, not the Father, is the third. Hence, the Father, when he said, “Let us make man,” addressed himself to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, who were therein joint and equal Creators with him. “None saith, Where is God my Maker?” in the Hebrew, _Makers_, is the language used in the Book of Job, implying a Plurality of Persons in a Unity of Essence: a phraseology like that of Solomon, “Remember thy Creator,” in the original, _Creators_. The prophet Isaiah adopts the same style, “Thy Maker is thine husband,” in the Hebrew, _thy Makers are thy Husbands_. Thus it evidently appears, that this consultation was among the Persons in the Godhead; that all the Three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, were concerned in man’s creation; and were therein joint Creators, equal in nature, power, and efficiency.

Dr. Waterland says, that this text, _Let us make man_, has been understood of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or at least of Father and Son, by the whole succession of Christian writers, from the times of the apostles; which is a circumstance of considerable importance, and will impress the minds of sincere and impartial men. That the Christian Fathers were unanimous in their judgment, that these words were spoken by the Father to the Son, or Spirit, or both, appears in their works, from which we shall adduce a few proofs.

_Barnabas_ says:--“And for this the Lord was contented to suffer for our souls, though he be the Lord of the world; to whom God said, the day before the formation of the world, Let us make man after our image and similitude.”[175]

_Hermas_:--“He was present in counsel with his Father for the forming of the creature.”[176]

_Theophilus_ of Antioch:--“He directed these words, _Let us make man_, to none other than his own Word and his own Wisdom.”[177]

_Irenæus_:--“His Word and Wisdom, his Son and Spirit, are always present with him, to whom also he spake, saying, _Let us make man_, &c.”[178] Again:--“Man was fashioned after the image and likeness of the uncreated God, the Father willing his creation, the Son ministering and forming him, the Holy Ghost nourishing and increasing him.”[179]

_Tertullian_:--“Nay, because his Son is ever present with him, the second person, his Word; and the third, the Spirit in the Word; therefore he spake in the plural, _Let us make man in our image_.”[180]

_Novatian_:--“Who does not acknowledge the Son to be the second person after the Father, when he reads that it was said to the Son by the Father, _Let us make man_.”[181]

_Origen_:--“To him also spake he (the Father,) _Let us make man after our image_.”[182]

_Athanasius_:--“Who is this that God converses with here? To whom are these notifications and determinations of his pleasure directed? Not to any of the creatures already made; much less to those things which were not yet created; but, undoubtedly to some person, who was then present with the Father, to whom he communicated his councils, and of whose agency he made use in the creation of them. And who could this be but his eternal Word? With whom can we conceive the Father holding his conference, but with his Son, the divine LOGOS, that Wisdom of God, that was present with him, and acted with him, in the creation of the world, who was in the beginning with God, and was God? and who saith of himself, _When he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he appointed the foundations of the earth, then was I by him, as one brought up with him_.”

_St. Augustine_:--“Had God said no more than, Let _us make man_, it might, with some color, be understood as spoken to the angels, whom the Jews pretend he employed in framing the body of man, and other creatures; but seeing it immediately follows, _after our image_, it is highly profane to believe, that man was made after the similitude of angels; and that the similitude of God and angels is one and the same.”

_St. Ambrose_ speaks to the same purpose:--“God would not speak thus to his servants, because it is not to be thought, that servants were partners with their Lord, in his works of creation; or the works with their Author. And, supposing this should be admitted, that the work was common to God and angels, yet the image was not common.”

Nay, the second Council of Sirmium, which was held in 351, pronounced an anathema on all those who denied this. The words of the Council are these:--“If any say, that the Father did not speak to the Son, when he said, _Let us make man_, but that he spake to himself, let him be accursed.”[183]

_Epiphanius_:--“This is the language of God to his Word, and Only-begotten, as all the faithful believe.”[184] And again he says, “Adam was formed by the hand of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost.”[185]

I observe more at large from _Irenæus_, that he rejects the notion of the Jews and Heretics, who supposed God spake to his angels. For disputing against Heretics, who attributed the creation of the world to angels, and powers separate from the one true God, he says thus:--“Angels did not make us, nor did they form us; neither was it in their power to make the image of God: none but the Logos could do this; no powers distinct from the Father of all things: for God did not want their assistance in making the things which he had ordained. For his Word and his Wisdom, the Son and the Holy Ghost, are always with him; by whom and with whom, he made all things freely, and of his own accord; to whom also he spake in these words, _Let us make man in our image and likeness_.”[186]

The testimony of Dr. Kennicott will be respected by those who are lovers of the truth. “God, says he, being about to create man, is introduced saying--_Let_ US _make man in_ OUR _image, after our likeness_; in consequence of which the historian tells us--_so God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him_. It is evident then, that God created man in his own image; this is mentioned thrice by way of emphasis, and to prevent, if possible, all possibility of misconstruction. Now what God did, was certainly what he proposed to do; God created man in his own image, that is, in the image of the Godhead, and therefore God proposed to create him in the image of the Godhead. But if God proposed to create him in the image of the Godhead, the proposal must have been made to the Godhead; because the words are--_Let us make man in_ OUR _image_. And if the proposal be here made by God to the Godhead, it is absurd to suppose it made to the same Person that makes it; and consequently reasonable to think it made to the other two persons in the Unity of the Godhead.”[187]

The creature now to be made is man.[188] _And God said, Let us make man._ It is evident that God, by introducing the creation of man with this peculiar phraseology, intends to impress the mind with a sense of something extraordinary in his formation. The word אדם _Adam_, which is translated _man_, is intended to designate the _species_ of animal, which is vastly superior to all the rest. Though the same kind of organization may be found in Man, as appears in the lower animals, yet, as one observes, there is a variety and complication in the parts, a delicacy of structure, a nice arrangement, a judicious adaptation of the various members to their great offices and different functions, a dignity of mien, and perfection of the whole, which are sought for in vain in all other creatures.

Man is a compound creature, consisting of two distinct essential parts, body and soul. The union of these constitutes man, for neither of them when separated can be so denominated. The body was made before the soul, and formed out of the earth, or, as עפר _âpher_ implies, the _dust_. “The Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground.” He afterwards pronounced, _Dust thou art_. This led Solomon to affirm, “All are of the dust.” The Apostle adds, “The first man was of the earth, dusty,” as Ainsworth renders it. And we are said to “dwell in houses of clay,” and to have our “foundation in the dust.” Of the soul it is said, “God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life:” רוח חיים _ruach chayim_, the breath of LIVES; i.e. animal, intellectual, and spiritual. While this breath of God expanded the lungs, and set them to play, his inspiration gave both spirit, understanding, and felicity. Thus we see that the soul and the body are not the same thing; the one is of the earth, the other is from God. The Rabbins say, “The form of the soul is not compounded of the elements, &c, but is of the Lord from heaven. Therefore when the material body, which is compounded of the elements, is separated, and the breath perishes because it is not found, but with the body, and is needful for the body in all its actions; this form (i.e. the soul) is not destroyed, &c, but continues for ever. This is that which Solomon by his wisdom said, ‘Then shall the dust return unto the earth as it was; and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.’”

As the formation of man’s body was effected previously to the infusion of his soul, we shall attend to the same order, in attempting to elucidate this important and very interesting subject. The word ייצר _jitzer_, rendered _he formed_, observes Mr. Benson, is not used concerning any other creature, and implies a gradual process in the work, with great accuracy and exactness. It is properly used of potters forming vessels on the wheel; and Rabbi D. Kimchi says, that, when used concerning the creation of man, it signifies the formation of his members. Bishop Patrick intimates, that the body of man was made not of _dry_, but _moist_ dust; and that this agrees with the Hebrew JITZER, _formed_, which is used concerning potters, who make their vessels of _clay_, not of _dry_ earth. Diodorus Siculus says, “Man was made out of the _slime_, or _mud_, of the Nile.” The word of the Lord once came to Jeremiah, saying, “Arise, and go down to the potter’s house, and there I will cause thee to hear my words. Then I went down to the potter’s house, and, behold, he wrought a work on the wheel. And the word of the Lord came to me, saying, Behold, as the clay is in the potter’s hand, so are ye in mine hand!” A scene like this is presented to our imagination by the words of Moses; the Lord God _formed_, moulded, or modelled man, as a potter does; we see the work, observes Bishop Horne, as it were upon the wheel, rising and growing under the hands of the Divine Artificer!

But, to give the thing a stronger impression on the mind, we will suppose, says Judge Hale, that this figure rises by degrees, and is finished part by part, in some succession of time; and that, when the whole is completed, the veins and arteries bored, the sinews and tendons laid, the joints fitted, and liquor (transmutable in blood and juices) lodged in the ventricles of the heart, God infuses into it a vital principle, whereupon the liquor in the heart begins to descend, and thrill along the veins, and a heavenly blush arises in the countenance, such as scorns the help of art, and is above the power of imitation. The image moves, it walks, it speaks; it moves with such a majesty, as proclaims it the lord of the creation, and talks with such an accent and sublimity, as makes every ear attentive, and even its great Creator enter into converse with it: were we to see all this transacted before our eyes, I say, we could not but stand astonished at the thing; and yet this is the exact emblem of man’s formation.

The human body is an excellent piece of workmanship, the shape and contexture of it admirable, evidently superior to that of all other animals, and the brightest visible display of the wisdom of the Divine Architect. The erect posture, figure, stature, use of every part, and symmetry of the whole, cannot but excite admiration. The fabric of the eye, the texture of the brain, the configuration of the muscles, the disposition of the nerves, the construction of the bones; the veins and arteries, spread throughout the system, the former to return the blood to the heart, and keep that mysterious engine playing, which throws the vital fluid through the latter with prodigious force, to animate and invigorate every part; and many other important particulars, which we shall now proceed to mention and illustrate, are not only manifest proofs of the great excellence of this system, but also of the skill, contrivance, and consummate wisdom of God.

When we take a general view of the animal world, we find the numerous individuals which compose it, differing considerably in the phenomena which their economy exhibits. Man, and the higher orders of animals, are characterized by the constant performance of many complex and active functions; as respiration, digestion, circulation, &c. Torpid or hibernating animals display this singular peculiarity, that these functions are performed for several months, and suspended for several months, alternately. In another modification of animated matter, namely the egg, the evidences of vitality would not be exhibited, were not certain agents applied to evolve them, and, when thus called forth, they cannot be resumed after long suspension.

Although we are ignorant of the nature of the cause which regulates the uniform performance of this series of phenomena, thus more or less extensively displayed in the economy of different animals, we are nevertheless convinced that such a cause must exist, and are hence naturally led to distinguish the phenomena by some appropriate term. Thus observing that the human body, and the bodies of animals which bear it resemblance, possess locomotive powers, can regulate their actions, and are capable not only of resisting the laws which govern inanimate substances, but are enabled to act upon these substances in direct opposition to these laws, we employ the terms life, vitality, and vital power, to express the phenomena which thus distinguish animate from inanimate matter; and in order simply to determine the import of those terms, we may take a general view of those powers which a living animal body possesses, and which cease with its existence.

When we compare the living with the dead body, the most striking circumstance we observe is, that the former was surrounded by the same chemical agents which are capable of producing the decomposition and destruction of its soft parts after death; hence it becomes evident, that its component elements must have been sustained and preserved by some superior power, which ceases to act at the moment of its dissolution.

Of all the phenomena which enter into the general idea of life, this power of self-preservation, or the capability of resisting the laws which govern inanimate matter, appears the most essential. Without this principle we can form no conception of life, since it evidently exists without interruption till the moment of dissolution. It is this principle which, communicated to an egg, enables it to resist for a certain period the powers of heat, cold, and putrefaction; a principle of which the addle or barren egg is entirely devoid. Thus we find from Mr. J. Hunter’s experiments, that an impregnated egg is longer in freezing than an addle egg, and every one knows that the former remains sweet or free from putrefaction much longer. This principle, which we may consider the most simple state of existence, is limited in its duration; and for its maintenance, the performance of no active function is necessary. Hence it continues in the egg either quiescent for a certain time, and is gradually destroyed; or, by the agency or stimulus of heat, it acquires the accession of the power of action, which assimilates inanimate matter into a living form, and, at length, exhibits in the chick all the phenomena of a more perfect state of existence, which may be distinguished by the term active life. In this state, many other phenomena of vitality are exhibited. Besides the power of self-preservation, an internal principle of support and reparation, and the power of performing the important actions of circulation, respiration, digestion, &c, which are subservient to this principle, is given to animals. These form the features of what we call life, as it appears in man, and the higher orders of animals, and certainly constitute its most useful, though not most essential part. For how little superior is an egg, or a torpid animal, to vegetable or inanimate matter, till the former contain a living chick, the latter become an active animal? Thus, though life may subsist under the quiescent form of self-preservation, it requires the accession of certain principles, and a power of performing various important actions, to display its chief characters. The economy then of an egg, and of a perfect animal, such as man, may be considered as examples of the most simple and extensive phenomena of vitality. These, however, are more or less perfectly exhibited in the different orders of animals. It belongs, for instance, to the economy of certain animals, which at one time of the year perform active functions, to become torpid at the approach of winter. In these creatures, respiration, digestion, and every function which characterizes active life, is suspended; as in the egg, the principle of self-preservation, that latent spark of vitality, alone remains, by which we distinguish torpidity from death. This condition, however, is not of long continuance; at the approach of summer’s warmth, the power of action is again called forth, active functions are superadded to the principle of self-preservation, and life, before quiescent and obscure, now resumes its most perfect form; or, in other words, the animal just now inert and motionless, respires again; its heart beats, its blood circulates, its muscles resume their accustomed motions, and it leaves its winter quarters in search of food. Having now assumed the nature of an active animal, the performance of the functions characteristic of that state (which we shall now proceed to describe) becomes requisite; and, first, the circulation of a fluid which we call _blood_.[189]

This fluid differs in its appearance in the different orders of animals, though, in its essential properties there is little variety; the appearance of the blood in man, and the more perfect animals, is that of a red fluid, having a certain degree of viscidity, not being limpid like common water. Though it appears to be a homogenous fluid whilst circulating, or at the moment it escapes from its vessels, it is composed of three parts, essentially differing from each other; of _particles_, upon which the color of the blood depends; of _coagulating lymph_, which has the property of becoming spontaneously solid under certain circumstances, and from which various structures in the body are formed; and of a limpid fluid called _serum_, which dilutes the coagulating lymph, and fits it for circulating through blood vessels of a very minute size. In some of the lower orders of animals, however, the color of the particles of the blood is green, in others white, corresponding with the color of the animal; in others there is no color whatever in the blood, so that it is either void of particles, or they are transparent, so as not to be seen. But this deficiency must be considered as making no great difference in the blood itself, as its particles do not appear to be its most essential part. Many microscopical observations have been made to determine the size of a single particle of the blood, and according to the observations of several philosophers, the diameter of a single particle in man has been computed at the 3,000th part of an inch. The size of the particles in red blooded animals, is found not to correspond with the size of the animal. They are as large in the mouse as the elephant, larger in some insects than in man, smaller in the ox. They are in prodigious numbers, so as to give color to the blood, and of all its parts appear to be renewed the most slowly; thus when animals are frequently bled, the flesh becomes paler and paler.[190]

The next part of the blood, or coagulating lymph, is of the greatest importance. This constituent part becomes apparent, when blood is drawn from a vein into a cup, from its power of spontaneously coagulating into a solid mass, which appears red from a mixture of red particles: the color of the lymph however is transparent. This coagulation of the blood differs very essentially from the coagulation of inanimate substances, and is considered by many physiologists to be the last exertion of a living principle, which the blood is supposed to possess. This opinion, although not capable of absolute proof, is rendered extremely probable from a variety of facts, and by none more than the analogy between the coagulation of the blood, and the contraction of the muscles at death. These two actions appear to be influenced in some degree by the same causes. Thus, sudden death from lightning, or a blow upon the stomach, prevents the muscles from becoming rigid after death, and prevents also the coagulation of the blood. Under these circumstances it remains fluid. Besides violent death, several circumstances influence its tendency to coagulate and become solid, such as a great loss of blood--inflammation--pregnancy in females, and other causes.[191]

The third important part of the blood is the serum. This is limpid like water, and remains permanently fluid, unless certain substances are employed to coagulate it, such as alcohol, alum, or a certain degree of heat. It dilutes the other parts of the blood, so as to reduce the whole to a proper state of fluidity. It is secreted, or naturally separated from the blood, and poured out by exhalent vessels in various cavities and parts of the body, as the chest, abdomen, cellular membrane, &c. It facilitates the easy motion of the various organs upon each other, and, when accumulated in large quantities, forms the fluid of dropsies.

Besides these constituent parts, a quantity of water always circulates with the blood, varying according to the quantity of fluids taken in, and regulated in its proportion by the kidneys. Thus if a large quantity of water is taken into the stomach, particularly if it contain a little spirit in the form of punch, the kidneys are stimulated to an increased action, so as to separate from the blood the redundant quantity. A variety of other substances also are occasionally introduced into the blood, along with the aliment, alkaline substances producing their effect upon the nature of the urine, rhubarb on bile giving it a yellow color, and turpentine or asparagus altering its odor; all these substances, before passing off by urine, must have been mixed with the blood, from whence the urine is formed, being in fact its excrementitious part.[192]

It is necessary for the blood thus formed, to pass to every part of the body, that it may be converted into the nature of these parts, and thus become subservient to their growth; that fluids, serving important purposes in animal bodies, may be separated or secreted from it; and that the temperature of the body may be equably maintained. The blood, however, has no power of motion in itself; if it be not propelled by certain parts of the body, it remains quiescent like any extraneous fluid.

In two very numerous classes of animals, insects and zoophites, the motion of the blood is very simple; they are nourished like vegetables, by the absorption of the fluid, which is prepared in their alimentary canal, and have no circulation properly so called.

But in man, and the higher orders of animals, a complex apparatus for the motion of the blood becomes necessary, consisting of an heart, arteries, and veins. The _heart_ may be considered as the chief agent in circulation, the general reservoir, and source from whence the blood flows. It is composed of two principles, one a principle of reception, the other a principle of propulsion. That cavity of the heart, which is called its auricle, receives the blood from the veins; the cavity called its ventricle, propels it through the arteries.

Although the heart in all animals is formed on the same general principle, and for the same purpose, yet the economy of some animals admits of a greater simplicity in the conformation of this organ, than others. The most simple kind of heart is composed of one cavity, with a tube entering into it, by which it receives the blood, and another passing out of it, by which the blood is conveyed over the body. The next simple heart is composed of two cavities, an auricle, which receives the blood, and propels it into a ventricle, which diffuses it over the body. Another kind of heart is composed of three cavities; two auricles, and one ventricle; one auricle receiving the blood from the lungs, the other from the body generally; the blood from these two sources is mixed together in a single ventricle. This structure we find in some amphibious animals, in which it is not necessary that the blood should circulate with so much influence from the oxygenous part of the atmosphere, as in other animals. Accordingly we find the heart adapted to transmit only one half of the blood through the lungs at each circulation, whilst in more perfect animals the whole mass passes by this route. The last kind of heart is formed of four cavities, two auricles and two ventricles, and is the most perfect apparatus as it is found in man, and quadrupeds generally.--It must, however, be considered as composed of two distinct parts, or two simple hearts adhering together, and performing distinct parts of the circulation; and one part intended to receive the blood from the body, and circulate it through the lungs; the other part to receive the blood from the lungs, and propel it over the rest of the body. It is better suited to the economy of some animals, as the cuttle fish, that these parts should be separated to a considerable distance from each other. The reason why the heart is formed of two parts in most animals is, that it is necessary that the blood should receive the impulse of the heart twice, first to propel it through the lungs, next to propel it over the rest of the body.

The blood is conveyed from the heart to every part of the body, by means of elastic tubes, called _arteries_. These arise from the ventricles of the heart by two large trunks, which branch out in every part of the body, into arteries of great minuteness, conveying the blood from the heart to its most distant parts, so that it is impossible to wound any part of the body with the finest point, without opening one of these vessels. This gives a good idea of their minuteness.

From the minute termination of the arteries, begins a second set of vessels, the _veins_, which, having a contrary course, return the blood from every part of the body into the auricles of the heart.

The larger arteries and veins, near the heart, differ very much from each other in their structure and action. This difference, however, does not descend to their minute ramifications, which must be considered as having the same structure, and performing the same office, the one passing into the other by such imperceptible degrees, that we cannot mark where the one terminates or the other begins.

If we consider these tubes as subservient to the circulation of the blood, we shall see the necessity of certain principles entering into their structure. As the blood is forcibly thrown from the heart, these vessels must be distended; one of their properties therefore, must be a capability of being distended, which is given to them by elastic matter entering into their composition. As the vessels, however, are not to remain in a distended state, a power of reaction is added, which arises also out of their elasticity, and assists in propelling the blood forwards.

Thus the elastic matter allows the vessels to be distended to a certain degree, and also reduces them to a smaller size. But it is necessary that the heart shall be assisted considerably, in the circulation of the blood, by a contractile power of the vessels themselves; and the same quantity of blood is not to circulate in the same body at all times, for animals are liable to frequent injuries, by which the quantities of blood in their bodies may be very suddenly reduced. Hence the vessels have given to them a further power of contraction to assist the heart, and accommodate themselves, under certain circumstances, to a smaller quantity of blood. For this purpose, a muscular structure is added to them, which is present in largest proportion in the smaller arteries; by this means, they are enabled so far to withstand the power of the heart, as to shut their cavities, and prevent the escape of blood when divided, forming one of the means by which the effusion of blood is spontaneously checked in living animals. And it may be remarked, that this power, for the purpose of self-preservation, is extended to larger arteries in the brute creation; for Mr. Hunter found, that the flow of blood from the large artery in the neck of an ass was checked by an exertion of this power, whilst every one knows that its division in man is fatal.

Besides these parts, arteries have an internal lining, which is perfectly smooth, and of considerable density, that the blood may circulate with as little resistance, and be contained as completely as possible within its proper channels.

The same observations will apply to the veins, though some of their properties are less strongly marked. They possess an elastic power capable of distension and reaction, a muscular structure endowed with contractility, and an internal lining over which the blood circulates with as little resistance as possible. By these powers the blood is circulated through every part of the body with great velocity. According to the best calculations, the heart alone exerts a power equal to the pressure of 51½ pounds, which propels the blood through the arteries at the velocity of 149 feet in a minute; in which time it expels from its cavities about 160 ounces.

Thus all animals are provided with an organ for propelling the blood, by certain channels, to the different parts of the body; but, as the functions of these parts are various, they require to be visited by very different proportions of blood, according to their activity or powers of life. Some parts of the body may be said to be inert, and merely possessed of a principle of life, to connect them with the other organs of the body, as parts of a living system, and to enable them to go through certain processes in their healthy and diseased states. Other parts are formed for active functions, and possess great sensibility. It is accordingly observed, that a smaller quantity of blood is distributed to bones, tendons, and similar inert parts, than to muscles and glands, whose exertions are more considerable.

This then is the general apparatus in perfect animals, by which the blood performs its circulation through the various parts of the body, but during its course it is subject to constant exhaustion from various sources. It is converted in its passage into the nature of all the component parts of the body, and has the different secreted fluids derived from it, and these processes go on with more activity in a young, than an adult person: hence we see the necessity of a constant supply of materials to the blood, and this in the greatest proportion at an early period of life.

Animals are furnished with the means of this supply, by their power of converting animal and vegetable substances into the nature of blood, by a process called _digestion_. Some animals are led by their nature to live on vegetable food, others on animal food only, whilst others can subsist on either, or any mixture of both.[193] The digestive powers of man fit him for any proportion of animal or vegetable foods, and are the most perfect of all animals. Other creatures may be said to be confined to a certain district, but the curiosity of man is to lead him over the whole world, and frequently place him in situations where only one kind of food is attainable.

The first change which takes place in the food, in order that it shall be converted into the nature of the blood, is its division into smaller parts, by the teeth or gizzards of animals. It is then passed into the stomach, where it remains for some time exposed to the action of a fluid, formed in the stomach, which is called gastric juice. This possesses a very strong power of coagulating and dissolving various animal and vegetable substances. As far as we know, it acts on the principle of any other solvent, for it produces the same change in substances out of the body, or even within the body after death. It frequently happens, for instance, when a person has been killed, by accident, in full health, that, on inspection, the stomach is found dissolved, and reduced to a gelatinous mass in several parts, arising from the action of the gastric juice, which had been formed in it before death. The gastric juice, however, cannot act upon living substances: hence the stomach resists its action, and worms sometimes reside and are even generated in the stomach. Every substance capable of being acted upon in the stomach, is reduced, by the solvent power of the gastric juice, into a pulpy mass, which has been called chyme, the exact chemical properties of which have not been ascertained; in this state it is by degrees transferred into the beginning of the small intestines, where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic fluid, and undergoes a change into a milky fluid, which is called chyle. It is then diffused by an undulating motion of the intestines over their inner surface, that it may be absorbed, and carried into the general mass of blood.

As far as has yet been ascertained by experiment, the chyle of animals, most opposite to each other in their food, structure, and habits of life, is so much alike as to have no distinguishable difference. The chyle of a Dog, or Wolf, differs in nothing from that of a Sheep or an Ox. This would appear surprising, were it not ascertained that almost every alimentary matter undergoes a chemical change before it is converted into chyle, and that the ultimate analysis of either animal or vegetable matter presents us with the same elements as those of the blood, which, though only three or four in number, are capable of forming the various substances of which the body is composed, by combining with each other, and in different proportions. There is, however, this difference observable in the chyle, that in reptiles and insects it is transparent like lymph.

The lacteals are the vessels by which the chyle is absorbed from the intestines: they form small processes on the internal surface of the intestines like the pile of velvet, which are hence called villi. A small portion of chyle being received into their open mouths, is propelled by successive contractions of these vessels into their large trunk, the _thoracic duct_, from whence it is poured into a great vein near the heart, and, by circulating through the lungs, probably receives its final change into blood; and this change would seem to be easily effected, as the chyle already possesses the principal properties of blood, being formed of particles swimming in a thinner fluid, and having a power of coagulating spontaneously.[194]

This is the apparatus by which the food is digested in man so as to replenish the blood; but the digestive organs of different animals exhibit considerable varieties, some being more simple, others more complex in their structure, adapted to the kind of food with which the animal is nourished. Ruminating animals, or animals which chew the cud, such as the Cow, have several stomachs, and the food undergoes mastication several times, at each time being passed into a different stomach, before being finally acted upon by the gastric juice, after which it is transmitted through a long tract of intestines. This is an example of the most complex digestive organ fitted to act upon hard and fibrous food, which must be subjected to the action of several menstrua preparatory to its being acted upon by the gastric juice.

In birds who live on grain as has been noticed, we meet with a different apparatus to prepare it to be acted upon by the gastric juice. The food first passes into the crop, which forms a kind of reservoir from whence it may pass by degrees into the gizzard, by which the grain is ground into small particles, before it is transmitted into the stomach: and it is surprising with how great power the gizzard acts for this purpose. The Abbé Spallanzani introduced a garnet, which is a very hard and angular stone, into the gizzard of a Wood-Pigeon, and, in the course of a day, it was ground perfectly smooth, by the action of the gizzard. He also introduced a leaden ball stuck full of tin points, and another with fine lancets, into the gizzard of a Turkey, and in about 18 hours, the whole of the points were rubbed down. The gizzard also possesses an amazing power of compression. Raumeur introduced into the gizzard of a Turkey tubes of tinned iron, seven lines in length, and two in diameter, closed with solder at each end; some were indented by the action of the gizzard, and others crushed flat. Similar tubes, introduced into the teeth of a vice, required the weight of about 440 lb. to produce the same effect. The gizzard thus reduces into small particles whatever food the animal selects, that it may be more readily acted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach; for the gastric juice acts like any other solvent, and therefore acts most advantageously when the food is reduced into small parts.--The digestive organs of some of the lower orders of animals form a striking contrast to these. In the most simple apparatus with which we are acquainted, the stomach and the intestines are composed of a simple bag which has but one opening, which serves both to receive the food, and discharge the excrement. It composes in fact the whole bulk of a fresh-water Polypus. In these animals the chyle is absorbed by small vessels in the sides of the bag, and is conveyed to every part of the body.

Thus we find that the supply of materials to the blood is commensurate to its exhaustion, that in young animals where a more active process of formation is going on, a larger proportion of food is requisite, and more chyle formed; this, however, is not all that is necessary to prepare the blood for its important purposes within the body. The blood, by passing through the various parts of the body, is so changed by the abstraction of certain properties, as to render it unfit for circulation, which implies the necessity of an organ, which may restore to the blood its requisite qualities. This office is performed by _respiration_, that function in animals by which the blood receives the influence of atmospherical air.

There is a great variety in the structure of the organ for exposing the blood to the air, suited to the mode of life in different animals. In man and quadrupeds generally the lungs serve this purpose; they are composed of a number of blood vessels spread out upon minute air cells, which communicate with and receive the air by means of the trachea or windpipe, in consequence of the expansion of the chest by certain muscular powers. These vessels and cells are connected together by cellular membrane, so as to form a spongy mass called lungs, which are commonly placed in the chests of animals.--But besides this kind of organ, which in birds is very large, they have air bags, or appendages to the lungs, diffused through various parts of the body; even some of their long bones contain nothing but air, and communicate with the lungs. It was from a knowledge of this fact that Mr. J. Hunter made a Turkey breathe by its wings, by making an opening into their large bones, and closing the animal’s mouth.

In Fish, the gills serve the purpose of lungs. They are composed of a number of processes arising from cartilages, having distributed upon them minute blood-vessels, which receive the influence of air contained in water: and hence distilled water, which contains little air, destroys fish, in the same manner as the exhausted receiver of an air pump does a breathing animal.

There is another mode of conveying air for the use of the blood in many insects, by means of a number of tubes or spiracula: these receive the external air, and, by ramifying in the body of the animal, convey its influence to the blood. Thus these animals may be said to respire like vegetables, throughout the whole of their surface, by vessels which introduce the air at different points into their bodies. In some insects the rectum forms the principal organ of respiration, and, in the class of animals called Zoophites, there are no visible organs of respiration.

These different modifications, in the respiratory organs of the higher and lower orders of animals, are all formed with the same intention, viz. that the blood may be exposed more or less to atmospherical air. In consequence of this the blood undergoes a process similar to combustion, which extracts from it a part of its carbon, in the form of carbonic acid, and by this means increases the relative proportion of its remaining elements. The inspired air at the same time is deprived of a part of its oxygen, which is the elastic fluid which commonly supports respiration. All the corresponding effects produced upon the blood are not yet fully explained. But by this means the color of the blood is changed from a dark to a florid red, it acquires the power of exciting the action of the heart, and is fitted for its various purposes within the body.[195] By these organs, respiration is performed more or less extensively in the different orders of animals, corresponding in a great degree, to their activity, digestive powers, and the heat maintained in their bodies. Birds, whose extensive respiratory organs consume a larger quantity of air, are capable of greater exertion; make more frequent meals than quadrupeds, and maintain a superior temperature. Quadrupeds hold a middle place between birds and reptiles. Respiration appears in the class of reptiles, as Frogs and Toads, to be a subordinate function only; they can exist without it nearly as long as they please; at the same time they make very long fasts, and the heat of their bodies is more variable and lower than quadrupeds; hence they are called cold blooded animals. Their other habits accord well with their organs of respiration. They generally live in impure air, their motions are languid, and they pass a great part of their existence in a state of torpidity.

A subordinate use of respiration in most animals, is the formation of the voice: for this purpose there are membranes stretched across the narrow part of the windpipe, which are thrown into a state of vibration by the current of air: the vibrations thus produced, being modified by other accessory parts, produce the voice. In many animals, however, it is produced by a very different mechanism. Some animals employ the friction of certain elastic parts of the body, as Grasshoppers and Crickets; others employ the vibration of certain parts in the air, whilst others impress a rapid motion on portions of air inclosed in certain parts of their bodies.

There is a particular part of the heart in man, intended merely to propel the blood, which passes through the lungs to receive the influence of the air; this is the right ventricle; from whence the blood passes, by the pulmonary artery, through the minute vessels expanded on the air cells, and is changed from a dark to a florid color: it is then returned back to the left ventricle, by the pulmonary veins, and is propelled over the rest of the body, where it is again changed (by the abstraction of certain properties) to the dark color peculiar to venous blood: the blood is lastly conveyed by the veins to the right side of the heart from whence it set out, having passed through two circles.

The blood thus prepared by the lungs for circulation, passes in different quantities to different parts of the body, according to their activity, and has various fluids formed from it, which are called secreted fluids, as gastric juice, milk, bile, &c. The parts of the body forming many of these fluids, are very peculiar in their structure, and are called _glands_. They consist in an arrangement of vessels, endowed with a mode of action, with which we are unacquainted, by which the component parts of the blood are disposed to enter into new combinations, and to form compounds differing from the blood itself. Thus the vessels are arranged on the inside of the stomach, in such a way, as by their action to form gastric juice from the blood; on the same principle, milk is produced from the blood which circulates in the breast, or bile in the liver. As gastric juice, milk, and bile, differ very much from each other in their properties, we must infer, that there is a considerable variety in the action, by which these vessels form these fluids from the blood; and this is necessarily connected with a variety in arrangement, which is the case in all the glands of the body. In one gland, for example, the blood-vessels form a minute net-work; in another, are convoluted at their extremities; in a third, a large branch suddenly divides into a number of small branches, like the hairs of a painter’s brush; in a fourth, they are disposed in an arborescent form, each gland differing from every other in the mode of distribution of its blood-vessels, and forming different products from the blood.

The substances formed by many of the glands of the body, are applied to useful purposes, within or without the body. An instance of the former we have in the bile formed by the liver, or the gastric juice formed by the stomach; and of the latter, in the milk.--Other secreted fluids are rejected as excrementitious: the best example of this is the urine formed by the kidneys. This gland separates from the blood a great variety of substances, which might otherwise prove noxious by circulating along with it; many of these have occasionally very curious chemical properties, and under a certain state of the body, the altered secretion of this organ is very remarkable, in as far as it produces a large quantity of a familiar substance, which in this instance is composed within the body. In the disease called diabetes, for example, a patient sometimes makes four or five gallons of urine in the 24 hours, in which is dissolved a considerable quantity of matter, like common sugar or treacle, probably to the amount of two or three pounds.

Besides these fluids formed from the blood, each by an appropriate glandular apparatus, there are watery fluids constantly secreted in various parts of the body; and, that these may not accumulate, or remain after they have performed their office, it is necessary for the body to be furnished with vessels, whose powers of removal may keep pace with the deposition of these fluids. This introduces the system of vessels called _absorbents_, which are distinct in their office and nature from the blood-vessels, and are widely diffused over the whole body. In every part of the body a limpid fluid is thrown out for the purpose of easy motion, moistening the cellular membrane, which connects the various parts of the body to each other, and lubricating the contents of all the cavities of the body; this fluid is thrown out in the form of vapor by the exhalents, which belong to the arterial system, whilst the lymphatic absorbent vessels, by their action, remove what is not convenient for the function of the part; and these two actions, of deposition, by the exhalents, and absorption, by the lymphatics, go on during health, so nicely balanced, that when we open into any of the great cavities of the body, as the belly or chest, the quantity of fluid we find is extremely small. When, however, the balance between these two orders of vessels is destroyed, when the exhalents throw out more fluid than usual, and the lymphatics only absorb their natural quantity; or the exhalents deposit their natural quantity, whilst the lymphatics absorb less than natural, accumulation of water in the cellular membrane, or great cavities of the body, takes place, and produces dropsies.

There is another set of vessels, which have been already mentioned, a part of the same system of absorbents, which from their office of absorbing a white fluid, the chyle, have been denominated lacteals; these arise from the inner surface of the intestines, in great numbers, and convey the chyle into the general mass of blood.--Whilst the minute beginnings of the lacteal vessels, from the internal surface of the intestines, is a matter of ocular demonstration, we have only presumptive proof of the origin of the lymphatics, which make the greatest part of the absorbent system. We have, however, good grounds for concluding, that they arise from every external and internal surface of the body. We find, for example, that certain remedies, as mercurial ointment, or turpentine, rubbed on the skin of any part of the body, produce effects on distant parts; the mercury by removing affections of various parts of the body, the turpentine increasing the flow of urine, and giving it a peculiar odor: these effects are explained by presuming the absorption of these substances, by the lymphatics, arising from the surface of the skin. We have further proof of this from the occasional absorption of watery fluids, under peculiar circumstances. Sailors at sea, in want of fresh water, have quenched their thirst by dipping their clothes in salt water, and applying them to the surface of the body, from which only the elementary part was absorbed by these vessels. A jockey, after reducing himself to a great degree has become in a short time too heavy to ride his match, merely by drinking a glass of wine, which had stimulated the absorbents of the skin to take up a large quantity of aqueous matter from the air. Or a person gibbeted alive, has been observed to make a considerable quantity of urine as long as he lived, without any liquid being taken by the mouth. These are all considered as evidences that the lymphatic absorbent vessels arise from every external surface of the skin, and are capable of taking up substances applied to them.

We find next that water accumulated in the large cavities of the chest or abdomen, or underneath the skin in the cellular membrane, of every part of the body, is occasionally removed from these situations, by remedies which have the power of increasing the action of the absorbent vessels. We hence conclude, that these vessels arise from every internal part, and are, in short, widely diffused over the whole body, though their beginnings are too minute to be detected by any mode of examination with which we are acquainted.

The absorbent vessels, from whatever part they arise, terminate in the blood-vessels, principally by one vessel or trunk, which is called the _thoracic duct_. This commences in the cavity of the abdomen, passes through the chest on the right side of the spine, and, at length, enters a large vein situated on the left side of the neck. Through this vessel, besides the fluids taken up in various parts of the body, the whole of the nourishment from digested aliment passes into the blood; it may therefore be said to be the most important vessel in the body,[196] and it is situated in one of the safest positions in the body, so that an injury done to it is a very rare occurrence.

Thus the absorbent system is formed of two sets of vessels, having the same structure, the same absorbing office, and the same termination, but differing in the fluids they convey, and the parts of the body they occupy. The one widely diffused over the whole body, and from their office of usually absorbing limpid fluids, called lymphatics; the other arising only from the intestines, and denominated lacteals, from the milky whiteness of the chyle they absorb.

Thus far the absorbent vessels have been described, as employed in taking up fluids only. The action of the absorbent system, however, is not considered as confined to the fluid parts of the body; there are a variety of instances, in which the most solid parts appear to be removed by the absorbents. Thus when a tooth is extracted, or drops out in old age, its bony socket is removed by the action of the absorbents. The pressure of a pulsating tumor, called aneurism, against the ribs, or thigh bone, has produced their removal in the same way. These are considered as instances of solid matter being removed by the absorbent vessels, from internal parts of the body, without any external opening. It is, however, a matter of doubt, which we cannot at present discuss, whether a bone is broken down by the absorbents themselves, so as to be removed in small particles; or whether, as is more probable, its presence or irritation (as an extraneous body) produces the secretion of a fluid, similar in its properties to the gastric juice, by which it is first reduced into minute particles, or entirely dissolved, so as thus to enter the absorbent vessels.

Another important part of the office of these vessels, is to model the shape of the body, and to concur with the action of the blood-vessels in regulating its growth. For the human body does not, like a marble statue, constantly contain the same identical particles in its composition. As the stream of a river is formed of a constant succession of aqueous particles, sometimes increasing, sometimes diminishing its natural bulk; so the human body is constantly undergoing an imperceptible change of parts. The absorbents, by their action, remove exhausted particles, whilst the arteries form from the blood an adequate supply of new parts. When these two powers are equal, the body continues of the same bulk; when from disease or contingent circumstances, the one or the other predominates, the body increases in growth, becomes corpulent, or emaciated.

Thus we have seen a variety of organs necessary to carry on the functions of perfect animals: these, however, are inert, and incapable of motion in themselves. Hence a _nervous system_ becomes requisite, which may excite and influence the whole. We find in man, and quadrupeds generally, the nervous system placed principally in the brain and spinal marrow; from these sources, the nerves are distributed like white cords, and pass in various proportions to the different parts of the body, conveying the excitements of the brain.

One of the most important excitements conveyed from the brain, through the medium of the nerves, is volition; by this means the muscles become obedient to the will, and perform the voluntary actions of animals. If, for instance, I wish to take up a pen, I exert my volition towards the action, and the consequence of this is, that the muscles employed in the action, are stimulated to contract, from a peculiar excitement being conveyed to them from the brain, through the medium of the nerves. We are totally ignorant, however, of the state of the brain, whilst giving out the excitement, or the change which takes place in the nerves whilst conveying it. We know, however, that the brain may be rendered incapable of giving rise to the excitement, and it may be arrested in its progress down the nerves by artificial means. If a ligature be applied upon a nerve by tying a piece of thread round it, the nerve is rendered incapable of transmitting the excitement, so as to produce motion in muscles. The same state is frequently produced in the brain and nerves, by the disease called palsy, or by fractures of the skull. There are also various excitements passing from the brain to the vital organs of the body, whose actions are not regulated by the will, and are therefore called involuntary, or automatic actions, as circulation, parturition, &c. Thus if a person have ever so strong a desire, he cannot make his heart beat more frequently; nor can he prevent it from beating more frequently, if any one should put him in bodily fear; although the heart is formed of muscular flesh, similar to the muscles, which he can command in his arm. The reason of this is, that the nerves of the heart cannot convey the influence of volition; for the wisest reasons the heart acts without it.

It is also necessary for various influences to be communicated from external objects to the brain, to keep up a correspondence between animals, and the material world around them, and to communicate those impressions from which the brain is afterwards to carry on its functions. As the parts formed for this purpose differ from ordinary parts of the body, in having a larger share of nervous influence given to them, they have been called the _organs of sense_, which in an anatomical point of view, may be said to be five in number, the eye, the ear, the tongue, the nose, and the skin.

In the _eye_, we discover a most accurate optical instrument, adapted to converge the rays of light at its posterior part. It is composed of a spherical box, containing transparent media of different densities, by which the rays of light are conveyed to a point, so as to impress a minute image of the visible appearance of external objects upon the retina or expansion of the optic nerve, by which the impression is conveyed to the brain, so as to bring us acquainted with external objects.

The _ear_ is formed to receive impressions from bodies in a state of vibration, which are conveyed to the brain by an apparatus composed of various substances, and eminently calculated to transmit the slightest tremors. The vibrations of the air, for instance, first strike the drum of the ear; are thence communicated to a delicate chain composed of four minute bones. By these the vibration is increased, and transmitted to a fluid, contained in several small winding canals, in which the delicate filaments of the nerves of hearing are arranged, so as to transmit the impressions they receive from the surrounding fluids, and produce in the brain the perception of sound; these two senses, by the infinitely varied modification of their impressions, convey a prodigious supply of materials for the action of the mind.

The organ of _touch_ is next in point of importance; it has its seat in the extremities of the nerves distributed over the skin, and is the only sense which belongs to every class of animals. This organ gives rise to sensations, which have no natural alliance with each other. By this sense we compare different degrees of temperature with each other; from this we derive our idea of distance between bodies; of their tangible figure, of their roughness, smoothness, hardness, and other qualities, from the relative position with respect to ourselves, or the degree or kind of resistance they offer. And, when man has been deprived of his communication with many external objects, by the loss of vision, we find the organ of touch gradually encroaching upon the function of the eye, and from attention to its finer impressions, becoming, through the education of necessity, a much more extensive source of information. As an instance of this, I may adduce Mr. Gough, who can accurately distinguish the color and character of flowers, by the nice sense of touch possessed by the tip of the tongue.

The other senses may be said to be of less importance. The _nose_ affords a passage for the air to the lungs, and is impressed by the odorous particles of bodies diffused through it, and, whilst it thus occasionally administers to our gratification, it gives us notice of the presence of those aeriform fluids which are noxious to respiration. Like the organ of _taste_, which is impressed by sapid bodies, it has a peculiar sympathy with the stomach; thus the taste, or smell, of any disagreeable substance, very commonly excites sickness and vomiting.

Thus each of the organs of sense are formed in a peculiar manner, and are supplied with nerves of a peculiar structure, which are capable of being excited by certain impressions only, so as to give rise to sensation. The odorous particles of bodies, for instance, if applied to the nerves of the nose, excite an impression, which, when conveyed to the brain, gives rise to the perception of smell; but, every one knows that they produce no such effect when applied to the nerves of the skin. In the same way, the rays of light applied to the nerves of the eye produce vision; but, no such effect takes place when they impinge upon the tongue.--Each of the organs of sense then possess a peculiar modification of nerves, which are excited by appropriate impressions.

By these organs we become acquainted with what passes around us; but the nervous system gives us notice of many changes which take place within our bodies. Internal pains point out to us the presence and situation of diseases; and the disagreeable sensations of hunger, thirst, and fatigue, incline us to give refreshment and repose to the body. It is also by means of the nervous system, that we experience the passions and emotions of the mind.

There are some animals so simple in their structure, that neither brain, nor organs of sense have been detected; yet they are endowed with motion, and are capable of selecting and swallowing their food, and expelling their excrement; and as these acts appear to be voluntary, we must conclude, that they possess nervous matter, though it be so interwoven with the rest of their structure that we cannot exhibit or detect it.

All these different structures which have been described as entering into the formation of a perfect animal, are soft and flexible in themselves, and, in order to the right performance of their functions, require the support of a substance of considerable firmness, which may preserve them in their relative situations, and give a general shape to the body. For this purpose, _bones_ are formed in the higher orders of animals. They consist of a certain portion of animal matter, on which their powers of life depend, mixed with a portion of earthy matter, which gives them a degree of solidity. The firmest substance in the body, composed entirely of animal matter, is cartilage, which possesses, however, too little solidity for the support of animals of considerable size, living in so rare a medium as air. Hence it happens that when the earthy part is, by disease, abstracted from the bones, they become bent and deformed by the weight of the body, or the action of its moving powers. In fishes, however, who inhabit a denser medium, cartilage becomes a convenient structure, being sufficiently firm for their support, and, from its lightness, better suited to their condition.

Had the osseous system been merely intended to give shape to animals, and preserve the relative position of their parts, it might, for any useful purpose, have been as well formed of one piece; and accordingly, when almost all the bones of the body have been anchylosed, or immoveably united to each other by disease, the functions of life have gone on uniformly to an advanced age. There is a remarkable skeleton of this kind preserved at Trinity College, Dublin; where all the large bones of the body are immoveably united together, except the lower jaw, and the joints of the fingers; every joint in the body was immoveable, and yet this person lived to an old age. In order, however, that animals may enjoy a power of changing their situation, the osseous system has been composed of a variety of pieces, and an apparatus added by which this may be easily effected. This is accomplished by adapting the ends of bones to each other so as to form joints, which vary in different parts of the body according to the motion of the part, some being formed for strength, others for extent and variety of motion; the two being incompatible, and never found in the same joint.

In the formation of a joint, however, it appears that two surfaces of bone would move with considerable attrition upon each other, not being capable of a sufficient degree of smoothness; it is therefore necessary, in order to diminish attrition, that a substance be interposed having a high degree of polish; this is supplied by cartilage, with which the ends of all bones, performing motion, are covered; and as animals, both from the common occurrences of life, and from accident, are liable to considerable shocks, in order to guard the system, as much as possible, against injury from these sources, cartilages are endowed with a considerable degree of elasticity, and thus by their reaction are capable of evading certain degrees of violence.

The smoothness of cartilage, however, only prevents attrition to a certain degree; that joints therefore may move with all possible ease and freedom, a fluid is interposed called _sinovia_. This is separated from the blood, by the vessels distributed to the inner surface of the joint, and is the most slippery of all fluids.

In order that bones may not be separated from each other, but preserve their relative situations, with a certain capacity of motion, it is requisite that they should be joined together; this is done by the ligaments surrounding a joint, which are of two kinds. The one adapted to the firm junction of the bones with each other, upon which the strength of the joint depends; the other loosely attached round the ends of contiguous bones, to secrete sinovia, and retain it in its proper situation; and hence called capsular or purse-like ligament.

This kind of structure, endowed with a power of secreting sinovia, is not confined to the joints alone; for in many parts of the body, where muscles during their action rub on bones, or tendon on tendon, small bags are formed for supplying sinovia, which are called bursæ mucosæ.

As all these parts subservient to motion are inert in themselves, that animals may enjoy the means of changing their situations and attitudes, a power must be applied to the bones for this purpose, which is supplied by muscular action. Thus we find the bones clothed with _muscles_, which give, in a great measure, the external shape to the body, and act in considerable numbers on the joints, particularly those which possess much motion.

All animals have a muscular structure entering into their composition, with some variety in its appearance. Muscles are generally fibrous to the eye, and in Man and Quadrupeds are of a red color; in some animals, however, these circumstances are not at all obvious. Thus in many fishes, the muscles are white, and put on a flaky appearance; whilst in the fresh water Polypus, which possesses a great degree of contractile power, no fibres can be seen. So that it is not necessary that these properties should be obvious in the muscles of all animals. Thus no person has ever seen the fibres in the muscles of a Flea, yet no animal can exert greater muscular power. In the same way, many parts of the body possess a contractile power, which have no apparent fibrous structure; the best example of this, is the skin of the scrotum. The redness of a muscle, in fact, depends in a great measure on the degree of exertion it undergoes; thus when a limb becomes motionless from palsy, the muscles uniformly become pale.--The function of a muscle consists in its contracting or shortening itself, in consequence of the application of certain stimuli or excitements; the effect of this contraction is, that the different bones to which the muscles are attached are moved in various directions. Thus (to give an example) a muscle affixed to two contiguous bones, by shortening itself, brings those points to which it is affixed nearer to each other; and, from this mechanism, arise all the motions of the body. The greatest part of the muscles which put the limbs in motion by their contractions, are said to act under the excitement of volition, or, in other words, are under the control and influence of the will, and are therefore called voluntary muscles. There are many muscles, however, which are not excited by volition, and are therefore called involuntary. As these are directed by influences, and perform the actions on which life immediately depends, they, for obvious reasons, are not only put beyond the powers of the will, but are enabled to carry on their contractions and motions without interruption or fatigue, entirely independent of its direction or our consciousness. In this manner the heart performs the circulation of the blood, and the stomach and intestines give the requisite motion to the food.--There are many other excitements which produce contraction in muscles, such as the passions and emotions of the mind, and various mechanical and chemical stimuli. Some of them occasionally excite the voluntary muscles of the body to a degree of action, over which volition has no control. Thus a person in an ordinary state of mind, can walk more or less quietly as suits his convenience; but it occasionally happens, we shall say in the field of battle, that the passion of fear is excited; this excitement frequently disregards the power of the will, and strongly excites the muscles employed in running away.[197]

In most animals, there is connected with the muscles another kind of structure called _tendon_, which consists in a white substance very different from muscles, but having a fibrous structure. Although tendons are not necessary to the action of muscles, yet there are several advantages derived from them; they occupy much less room than muscles, and can be placed in greater numbers around the joints, so as to preserve the beauty and uniformity of the limbs. They may be considered as living cords, joining the muscle to the bone on which it is to act, and, being more scantily supplied with blood than muscles, make a smaller quantity of blood necessary to the system, which is certainly a convenience. Although the different parts of the body vary very much in their functions and degree of motion; yet, it is convenient, that they should be all united together by a substance of considerable elasticity. This is done by the interposition of _cellular membrane_, which is the general connecting medium throughout the body, attaching each organ to its neighbor, but allowing sufficient play for the performance of its function.

It is in the cellular membrane of different parts of the body that fat is deposited; and from the seeming caprice of nature, in overloading some animals, and entirely denying it to others, its use has been thought inconsiderable in the system. When, however, we remark, that fat is taken up in some diseases where the appetite is impaired; and that torpid animals, before hibernation, have a large quantity of it accumulated, and come out of that state quite emaciated: and that bees, who have no fat in their bodies, lay up a stock of food, having the same chemical properties, against their hibernating season; it appears very probable, that one use of fat is to form a reservoir of nutriment, which supplies the wants of an animal when food is not introduced by the stomach.

If we add the _skin_ to the cellular membrane, we may say, without these the beauty and symmetry of the exterior would have been much diminished. We should have seen the raw muscles in all their actions, and the naked nerves exposed to the air and to injury. There would have existed deep fissures between the muscles, cavities in almost every part, and the body would have presented the sad appearance it now does in consumption.[198] But the cellular substance in some places only separates one part from another, or affords a slippery surface for one muscle to slide over the other: in others forming membranes or fascia to hide, to bind down and strengthen different organs; while in others admitting into its cells an oily substance, becomes fat, and fills up all the interstices, rounds off all prominences, softens acute lines, and gives a graceful softness and contour to the whole. And the skin enveloping in a close case, keeps all compact, and hides from the eye whatever might be offensive: while, at the same time the cutis or true skin serves for a surface for the nerves and exhalent vessels to terminate, the cuticle or scarf skin defends them from injury, and moderates their excessive sensibility.

As all animals are to live in media where the heat varies, it was necessary either to form them in such a way, that their functions should not be affected by varieties in temperature, or that they should be enabled to keep up the heat of their bodies at a regular point. Animals have been endowed with the latter power, and can accordingly maintain their heat, whether exposed to a high or low degree of temperature, with some exception as to the degree in the lower orders of animals, in some of which the temperature varies with that of the medium in which they are placed. This is the case with the Frog.--This animal, when placed in warm water, has the temperature of its body raised several degrees, and, on the other hand, may be reduced to the freezing point, without producing death. The heat of the human body, however, is little changed, whether it be exposed to intense cold, or much above the heat of boiling water. In the experiments made in heated rooms by Dr. Fordyce, and Sir Charles Blagden, these gentlemen remained several minutes in the heat of 260 degrees, nearly 50 degrees more than boiling water. At this heat a beefsteak and eggs were cooked near the stove, and yet the heated air produced no bad effect upon their bodies: it raised the temperature of their bodies only a few degrees.--The lungs are the chief agents by which heat is introduced into animal bodies. By their means, the blood is exposed to the air, and consumes its oxygenous part, which contains the principle of heat in a combined state. This, during circulation, is evolved by the minute blood vessels, so as to become sensible on every part of the body: and it is an important fact, that the quantity of oxygen consumed is greater in cold than warm weather; by this wise provision, in proportion as the heat is more quickly carried off by the coldness of the surrounding medium, the animal receives an increased internal supply. Many experiments have been instituted to ascertain the quantity of oxygen consumed in a given time by ordinary respiration, and, according to the best calculations, it appears that the consumption amounts to about 33½ ounces troy weight, in 24 hours; and it has been computed by philosophers, that the quantity of heat, which the oxygen consumes and will supply to the body, is nearly equal to that given out by a common candle.[199] I have thus attempted to give a short view of the different structures and functions of the body, and have briefly pointed out some of their varieties in the different classes of animals.

This corporeal system, which by its uniform and harmonious action contributes so essentially and largely to our terrestrial enjoyment, exhibits an astonishing display of the infinite wisdom, almighty power, and boundless goodness of its glorious Creator. Galen, an ancient Pagan physician, on contemplating the different parts of the human body, and the disposition of them, fell on his knees in humble adoration of the wisdom with which the whole is contrived; and was excited to challenge any one, after a hundred years’ study, to tell how the least fiber or particle could have been more commodiously placed, either for use or beauty. His seventeen books on the subject are like so many hymns of praise to the almighty and all-wise God, the Creator. Lactantius calls his writings on the body of man, a marvellous comment on his creation, and Galen himself managed the subject as a full demonstration of a Deity which every man carries about with him.

But what is still more deserving of our attention is the _soul_ of man: for if the external structure be so admirable a piece of mechanism, what shall we say of the immaterial and intellectual spirit resident in it? This noble, constituent, essential part of man, is yet a more astonishing production of infinite skill and power. Elihu says, “The Spirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given me life. There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understanding.” God, by his creating energy, called all things out of nothing, but there was neither order, light, nor motion, till the Divine Spirit moved on the lifeless chaos; so the same all-wise and powerful Architect formed of clay the wonderful fabric of man’s body, which remained without life and action, till the Holy Spirit infused a vital spirit into him, thereby enduing him with sense, motion, understanding, will, and active powers. This soul, therefore, became a living principle of intelligence, consciousness, and activity, in man.

The great Creator said, “Let us make man in _our image_, after _our likeness_.” Now, as the Divine Being is infinite, he is neither limited by parts, nor definable by passions: therefore he can have no _corporeal image_ after which he formed the body of man. The _image_ and _likeness_ in which he was created must necessarily be intellectual: his soul must have been formed after the nature and perfections of God. The Creator was now producing a spirit, formed after himself. He is the fountain whence it issued; hence the stream must resemble the spring which produced it.

The most perfect description of God, given to us in the Scripture, is that by our Saviour:--“God is a Spirit.” It has been observed by expositors, that this assertion is no where else to be found in the sacred Writings. That passage, “Now the Lord is that Spirit,” sounds something like it, but in meaning is different. The word _God_ here is not to be understood personally, either for the Father, or the Son, or the Holy Ghost, alone, but essentially for the Divine Nature, which each of these glorious Persons possesses. The Divine Nature is _spirit_. This shows, that, according to the popular and common use of the word, he is a Being entirely separated from matter or body, in all its properties and affections; that he is a pure mind, and possessed of the most excellent powers and perfections, which belong to spiritual beings.

It is difficult, for persons of a low understanding, who are unaccustomed to abstract reflections, and who have imbibed their knowledge by means of the external senses, employed on material objects, to raise their minds to the contemplation of the existence of immaterial, invisible beings. But that there really are such, and particularly that God is such, admits of the clearest proof, and will not be called in question by any who on rational grounds acknowledge his existence. It is usually granted, that it is much more easy to say what a spirit is not, than to define what it is. It is not in the power of the wisest and most knowing of men, to declare its nature. Nay, who can explain what the consistence of any piece of matter is, which we every day see and touch!

But as, notwithstanding our ignorance of the essence of material objects, we are not only sure of their existence, but also know many of their properties; so in like manner, though we are ignorant of the nature of spirits, yet from their manifest operations and effects, we are both convinced that such beings exist, and have some notion of several of their faculties and powers.

The powers and capacities that we observe in all the operations and works of God, are utterly inconsistent with the properties we discern in matter. In the works of creation we perceive evident proofs of thought, intention, contrivance, and design; which powers, we are sure, having no affinity with solidity, figure, and a capacity of being moved by the impulse of another, cannot arise from the composition or mixture of any of the known properties of matter. Not only the existence, but many of the perfections of God, may be discerned in various parts of the universe.

In short, we can say nothing higher of God, than that he is a Spirit. This notion leads us to conceive of him as a most perfect Being, and to reject concerning him whatever would argue any imperfection. It leads us to believe him to be perfectly immaterial, free from all the imperfections of matter, and from all the infirmities of corporeal creatures. But though _spirit_ signifies a being of higher rank than body or matter, yet the word is too low to express the essence of God, any otherwise than analogically, or metaphorically. He is infinitely more excellent than the highest created spirits, being eternal, and immutable. But some may inquire, if God be such a Spirit, how is it that in Scripture we read of his having bodily members, and natural affections, like men; such as head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet; and the affections, or passions, of anger, grief, love, joy, &c? these are ascribed to him, or rather assumed by him. I answer; this is done in condescension to our narrow capacities; for if God should speak to us of himself, as he is in himself, our understandings could not comprehend him. As the inconceivable glories of the world to come, are explained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life; so the nature of God, by a gracious condescension to our weakness, is signified to us by a likeness to our own. By human members being ascribed to God, are implied the moral excellencies of his spiritual nature, or rather his operations, which are more sensible to us than his invisible nature. His eyes are emblems of his knowledge, wisdom, omniscience, and providence. His face indicates his favor, and sometimes is expressive of his displeasure, because both these appear in the countenance of a man. His mouth is the symbol of the revelation of his will. His hand, or arm, is indicative of the less or greater exercises of his power.--Such a _Spirit_ is the Creator of man, whom he made in his _image_ or _likeness_.

Whoever reflects with attention on the human soul, may easily perceive it to be of a nature entirely different from the body. Being immaterial, it is not compounded of material principles, nor consists of innumerable parts which may be separated from each other; neither is it capable of solidity, figure, extension, and other properties of matter; but is a simple, uncompounded substance, though possessed of various and distinct powers; and therefore is neither visible nor divisible, nor has it any dimensions or shape.

The soul has a power of _thought_, with which mere matter can never be endued. If it pass through all the changes, and assume all the shapes of which it is capable, thought will never be the result. It may be differently modified, framed, and disposed, but cannot think. “I find in me something that _thinks_,” says a celebrated author, “which neither earth, water, air, fire, nor any mixture of them, can possibly do. Something which sees, hears, smells, tastes, and feels, all which are so many modes of thinking.” Thought is the privilege of immaterial beings.[200]

This inward principle is capable not only of thinking, but of love, desire, hope, joy; hatred, fear, sorrow, anger, and a whole train of inward emotions, which are commonly called _passions_ or _affections_. A something apprehended to be good in itself, or calculated to be beneficial to us, is the object of love. If that good be absent, it excites desire: if there be a probability of obtaining it, that produces hope; and the possession of the desired object yields delight and joy. Evil, whether real, or imaginary only, is the object of dislike and aversion. If there be any probability of this evil coming in contact with us, it causes fear; and if it unavoidably come upon us, it produces sorrow or anger. These passions or affections seem to be the only spring of action in the soul.

The soul has received from God a principle of motion, whereby it governs at pleasure every part of the body, and directs its operations: only with this exception, that all the vital motions, which are absolutely necessary for the continuance of animal life, are involuntarily going on, whether we advert to them or not; which is a marvellous instance of the wisdom and goodness of God. With the exception of these, I direct the motion of my whole body. By a single act of my will, I put my head, eyes, hands, or any part into motion: although the manner of doing this I do not comprehend. Every one feels that he has an inherent power to move this or that part of his body or not, and to give it a direction this way or the contrary, just as he pleases. I can, as I choose, open or shut my eyes, speak or be silent, rise up or sit down, stretch out my hand or draw it in, and use any of my limbs according to my pleasure, as well as my whole body. Matter may be moved, but it can never move itself.

The soul is free in its operations; it possesses this property, which is capable of being exerted with regard to all its faculties, as well as all the motions of the body. It is a power of self-determination, which, though not affecting all our thoughts and imaginations, yet extends to our words and actions in general, with but few exceptions. I am certain, that I am free to speak or not to speak, to act or not to act, to do this or to do the contrary, as I am of my own existence. I have not only what is termed a _liberty of contradiction_, but what is termed a _liberty of contrariety_, a power to act one way, or the contrary: to deny this would be to contradict the uniform experience of all human kind. The soul is not necessitated to judge or act by any bodily impulse. Let things appear as they may to the senses, the soul can suspend its judgment, till it has examined and considered them more thoroughly. Let the appetites and inclinations of the body strongly urge their own gratification, the soul can refuse their solicitations, and maturely weigh what the consequences would be. Let all the allurements of sensible objects, the assurance of sensual enjoyments, or the influence of custom and example, try to corrupt the integrity of the soul, and lead it astray from the paths of peace and purity; unless it consent, the attempts will prove ineffectual. We can reason, discourse, study, contrive, choose, and refuse with discretion; begin a work, and cease again at pleasure. We can reflect on what we have done, and either rejoice and delight in it, or be ashamed and grieved for it. We distinguish truth from error, moral good and evil; we fear punishment on having committed evil, and hope for reward on having done well. And, through the grace of God assisting us, we have a power to embrace and resolve to do good, as well as evil. We are free to choose whom we will serve, and, if we determine in favor of the better part, to continue therein.

_Conscience_ is not a faculty of the soul distinct from the understanding, memory, will, and affections, but that power by which we are conscious of our own state, reflect on our actions, and pronounce them either good or evil. This supposes, that we are acquainted with the law of God, either natural or written, which is the rule of our duty. The name is derived from the Latin word _conscientia_, into which the Greek word συνειδησις is exactly translated. Both these words for conscience, signify, that the mind is possessed of a consciousness of the actions and thoughts of the man, and passes a judgment on them, according to some rule. The Jews have no proper word in their language for conscience, and therefore use the term _heart_; which is also used in the New Testament. Conscience is the journal or diary of the actions of man. Its office is, 1. To call, urge, and excite us to duty. 2. To testify and bear witness either for or against us, according as we perform or neglect our duty. 3. Either to excuse or acquit, or accuse and condemn us, on the evidence it gives of the moral nature and quality of our actions: if they be conformable to the Divine rule, as to matter and manner, it acquits us; if they be contrary to it, conscience accuses, condemns, and passes sentence upon us. 4. And if its sentence be true and just, conformable to rule, it is ratified by God the Supreme Judge, whose deputy and vicegerent it is in the breast of every man.

Though the soul is not under the imperious influence of the body, yet for many ages it has been allowed by sensible men, that “there is nothing in the understanding which is not first perceived by some of the senses.” The imagination is the place where the images of things are first engendered, and from which they are transferred to the understanding. And therefore those who want any sense, cannot have the least knowledge or idea of the objects peculiar to that sense: as they who never had sight, have not the least conception of light or colors. But there is a great difference between our senses, considered as the avenues of knowledge. Some of them have a narrow sphere of action: others a more extensive one. By _feeling_ we discern only those objects which touch some part of our body; and consequently this sense extends only to a small number of objects. Our senses of _taste_ and _smell_ extend to fewer still. But, on the other hand, our nobler sense of _hearing_ has a wide sphere of action: especially in the case of loud sounds, as thunder, the roaring of the sea, or the discharge of cannon: the last of which sounds has been frequently heard at the distance of near a hundred miles. Yet the space to which the hearing itself extends is small, compared to that through which the _sight_ extends. This sense takes in at one view, not only the most unbounded prospects on earth, but also the moon, and the other planets, the sun, yea, the fixed stars, though at such an immeasurable distance.

But still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of this visible world. They supply us with such knowledge of the material world, as answers all the purposes of life. But as this was the design for which they were given, beyond this they cannot go. They furnish us with no information at all, concerning the _invisible world_. But the wise and gracious Governor of the worlds, both visible and invisible, has prepared a remedy for this defect. He has favored us with a _revelation_, concerning himself, his existence, perfections, and will; and another world, its nature, certainty, and duration: and this revelation is contained in the Scriptures. And he has appointed _faith_ to supply the defect of sense; to take us up where sense sets us down, and help us over the great gulf. Its office begins where that of sense ends. Sense is the evidence of things that are seen; of the visible, the material world, and the several parts of it. Faith, on the other hand, is the “evidence of things not seen,” of the invisible world: of all these invisible things, which are revealed in the Oracles of God.[201] Though eternal things come not within the reach of sense, yet, by faith, they are as present to the mind, in their reality, excellence, and continuance, as if they were seen with the eye of the body. The testimony of the God of truth, is the foundation and reason of this faith; for what he says must be true, because he cannot lie: this is a principle concerning which all agree who own his existence.

The soul has a vast intellectual capacity; for the knowledge of God, nature, providence, the original and present state of man, the visible world, sublime speculations, and useful discoveries, come within its comprehension. It can reason, infer, reflect, and carry on a chain of thoughts, with perspicuity and close connection, concerning things. Its powers take in objects of all dimensions; yet they are not situated as bodies in a material place, where the greater occupy more space than the less: for the thought of a mile, or ten thousand miles, does no more fill or stretch the soul, than that of a foot, an inch, or a mathematical point. And whereas all matter has its parts, and those extended, one without another, into length, breadth, and thickness, and so is measurable by inches, yards, or solid measures; there is nothing of measurable extension in any thing belonging to the soul, neither length, breadth, nor thickness; nor is it possible to form an idea of a foot of thought, a yard of reason, a pound of wisdom, or a quart of virtue.[202] The soul is capable of abstract notions, mathematical and metaphysical conceptions. Its powers are so great, that we can explore nature, span the surface of the earth, dive into its capacious seas, and there discover the numerous inhabitants of the watery world. We can travel to the sun, continue our journey through our own spherical system, from planet to planet, tell their dimensions, measure their distances, and accompany them through their various revolutions. We can pass the boundaries of our own, and enter into other systems; and from thence, into eternity itself: ascending from region to region, from world to world, from the creature till we reach the abode of the great Creator, who is the first cause of all things; and then, with ravished eyes, gaze on that glorious Luminary of the moral world, till we are amazed, delighted, and overpowered, with the splendor of his infinite perfections.

The soul is _immortal_ in its duration: it once began to be, but will never cease to exist. When the whole of time is elapsed, it will live in the vigorous exercise of its active powers, and its existence run parallel with eternity. The death of the soul cannot be effected by the operation of second causes; and God, who is the first cause, will never annihilate it. The Sadducees denied the immateriality and immortality of the soul, saying, that, except God, there was no spirit: they were much like the Epicureans among the Gentile philosophers. In refutation of this Sadducean notion, our Saviour referred them to the five Books of Moses, which they acknowledged as of Divine authority, where God says, “I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.” Abraham had been dead upwards of 300 years when these words were spoken to Moses. Now, says our Saviour, “God is not the God of the dead, but of the living.” Though the bodies of these renowned patriarchs had been long dead, and ceased to exist among mortals, their souls were still living, not only in a future state, but with God. He also warned his disciples of the opposition they would meet with, in the faithful discharge of their religious and ministerial duties, from the prejudice, rage, and fury of men; but urged them to take courage, and not suffer themselves to be intimidated, so as to neglect in any degree the execution of the important commission he had given them, saying, “Fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul.” Hence the soul is a principle distinct from the body, actually survives it, and can subsist without it, not only retaining its vital existence, but its consciousness, reflection, and activity. The following lines of Addison are strongly and beautifully descriptive of the immortality of the soul:

“The soul, secure in her existence, smiles At dissolution, and defies its power. The stars shall fade away, the sun himself Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years; But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth-- Unhurt, amidst the war of elements, The wreck of matter, and the crash of worlds.”

In a word, since the soul is not material, it can have no parts; if it have no parts, then it cannot be separated; if it cannot be separated, then it cannot be dissolved; if it cannot be dissolved, then it is incorruptible; and if it be incorruptible, then it is immortal.

Thus it is evident, from all the perceptions of the soul, that it is not compounded like the body. Those powers and affections, such as thought and reason, judgment and liberty, love and hatred, joy and sorrow, can never be the properties or effects of matter, in any possible variation or modification of its parts. Nor can matter ever produce those noble and just sentiments, those sublime and generous affections, to which the soul sometimes rises in its contemplations of God, the phenomena of the universe, and the operation of Providence which sustains and governs all things. All this can never be produced by matter, which is altogether inactive of itself; and when motion is impressed on it, the only change produced is in the situation and contexture of its parts. Surely all attempts to account for these things, by any laws of nature known in the corporeal world, are absolutely ridiculous.

How strange is it then, that such a spiritual being should be united so closely to flesh and blood, imprisoned in a tenement of clay, and use the body as the instrument of active operations.--Several philosophers, among whom is Socrates, have called the body της ψυχης οικητηριον, _the habitation of the soul_; yea, φυλακη και ταφος, her moveable _prison_, and living _sepulchre_. These two essential parts of man, which God, at his creation, united so closely together, that both make but one person, is a great mystery; considering the different natures that adhere, soul and body, matter and spirit. All this is unintelligible to the human intellect, however improved and capacious. The disputers of this world will find themselves completely perplexed, in attempting to explain by what ties a spirit is united to a piece of clay; and what holds it confined to its habitation. The adhesion of the material particles in the human body, the flame of animal life kindled and burning clear and strong within us, and the union of spirit and matter, so that the one is the tenement of the other, and the instrument of its operations, are, as to their manner, mysterious, and attended with difficulties that would perplex and confound the most penetrating and sagacious mind.

Man then was created in the _natural_ image of God, which consisted chiefly in the spiritual nature, amazing powers, and immortality of his soul; like God, it is a _spirit_, immaterial, invisible, active, intelligent, free, and immortal: and partly, in a lower sense, in the privilege of his body, which, in his state of innocence, was, by the promise of his Creator, entitled to a gratuitous immortality. Some make reason or understanding to be the image in which God created man: but, though this may be included, yet, it is not the principal thing intended by the Divine _image_: for if rationality were the image, it could never be lost. Sin, which defaces this beautiful image, does not deprive man of intellect: his nature will for ever continue rational; he can never, I presume, be deprived of his reason so as not to possess it any more. Thought and consciousness are inseparable from the nature of man, and therefore this _image_ of God in which Adam was created, must be something distinct from reason. Indeed reasonable creatures only can be the subjects of it, but reason is not the thing itself. To suppose that mere reason is God’s image in man, is an hypothesis unworthy of a reasonable nature; and with how much confidence soever some assert, the assertion is reproachful to our Maker.

The chief thing intended by the Divine _image_, is moral rectitude; man was created in the _moral image_ of God; but that image in man was only a _likeness_, it did not equal, but resembled its high original--a disparity which necessarily exists between a creature and its Creator. According to any rational opinion we can form of God, we must believe that he is a spiritual Being; which includes the simplicity of his nature, his indivisibility, and his immortality; possessed not only of every natural perfection, but of all moral excellencies. He is not only an intelligent, omnipresent, omniscient, almighty Being, but wise, holy, righteous, and good. Without moral perfections, his character would not be very interesting to us. If he had no radical and constitutional principle in his nature that could move him to regard the temper of our minds, and the complexion of our actions, or cause him to be either pleased or displeased with our behavior, however conducted, we should have no reason to act either from motives of love or fear of him. His natural attributes alone, are very far from finishing his character; in conjunction with these, his moral excellencies complete his glory, exhibit him as the most perfect Agent, and render him in the most exalted sense our Governor. His holiness, justice, goodness, and truth, are called moral attributes, or communicable perfections; because we can trace some resemblance in angels and men; though there is an infinite disproportion between these perfections as they exist in God, and are faintly displayed in the creatures: in him they are infinite, in the creatures finite and limited.

These moral perfections constitute God a proper object of religious adoration, and without which no worship would be due or could be rendered to him. The Divine Nature is the foundation of that worship which we, as rational beings, are under obligations to perform; and the revelation of the will of God, with which he has graciously favored us in the Scripture, is the constant rule of his worship. On believing his existence, and cultivating the knowledge of his attributes, especially those which are so astonishingly displayed and harmonized in the redemption of mankind by Jesus Christ, it very naturally follows, to every reflecting mind, that we owe him ourselves, and are bound by the strongest ties to present to him the most spiritual worship of which our intelligent nature is capable.

The moral image of God, after which man was created, was his greatest excellence. His _understanding_ possessed a large capacity for improvement, equal to an extensive and accurate acquaintance with things both natural and divine, the acquisition of which would facilitate his own happiness, by rendering him more competent to answer the benevolent design which his Creator projected in calling him into existence. This capacity was amply supplied by his Creator; for all divine knowledge is given by revelation; which he must either communicate to man, or he must remain ignorant of him. The capacity is one thing, and its improvement is another; which, as it is not naturally inherent in man, so it must be acquired. The knowledge of the nature, perfections, and will of God, can, in the first instance, only be made known by himself; for there is not a correct notion of him in the whole intellectual and moral world, but what has been received from either Divine revelation, or his own immediate influence. Adam, then, as an intelligent creature, was endued with the knowledge of God, so far as was necessary to enable him to fear, love, and serve him. Without a perception of his existence and perfections, and the knowledge of his will, he could not perform any acts of adoration, reverence, reliance, regard, and delight, toward him. If therefore man, in his primitive state, was obliged to worship his Creator (of which certainly no one can doubt,) it must be granted that he possessed knowledge equal to the nature and extent of his obligations. In his state of innocence, he did not perform a blind devotion, or worship he knew not what. Such ignorance is the consequence of sin; therefore he could not be the unhappy subject of it before he transgressed.

Some persons have thought that Adam, in his primeval state, understood the doctrine of a Trinity of Persons or Subsistencies in the Godhead. Though the knowledge of this important doctrine cannot be attained by reasoning on the operations of Divine wisdom, power, and goodness, visibly and conspicuously displayed in the universe; yet, as Adam received by immediate revelation some truths, why may we not suppose that this mystery was not conveyed to him in the same way, that his acts of devotion might comport with the honors due to each of the Sacred Three? The Divine Nature is without multiplicity, it is one; but the Three Subsistencies in that Essence are essential to the Godhead: this arrangement is radical, constitutional, and eternal. Therefore why should not God be worshipped according to his own natural distinction of Persons in his undivided Essence, by man in his primitive state? A Trinity in Unity is the most correct view of God; and, consequently, the worship that accords with it, being the most accurate, must be acceptable to him. The Christian religion has not given existence to this doctrine of the Trinity; for independently of the mediatorial scheme of redemption and salvation by Christ, God was from eternity the same Triune Being, and cannot change. It is not improbable that man, while he retained his pristine state, worshipped the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in all his acts of religious worship. Lord Bacon, in his Confession of Faith, says,--“I believe that nothing is without beginning but God; no nature, no matter, no spirit, but one only, and the same God. That God, as he is eternally almighty, only wise, only good, in his nature; so he is eternally Father, Son, and Spirit, in Persons.”

We cannot rationally suppose that Adam was a stranger to his _duty_, either in its nature, manner, or extent. If he had not known what duties his Creator required him to perform, it would have been impossible for him to act agreeably to his will. Obedience to any authority necessarily supposes a knowledge of what it enjoins: and, consequently, Adam must have known what he ought to practise, in what manner, and with what views; for, otherwise, he could not be obedient to the will of God in what he did. Hence we must conclude, that he was acquainted with the whole compass of his duty. As his understanding was not blinded by contracted prejudices, so it was free from any natural defect. His mind was furnished with correct views of God, his own dependence upon him, relations and obligations to him, and the way to please and enjoy him.

Adam, in his primitive state, knew wherein his _happiness_ consisted. If he had been ignorant of that happiness to which he was entitled so long as he preserved his integrity, how could he have enjoyed it while in his possession; for a delight in any present good arises from a perception of its nature and value. Neither was he ignorant of the misery, into which an action committed against the will of his Creator would bring him. He certainly knew that sinning against God would inevitably be attended with fatal effects to himself. His unclouded reason could not but discern, that rebellion against the dignity and sovereignty of his Maker would unavoidably expose him to his righteous displeasure.

As the judgment of Adam could not but entirely approve of the supreme Good, in all the perfections of its nature, and revelation of the Divine Mind; so his _will_, with great freedom following its dictates, readily embraced what was right, and exactly harmonized with every requisition. He had a holy disposition, such as comported with the infinite perfection of holiness, so resplendent in the Divine Nature. Some have asserted, that God formed man without any direction in his will either to good or evil. But this imagination is irrational, for it supposes that he was neither holy nor unholy. It is evident from Scripture, that he was created good in an ethical or moral sense, for he was made in the _image_ of God, which chiefly consisted in a conformity to his moral perfections. He resembled these, particularly that of holiness; so that, though in an infinitely lower degree, he was holy as God is holy; without the least taint of sin in his nature, or any inclination to evil, all his powers and faculties being disposed to comply with his utmost requisition.

Adam’s _affections_ were subordinate and obedient to the higher faculties of his soul, and moved without the least tumult or disorder. Being pure and regular, there was no depravity or discord among them. No temptation arose from vanity seated in any of the inferior powers: neither was there a rebellious disposition among the passions directed against his reason. No unlawful love, delight, or aversion had any place in his innocent nature, and therefore the dictates of reason did not meet with any control from corruption in the affections; and, consequently, obedience to his Creator was not rendered difficult by unruliness in the passions. Being thus made after the _likeness_ of God, he had the moral law written on his heart: that hereby he might have a perfect rule of obedience, and be easily apprised of his duty to him. And as he was indispensably obliged to yield obedience to this law, and the consequence of violating it would be endless ruin, God, as a just and gracious Sovereign, gave him ability to keep it. Herein he treated him as a rational creature, and a subject of moral government.

The inferior _appetites_ of Adam were in a state of perfect subjection, and never indulged to the least excess. The animal structure requiring food for its support, there was a great variety provided. But while surrounded with plenty, he was strictly temperate; his appetite was regular, consistent with purity, and in harmony with his devotions. The _senses_ also corresponded to the faculties of the soul, and were inlets to wisdom and enjoyment. Thus, as one observes, all his faculties both of body and mind were subservient to the glory of God, and contributed to his own felicity: a state which we are to regain by Christ.

“Enslav’d to sense, to pleasure prone, Fond of created good; Father, our helplessness we own, And trembling taste our food.

Trembling we taste; for, ah! no more To thee the creatures lead; Chang’d, they exert a baneful power, And poison, while they feed.

Curs’d for the sake of wretched man, They now engross him whole; With pleasing force on earth detain! And sensualize his soul.

Groveling on earth we still must lie, Till Christ the curse repeal: Till Christ descending from on high Infected nature heal.

Come then, our heavenly Adam, come, Thy healing influence give; Hallow our food, reverse our doom, And bid us eat, and live.

Turn the full stream of nature’s tide: Let all our actions tend To thee their source; thy love the guide, Thy glory be the end.

Earth then a scale to heaven shall be, Sense shall point out the road; The creatures all shall lead to thee, And all we taste be God.”

Man was _happy_ in his original state; he not only was free from pain and misery, but enjoyed delight. His pleasure was of a pure nature, not only such as God approved, but derived from a Divine source. If his mind had not been possessed of correct knowledge, his will disposed to obedience, his affections regular and holy, and his appetites and senses subject to a rational control, what pleasure could he have taken in the contemplation of infinite perfections, and in a compliance to the requisitions of the moral law? Happiness necessarily supposes delight, and delight as necessarily supposes a concordance between the disposition of the soul, and the objects from which its pleasure springs. Man was happy while innocent; he therefore enjoyed pleasure, which was pure, arising from positive holiness, and the presence and blessing of God. Surely it is reasonable to conclude, that Adam performed devotional acts with holy reverence and supreme delight. He could not but give the tribute of praise to his beneficent Creator, for his superabundant goodness toward him; being favored with every thing, not only necessary to his sustenance, in the excellent circumstances in which he was placed, but with whatever he could desire for the entertainment and delight of his innocent and heavenly mind. Above all, his grateful soul most certainly adored his Creator, for the glorious and beneficial displays of his wisdom, power, and goodness, and rejoiced in the interest he had in his approbation, protection, and kindness. While he retained his integrity, and enjoyed free access to his Maker, intimate communion with him, and was free from his displeasure, what serenity, satisfaction, and pleasure must fill his soul! He possessed that first and greatest of blessings, mentioned by Horace, _mens sana in corpore sano_, a sound mind in a healthy body.

Notwithstanding the excellent state in which Adam was created, and advantageous circumstances in which he was placed, yet he was liable to fall. By reason of the spiritual and intelligent principle in him, he became a moral agent, and a subject of moral government. He knew his duty, and had the power of determining his own choice and actions. He could choose good, and refuse evil, and be influenced by the hope of reward and the fear of punishment. He had no disposition to sin in his nature: for God could not create him in a sinful state, since that would render him the author of sin. He had full power to stand: but God could not interfere with the freedom of his will; and herein he acted toward him in a way agreeable to his condition of probation. The mutability of his will was essential to him as a rational creature, placed in a state of responsibility for his actions to the great Governor of the world. Dr. Paley says, “Free agency in its very essence contains liability to abuse. Yet, if you deprive man of his free agency, you subvert his nature.” God answers for himself in Milton:--

----“Man had of me All he could have: I made him just and right, Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall.”

The sentiments of Faber are very appropriate. “When the Almighty ceased from the work of creation, he pronounced all that he had made to be very good. The new world was as yet free from the inroads of sin, and from the curse of sterility.

---- ‘Nature then Wanton’d as in her prime, and play’d at will Her virgin fancies.’

“The whole creation smiled upon man, and the golden age of the poets was realized. Blessed with perfect health, both mental and corporeal, our heaven-born progenitor was equally unconscious of the stings of guilt and the pangs of disease. His understanding was unclouded with the mists of vice, ignorance, and error; his will, though absolutely free, was yet entirely devoted to the service of God; and his affections warm, vigorous, and undivided, were ardently bent upon the great Fountain of existence. Though vested in an earthly body, his soul was as the soul of an angel, pure, just, and upright. He was uncontaminated with the smallest sin, and free from even the slightest taint of pollution. His passions perfectly under the guidance of his reason, yielded a ready and cheerful obedience to the dictates of his conscience; an obedience, not constrained and irksome, but full, unreserved, and attended with sensations of unmixed delight. Such was man when he came forth from the hand of his Creator, the image of God stamped upon his soul and influencing all his actions.”[203]

We may add, the authority and _dominion_ with which God invested Adam. This extended “over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over the earth, and over every living thing that creepeth upon the earth.” God constituted him the ruler, under him, of all the inferior creatures. He probably inducted him into this office when he caused the creatures to pass in review before him. “And the Lord God brought every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air, unto Adam to see what he would call them: and Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.” Man alone, says Smellie, enjoys the power of communicating and expressing his ideas by articulate and artificial language. This inestimable prerogative is a great source of improvement to the human intellect. Without artificial language, though the Author of nature has bestowed on every animal a mode of expressing its wants and desires, its pleasures and pains, what a humiliating figure would the human species exhibit?

Dr. Beattie, in defining the human voice, says, it is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated, or modified, in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of respiration and speech; the top or upper part of which is called the larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together, by the agency of certain muscles which operate all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx there is a small aperture, called the _glottis_, through which the breath and voice are conveyed, but which, when we swallow any thing, is covered by a lid called the _epiglottis_. Authors have determined that the voice is produced by two semi-circular membranes in the middle of the larynx, which form by their separation the aperture that is termed the glottis. The space between them is not wider than one-tenth of an inch; through which the breath transmitted from the lungs must pass with considerable velocity. In its passage it is supposed to give a brisk vibratory motion to the membranous lips of the glottis, and so to form the sound which we call _voice_: in order to the production of which, it, however, seems necessary, that, by an energy of the will, a certain degree of tenseness should be communicated to the larynx, or at least to the two membranes in the middle of it. The voice, thus formed, is strengthened and mellowed by a reverberation from the palate, and other hollow places in the inside of the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped for this reverberation, it is said to be more or less agreeable. The glottis is found to be narrower in women and young persons than in men; hence the voices of the latter are deeper, or more grave, than those of the former. We can at pleasure dilate or contract this aperture, so as to form the tones of the voice to every variety of the musical scale. If we consider the many variations of sound, which the same human voice is capable of uttering, together with the small diameter of the glottis; and reflect that the same diameter must always produce the same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of tone a correspondent change of diameter is necessary: we must be astonished at the mechanism of these parts and the fineness of the fibers, producing effects so minute, various, and uniform. For it admits of proof, that the glottis is capable of at least sixty distinct degrees of contraction and enlargement, by each of which a different note is produced.[204]

Concerning the origin of language, numerous conjectures have been formed. As an instance how far the human mind, unassisted by a Divine revelation, can go, Diodorus Siculus and Vitruvius have asserted, “that men at first lived like beasts in woods and caves, forming only strange and uncouth noises, till their fears caused them to associate together; and that on growing acquainted with each other, they came to correspond about things, first by signs, then to make names for them, and in time, to frame and perfect a language; and that the languages of the world are different, because different companies of men happening thus to come together in different places, would, of course, form different sounds or names of things; hence would arise the variety observable even in ancient languages.” Thus we perceive the necessity of the Scriptures relative even to this subject.

“The Mosaic History,” observes Dr. A. Clarke, “represents man as being immediately capable of conversing with his Maker: of giving names to the various tribes and classes of animals; and of reasoning consecutively, and in perfectly appropriate terms, concerning his own situation, and the relation he stood in to the creatures. As in man’s first attempt at speech, according to this account, there appear no crudeness of conception, no barrenness of ideas, and no inexpressive or unappropriate terms, it is most rational to conclude, that God who made and endued him with corporeal and mental powers, perfectly suited to his state and condition in life, endued him also, not only with the faculty of speech, but with speech or language itself; which latter was as necessary to his comfort, and, indeed, to the perfection and end of his being, as any other power or faculty which his Creator thought proper to bestow upon him.”

Some assert that Adam _gave names_, from an intimate knowledge of the nature and properties of each creature: that this shows the perfection of his knowledge, for the names affixed to the different animals in Scripture always express some prominent feature and essential characteristic of the creatures to which they are applied; and that had he not possessed an intuitive knowledge of the grand and distinguishing properties of those animals, he never could have given them such names. Dr. Leland states, that man was immediately endued with the gift of language, which necessarily supposes that he was furnished with a stock of ideas, a specimen of which he gave in giving names to the inferior animals, which were brought to him for that purpose. Dr. Johnson affirms, that the origin of language must have come by inspiration. But Bishop Warburton conjectures, that God, in this transaction with Adam, taught him language. Here, says he, by a common figure of speech, the historian, instead of directly relating the fact, that God taught man language, represents it, by showing God in the _act_ of doing it, in a particular _mode_ of information; and that the most apposite we can conceive in elementary instruction; namely, the giving of names to substances; things with which Adam was to be conversant, and which therefore had need of being distinguished each by its proper name. And what a familiar image do these words give one of a learner of his rudiments? _And God brought every beast to Adam to_ SEE _what he would call them_. But though it appears that God taught man language, yet we cannot reasonably suppose it any other than what served his present occasions, he being now of himself able to improve and enlarge it, as his future necessities should require. The celebrated Cowper, touching this subject says:--

“One man alone, the father of us all, Drew not his life from woman; never gaz’d, With mute unconsciousness of what he saw, On all around him: learn’d not by degrees, Nor aw’d articulation to his ear; But, moulded by his Maker into man At once, upstood intelligent, survey’d All creatures, with precision understood Their purport, uses, properties, assign’d To each his name significant, and, fill’d With love, and wisdom, render’d back to Heaven In praise harmonious the first air he drew. He was excus’d the penalties of dull Minority. No tutor charg’d his hand With the thought-tracing quill, or task’d his mind With problems.”

However, by the creatures passing before Adam, probably in pairs, and he giving them names as they passed according to the nature and properties of each, one thing evidently appears, namely, he was convinced that none of these animals could be a suitable companion for him; for, among all which he had named, “there was not a help-meet for him:” one suitable and proper as an intimate companion and friend.

“He views the vast creation o’er, Marks his own structure more than e’er before; Sees all the creatures with their co-mates blest, Himself left pensive, far unlike the rest; Without compeer with whom his hours to spend, Or jointly at the sacred altar bend. _Religion_--sacred to the first great Cause: _Philosophy_--the voice of Nature’s laws; And _social dictates_, all at once combine To teach their pupil, that the whole design Is not completed, while his lonely life Is left without a helper, friend, and wife. Refulgent Sol, while traversing his way, Has Luna shining with her lucid ray; And though her glory is a borrow’d light, She reigns sole empress of the sable night. Soft purling streams to rivers speed their course, And blend themselves with their capacious source. The spreading branches of uxorious vines, Clasp round each other with encircling twines. The climbing Ivy does the Oak embrace, And meets with verdant wreaths his bending face. The feather’d tribes that wing the firmament, By instinct led, to wedded love consent: They range the neighb’ring meads in quest of food, And guard and cherish their young callow brood. And shall the creatures without just pretence, Alone possess this high pre-eminence? Though with abounding earthly comforts blest, Shall man pre-eminent still want the best:-- A bosom friend, than virgin rose more sweet, And whom he can with heart-felt rapture greet; Of pleasing form, equal and tender mind, To whom he can in closest ties be join’d?”

God did not approve of this state of solitude: he said, “It is not good that man should be alone,” or only himself. The Creator had not yet finished his works. He saw it necessary to relieve man in his solitary situation; and his goodness and power were ready to concur with the dictates of his wisdom. He said, “I will make him a _help-meet_ for him;” i.e. his counterpart, one like himself in shape, constitution, and disposition; exactly adapted to both his body and mind, the very image of himself, _a second self_.

“Must the fair creature promis’d to be giv’n, Be sent to earth from the abode of heav’n? Angelic nature could not well supply The craving void, remote, and far too high. Will God select amongst the brutal race, One, and refine it for his fond embrace? Nay, that would be too mean for his respect, Beneath his nature, void of intellect. The wise Creator, to complete his plan, Resolves to make a _help-meet_ from the Man, Procure the stamina from him alone, Thus constitute her “bone of his own bone.” From Man! but where? what part can he forego, From head majestic to the servile toe? The head imperial would be much too high, Lest she, perchance, should for the mast’ry try. The toilsome feet are base, of low renown, Lest he should trample the fair creature down. In Man’s organic structure, mark! the part Is that which lies contiguous to the heart; Main spring of life, whence all the frame looks gay, Centre, where all the lovely passions play; Under the shield of the protecting arm, Which can defend her from impending harm.”

Accordingly, God proceeded in his work: not as before, when he made man, and formed his body of the dust of the earth; but he took of the substance of man, and of that formed an associate for him. The process is mentioned by Moses, “And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman.” The word תרדמה translated _a deep sleep_, signifies such a sleep as renders a man insensible of any thing done to him; which was not natural but an extraordinary sleep; not occasioned by any act of violence done to nature, but the immediate effect of the hand of God upon him. Sleep, says a German author, is one of the most remarkable effects of the Divine goodness. It is certainly a proof of the wisdom of our Creator, that we fall asleep imperceptibly. Sleep comes unsummoned: it is the only change in our manner of existence in which reflection bears no part; and is alike independent of the understanding and the will. Our situation, indeed, during the time of sleep, is wonderful. We live, but without knowing or perceiving it! The palpitations of the heart, the circulation of the blood, the process of digestion, and, in a word, all the animal functions continue to be performed without interruption. The mind appears, as it were, to suspend its activity, for a time: by degrees, it looses all sensation, every distinct idea. The senses are deadened, and stop their wonted operations. The muscles, by degrees, are moved more slowly, till all voluntary motion ceases. This change begins in the forehead: then the muscles of the eye-lids, and of the neck, arms, and feet, are so much deprived of their activity, that the man seems to be metamorphosed into a plant. The situation of the brain becomes such, that it cannot transmit to the soul the same ideas as when we are awake. The soul perceives no object, though the nerve of vision is not altered; and it would see nothing, were the eyes to be even open. The ears are not shut, and yet they hear nothing. In a word, we find an unceasing source of admiration, in the wonderful preparations, and the tender care, which the Divine Being has employed, to procure us the blessings of sleep. The following epigram, translated from the Latin by Dr. Wolcott, is beautiful:--

“Come, gentle sleep, attend thy votary’s prayer, And, though death’s image, to my couch repair! How sweet, thus lifeless, yet with life to lie, Thus without dying, oh how sweet to die!”

The word צלע _tsela_, and in the Septuagint πλευρα, rendered a _rib_, most probably means _bone_, and _flesh_, not a naked bone, but one with flesh adhering to it. “And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, _made_ he a woman,” or, according to the Hebrew, _builded it up_ to be a woman; signifying, that the human species was perfect when the woman was created, which before was like an imperfect building. This implies, an old author intimates, that as children are derived from their parents to build up the family, so the woman was derived from Adam to build up his great family, mankind, of his own nature and substance; and that his posterity might spring wholly from him, both in respect of himself, and of his wife, their common mother, who was taken out of him. What amazing wisdom is herein displayed; not only in producing a creature _like_ man, but out of _a part of man himself_! God could have animated and organized the dust of the earth, and of it formed the woman; but had he done so, she would have appeared in the eyes of man as a distinct being, to whom he had no natural relation.[205]

“Her form completed, lo! she rises fair, Possess’d of beauties far beyond compare! This last production of the Artist’s skill, Best effort of his wisdom, might, and will, Gains science’ height: the high-wrought features shine, Her form displays a symmetry divine. Her pleasing gesture, as she walks along, Exceeds the powers of harmony and song. Her fine exterior, by her Maker drest, Is but the mansion of a brighter guest, To flesh superior far, howe’er refin’d;-- A pure, reflective, comprehensive mind! Expression soft sits sparkling in her eyes, While from her bosom heavenly raptures rise; Intrinsic worth, comprising every grace, Displays its radiance in her roseate face.”

When the woman was formed, “God brought her unto the man,” i.e. he presented her to him to be his wife. We are not to imagine, by _bringing her to the man_, is meant, that God merely placed her before his eyes, and thus exhibited her: but that he joined the man and the woman together in marriage.

“Attending angels strike the choral lay, And hymn your anthems on this bridal day; While the first Pair unite their willing hands, Whose hearts are join’d in love’s eternal bands.”

On receiving the woman, Adam said, “This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh.” Adam was the common stock and root of all mankind; not only all his posterity were wholly contained in him alone, but also the first woman, the mother of us all, had her vital life in him, and was part of his living flesh and bones: he saw that she was of the same nature, the same identical flesh and blood, the same constitution in all respects, having the same physical powers, mental faculties, and inalienable rights. He added, “She shall be called _Woman_, because she was taken out of man;” i.e. she shall partake of my name as she does of my nature. A literal version of the Hebrew would appear strange, says Dr. A. Clarke, and yet a literal version is the only proper one. איש _Ish_, signifies _man_; and the word used to express what we term _woman_, is the same with feminine termination, אשה _ishah_, and literally means _she-man_. Most of the ancient versions have felt the force of the term, and have endeavored to express it as literally as possible. The Vulgate Latin renders the Hebrew _virago_, which is a feminine form of _vir_, a man. Symmachus used ανδρις _andris_, a female form of ανηρ, _aner_, a man. Our own term is equally proper, when understood: it is a literal translation of the original; and we may thank the discernment of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors for giving it. Wombman, of which _woman_ is a contraction, means the _man with the womb_. Verstegan, in his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, justifies this sense of the word, on the ground of antiquity and propriety, and says it should be so written. The term _woman_ was not peculiar to her, but common to the sex; she differing from man in sex only, not in nature. Afterward Adam called her חוה _chavah_, which answers exactly to ζωη of the Septuagint, both signifying _life_, because she was the mother of all _living_.

“Oh blest existence! (now the man exclaims, And higher praises of his God proclaims.) My cup with blessings hast thou amply fill’d, Consummate joys for my great portion will’d: No wants are left, no good hast thou denied, Thy lib’ral hand has all I wish’d supplied. Thou Fount of being! source of pure delight! In thee my comforts center and unite: Thyself I love, thy vast perfections see, And all thy gifts receiv’d enjoy in Thee.

He turns to Eve, whose charms are all in view, The perfect form which highest wisdom drew: Her sweet attractions touch his yielding mind, As three-fold cords his willing passions bind. Sensations soft with quick transition roll, And raise the transports of his grateful soul: While thrilling raptures through his bosom move, He feels his heart the seat of GOD--and _love_.

Their minds now glowing with celestial fire, They jointly bend before their gracious SIRE; Devotion’s flame with greater ardor burns, And both are vocal in his praise by turns. While thus their pow’rs in pleasing acts employ, The _social_ worship much augments their joy: Their warm addresses to the sacred throne, Ascend as incense, and bring blessings down.”

The relation between _husband_ and _wife_ is the strongest union that results from the highest obligations of nature. “Therefore,” said Adam, “shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh.” Here we perceive, as Dr. Delany intimates, that Adam had a perfect idea of father and mother, before any existed; that he had clear ideas of the affection arising from that relation, before any children were born into the world: and yet perceived that the endearment arising from marriage should be stronger than these ties, so as to attach a man with warmer affection to his wife, than to those very parents to whom he was indebted for life. Now if the received doctrines of philosophy be true, that the senses are the inlets of ideas, and that we can have no ideas without objects: then we must conclude, that as he had these ideas, and had them not from nature, he must have received them from express revelation. Hence our Saviour, in his answer to the Pharisees, informs us, that the words pronounced by Adam on this occasion, were the declaration of God himself. “Have ye not read that he which made them at the beginning, made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh.” These two shall be considered as _one body_, having no separate or independent interests: or, these two shall be _for the production_ of one flesh; from their union a posterity shall spring, as exactly resembling themselves as they do each other. The Greek word προσκολληθησεται, translated _one flesh_, signifies shall be _glued_ to her.

How happy must such a state be, where the parties married come up to the design of this sacred institution! Dr. Hunter observes, “What an important era in the life of Adam! What a new display of the Creator’s power, skill, and goodness! How must the spirit of devotion be heightened, now that man could join in _social_ worship! What additional satisfaction in contemplating the frame, order, and course of nature, now that he possessed the most exalted of human joys, that of conveying knowledge to a beloved object! Now he could instruct Eve in the wonders of creation, and unfold to her their Maker’s nature, perfections, and will!” Oh happy state! They are happy in the constitution of their nature,--being innocent, upright creatures; and in having their pure minds perfectly united in love and kindness to each other. They were happy in all their united acts of adoration and praise to their Creator,--exact harmony, unmixed delight, and untainted piety, residing in each breast! They lived in communion with God, enjoyed a transporting sense of his favor, walked in the light of his countenance, and were raptured in their meditations on the Divine glory!

We have here the first institution of marriage, and we see in it several things worthy of peculiar attention and regard. 1. God pronounces the state of celibacy _not a good one_: and the Lord God said, “It is not good that man should be alone,” לבדו _lebaddo_ only himself. It was neither for his comfort, who was formed for society, nor for the accomplishment of God’s purpose in the increase of mankind. Though he was created in the image of God, and enjoyed delightful intercourse with him, his solitary condition required a suitable companion. 2. God made the woman _for_ the man; he was not made _for her_, but she was made _for him_, and derived, under God, her being from him. The apostle says, “Neither was the man created for the woman: but the woman for the man,” to be a suitable helper and comfort to him. And thus God has shown us, that every son of Adam should be united to a daughter of Eve to the end of the world. 3. God made the woman _out_ of the man: as Adam was immediately from God, so Eve was immediately from Adam; “the man is not of the woman, but the woman of the man:” made of a part of his body, taken out, not of his head, to show that she was not to exercise dominion over him; nor of his foot, to indicate that she must not be his slave; but of his side, to intimate that she needs his counsel and direction; from under his arm, to teach him that he must protect her; and near his heart, to tell him that he must love her as himself. The closest union, and the most affectionate attachment, should subsist in the matrimonial connection. The man should ever consider and treat the woman as a _part of himself_; and as no one ever hated his own flesh, but nourishes and supports it, so should a husband evince the greatest tenderness and affection for his wife: and on the other hand, considering that the woman derived her being from man, and was made _for_ him, therefore the wife should “see that she reverence her husband.” “For as man is the image and glory of God; so the woman is the glory of the man.” 4. God himself instituted the marriage union, and being appointed and established by him, it must be an honorable state. “Marriage is honorable in all,” being a Divine institution; and consequently suitable for persons of any rank, or employment, either civil or sacred. The corruption of manners has strangely perverted this original purpose and institution of God. However, he will never accommodate his morality to the times, nor to the inclinations of men. What was settled at the beginning, he judged most worthy of his glory, most profitable for man, and most suitable to his nature. 5. Marriage was instituted immediately on the creation of man and formation of the woman; whence it is evident that God never designed that mankind should be preserved, and the earth peopled any other way. And as the marriage union took place while man was in a state of innocence, upright and pure, just such as his Creator made him, it is therefore suitable to the greatest purity both of heart and life. 6. The design of this institution was, that man and woman might be mutually helpful to each other, in all the necessities and uses of life partaking of the cares and labors of each other, reciprocally sharing in each other’s delights and pleasures, and combining together to love, serve, and please God.

The _situation_ of Adam and Eve is worthy of our attention. The sacred historian says, “And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed.” The word עדן _Eden_, signifying _pleasure_ or _delight_, is expressive of their excellent residence. The Septuagint render the passage thus: εφυτευσεν ὁ Θεος παραδεισου εν Εδεμ, _God planted a Paradise in Eden_. The Fathers of the Church; says Huet, both Latin and Greek, all the Interpreters of Scripture, ancient and modern, and all the Orientals, do agree, that Eden is a local name taken from the beauty of the place. The Garden or Paradise was situated in Eden, being two different places, as the whole from its part. “And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. And the name of the first is Pison; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that land is good; there is bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.” The most probable account of the situation of the terrestrial Paradise, says Dr. A. Clarke, is that given by Hadrian Reland. He supposes it to have been in Armenia, near the sources of the great rivers, Euphrates, Tigris, Phasis, and Araxes. He thinks Pison was the Phasis, a river of Cholchis, emptying itself into the Euxine Sea, where there is a city called Chabala, the pronunciation of which is nearly the same with that of Havilah, or חוילה _Chavilah_, according to the Hebrew, the _vau_ ו being changed in Greek to _beta_ β. This country was famous for gold, whence the fable of the Golden Fleece, attempted to be carried away from that country by the heroes of Greece. The Gihon he thinks to be the Araxes, which runs into the Caspian Sea, both the words having the same signification, namely, a _rapid motion_. The land of Cush, washed by the river, he supposes to be the country of the Cussæi of the ancients; a nation of Asia, destroyed by Alexander to appease the manes of Hephæstion. The Hiddekel all agree to be the Tigris; and the other river, Phrat, or פרת _Perath_, to be the Euphrates. All these rivers rise in the same tract of mountainous country, though they do not proceed from one head.

Man, says Faber, was placed by the Deity in the garden of Paradise. The beauty of its scenery, the salubrity of its climate, the variety and excellence of its fruits, all contributed to the beatitude of the first pair, and tended to elevate their thoughts to that Being, who was the author and contriver of such numerous blessings. Trained, says Bishop Horne, in the school of Eden by the material elements of a visible world, to the knowledge of one that is immaterial and invisible, Adam found himself excited by the beauty of the picture, to aspire after the transcendent excellence of the Divine original.

From this, says Dr. A. Clarke, the ancient heathens borrowed their ideas of the gardens of Hesperides, where the trees bore golden fruit; the gardens of Adonis, a word which is evidently derived from the Hebrew עדן _Aden_; and hence the origin of sacred gardens, or inclosures, dedicated to purposes of devotion, some comparatively innocent, others impure. From the holiness of the garden of Eden, says Faber, the Pagans probably borrowed their ancient custom of consecrating groves to the worship of their various deities. The description given by Quintus Curtius of the sacred grove of Jupiter Hammon is singularly beautiful, and almost presents to the imagination the deep shades and the crystal streams of Eden. “At length,” says he, “they arrived at the consecrated habitation of the deity, which, incredible as it may seem, was situated in the midst of a desert, and shaded from the sun by so luxuriant a vegetation, that its beams could scarcely penetrate through the thickness of the foliage. The groves are watered by the meandering streams of numerous fountains; and a wonderful temperature of climate, resembling most of all the delightful season of spring, prevails through the whole year with an equal degree of salubrity.”

This golden age is described by Plato, in a manner which, independently of his confession (namely, that he gained his information from the Phœnicians, who received it from their ancestors,) proves him to have derived it, not from written records, but from traditional reports. His mansion of primeval bliss was not in this dark, diminished, and deformed, this corrupted globe, but in a pure, ethereal, and lucid orb of unlimited extent, where men breathed, not air, but light, drank nectar, and partook of fruits spontaneously produced. The inclement seasons were unknown, raiment was not yet invented, and nakedness produced no distress. When weary, the inhabitants reclined to sleep on soft herbage, which received the influence of one eternal spring. In these delightful regions no stormy winds interrupted their calm repose; no evil passion disturbed their serenity of soul; and reason, guided by benevolence, bore a universal sway. Whilst this state continued, man conversed freely with those animals, which, now wild, avoid his presence, and fly at his approach.

Virgil was no stranger to a golden age; and Seneca has well described the peaceful state whilst Saturn reigned. But of all the representations, that which we find in Ovid is the most beautiful, and, allowing for poetic imagery, is accurately just.

“The golden age was first; when man, yet new, No rule but uncorrupted reason knew, And with a native bent did good pursue. Unforc’d by punishment, unaw’d by fear, His words were simple, and his soul sincere. Needless was written law where none opprest: The law of man was written in his breast. No suppliant crowds before the judge appear’d; No court erected yet, nor cause was heard; But all was safe, for conscience was their guard.”

Such notions of the felicity enjoyed by man in a state of innocence, were not confined to Italy and Greece, but have been discovered equally among the Persians, Indians, and Chinese. The Brahmins say, that in the beginning of the world, plenty was every where diffused, and milk, with wine and honey, flowed from fountains. Similar images were used by the Persian magi to convey a notion of primeval happiness.[206]

Thus Adam and Eve were happy in their situation, being placed in Paradise, which was delightful for agreeable and pleasing accommodations of every kind to regale their senses; it was stored with the utmost profusion of Divine bounty!

“O Jesus! at thy feet we wait, Till thou shalt bid us rise, Restor’d to our unsinning state, To love’s sweet paradise.”

* * * * *

Footnotes - Chapter VII

[157] The _marine_ Polypus is different in form from the fresh-water Polype; but is nourished, increased, and may be propagated after the same manner. When it produces its young, they issue from its sides, as branches from a tree; these young shoots are no sooner detached from their parents, than they become separate Polypuses, and fish for prey.

It seems that every part of this animal possesses a principle of life. If it be cut into three pieces, it is so far from being destroyed, that it becomes three polypuses: the head produces a body and tail; the body, a head and tail; and the tail, a head and body. When a Polypus is cut in two lengthways, these close themselves, the wounds are healed in a few moments, and in the course of some hours they will eat greedily. If these Polypuses be again cut into four, or six pieces, these divisions of the animal will also become Polypuses; but they will not be matured, nor capable of eating, for some days. If this creature be turned like a glove, by pushing the tail into the body until it come out of the mouth, after such an operation it will still eat, and continue to produce young ones; so strong and vigorous is the principle of life which it possesses.

There are other insects which possess similar properties; and it is certain that nearly all plants which are produced from suckers, have no part which may not become either a stem or branch, and which will germinate, and furnish one, or even many plants.]

[158] For the contrary opinion, see Fragments appended to Calmet’s Dictionary, pp. 114-117.

[159] “Some time ago, a person in the Isle of Wight, digging the ground for the foundation of an out-house, discovered the nest or magazine of a field-mouse. It was of large dimension, and was stored with acorns, which were laid up in the neatest and most compact manner imaginable. These were so numerous that he was induced to count them, and found, in the whole, no fewer than _eight hundred and two_. How wonderful are those faculties with which the beneficent Creator of the world has endowed his creatures, for the purpose of providing for wants which they have no power to foresee, and yet, without which provision, they must, during the severity of winter, be inevitably destroyed!”--New Monthly Magazine, July, 1814, p. 531.

[160] See Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, pp. 296-299.

[161] To this may be referred an economical experiment well known to the Dutch, that when eight Cows have been in a pasture, and can no longer get nourishment, two horses will do very well there for some days; and when nothing is left for the Horses, four Sheep will live on it.

[162] The Arabians, when travelling, and in want of water, frequently kill their camels to obtain a supply, which, though taken out of the animal, they find perfectly good.

[163] Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 278.

[164] Dr. Percival’s Instructions, p. 23.

[165] See Annual Register, vol. iii, p. 90.

[166] Dr. Beattie’s Dissertations, Moral and Critical.

[167] Dr. Percival’s Instructions, p. 8.

The Chinese consider the flesh of this animal as a dainty, and public shambles are erected for the sale of it. In Canton particularly, there is a street appropriated to that purpose; and, what is very extraordinary, whenever a dog-butcher appears, all the dogs in the place pursue him in full cry. They know their enemy, and persecute him as far as they are able.--Goldsmith’s History of the Earth.

[168] Wesley’s Philosophy, vol. i, p. 233.

[169] For a description of the _Crocodile_, given by Divine inspiration, see Job chap. xli. It is a great question among learned men, says Mr. Benson, what creature is meant by לויתן, _leviathan_. Our translators were evidently uncertain respecting it, and therefore have given us the original term untranslated. The Seventy, however, have rendered it δρακων, _the dragon_; but that is far from being correct. The dragon is a genus belonging to the order of amphibia reptilia. There are two species, 1. The volans, or flying dragon, with the wings entirely distinct from the fore-legs, which is found in Africa and the East Indies. 2. The præpos, with the wings fixed to the fore-legs, which is a native of America. They are both harmless creatures; and feed on flies, ants, and small insects. The word לויתן, _leviathan_ is supposed to be derived from לוי, _levi_, _joined_, or _coupled_, and תן, _than_, or תנין _thannin, a dragon_, that is, a _large serpent_, or _fish_, the word _thannin_ being used both for a land-serpent, and a kind of fish. And “after comparing what Bochart and others have written on the subject, it appears to me,” says Parkhurst, “that the compound word לויתן, _leviathan, the coupled dragon_, denotes some animal, partaking of the nature both of the land serpents, and fishes, and, in this place, signifies the _crocodile_, which lives as well under water as on the shore.”

[170] Bingley’s Animal Biography, vol. ii, p. 410, &c.

[171] Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, p. 286.

[172] Aristotle asserts that _spinning_ and _weaving_ were first learned from the spider. Thence it has its Greek name αραχνης, Latin _Aranea_, French _Araignce_, from the Hebrew _Aragnevit_, _texuit_, or _Arach, textura_. And it is not improbable that our English word _Spider_ is but a corruption of _Spinner_, for _Spinn_ is the German word for _Spider_. With this agrees that poetic fancy, that _Arachne_ an excellent _spinster_, was by _Pallas_ turned into a _Spider_. Pallas was the goddess of wisdom, war, weaving, spinning, and the liberal arts; and she was invoked by almost every artist, particularly such as worked in wool, embroidery, painting, and sculpture.--Edward’s Demonstration, &c.

[173] See Jones’s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean Animals.

[174] See D’Assigny on the Hieroglyphics of Egypt.

[175] Epist. cap. v.

[176] Simil. ix, sect. 13.

[177] Ad. Autol. lib. 2, p. 96.

[178] Lib. iv, cap. 37, et lib. v. c. 15.

[179] Lib. iv, cap. 75.

[180] Adv. Prax. c. 12.

[181] Cap. 21, 25.

[182] Cont. Cel. lib. i, p. 63.

[183] Socrat. lib. ii. c. 30, where the Creed may be seen at large.

[184] Hæres. 23, n. 2.

[185] Hæres. 44, n. 4. See Bibliotheca Biblica on the place.

[186] Lib. iv, cap. 37.

[187] Two Dissertations, &c. pp. 29, 30.

[188] Among the numerous traditions of the New-Zealanders, says Nicholas, there is one which is very remarkable. It refers to the creation of man, and has been handed down from father to son, through all generations. They believe the first man to have been created by three gods, Mowheerangaranga, or Toopoonah, or grandfather, Mowheermooha, and Mowheebotakee; but give the greatest share in the business to the first-mentioned of these deities.

[189] Moses says, “the _life_, נפש nephesh, of the flesh is in the _blood_.” And St. Paul affirms, “God hath made of _one blood_ all nations of men.” This sentence of Moses, which, in conjunction with that of St. Paul, contains a most important truth, had existed in the sacred Scriptures for 3,600 years, before it arrested the attention of any philosopher. This is more surprising, as the nations in which philosophy flourished, were those which especially enjoyed the Divine oracles in their respective languages. That the blood actually possesses a _living principle_, and that the life of the whole body is derived from it, is a doctrine of Divine revelation, and which the observations and experiments of the most accurate anatomists have served strongly to confirm. The proper _circulation_ of this important fluid through the _whole_ human system, was taught by Solomon in figurative language, Eccles. xii, 6; and discovered, as it is called, and demonstrated by Dr. Harvey in 1628; though some Italian philosophers had the same notion a little before. This distinguished anatomist was the first who fully revived the Mosaic notion of the _vitality_ of the blood; and which correct view was afterwards adopted by the justly celebrated Mr. John Hunter, whose strong reasoning and accurate experiments have served to sanction and give publicity to a fact so long unknown to mankind. The doctrine of Moses and St. Paul proves the truth of the doctrine of Harvey and Hunter: and the reasonings and experiments of the latter, illustrate and confirm the doctrine of the former.--See Dr. A. Clarke on Lev. xvii, 11.

[190] As an instance of this I may mention the case of a gentleman who was subject to frequent attacks of asthma, to such a degree, that if he were not relieved immediately by bleeding, he was in danger of suffocation: by being so frequently bled in that state, his blood at length became so pale as scarcely to stain a linen cloth, in consequence of the particles of the blood being so slowly renewed.

[191] Two of these causes are peculiarly important and interesting. When an animal has lost a considerable quantity of blood, and faints in consequence, the power of the blood to coagulate quickly is greatly increased.--When, for example, a sheep is bled to death, if you receive a cupful of the blood which first issues from the throat, and a cupful of the last, you will find that the latter will coagulate sooner, and become much more solid than the first portion. By way of experiment, the large artery of the thigh of a dog has been divided and laid open; the animal bled till he fainted, and on recovering had no return of the bleeding. On examining the artery, its divided end was found plugged up by coagulated blood, and much contracted in its diameter; this natural means, however, of checking hæmorrhage, we shall afterwards find, is assisted by the contractile power possessed by the vessel from whence it is effused. Hence it appears that fainting is favorable to checking hæmorrhages, as far as it puts a temporary check on the circulation, and should always be encouraged to a certain degree. Another cause which influences the coagulation of the blood, is inflammatory diseases. Under such circumstances it remains much longer in a fluid state, but coagulates at length more firmly. This coagulation of the lymph is the first step towards its conversion into various parts of the body, or the union of divided parts. When, for example, the coagulating lymph is thrown out upon inflamed internal parts of the body which lie in contact, as the intestines or lungs, it becomes solid, and connects them loosely together. Blood vessels shoot into it, and convert it at length into cellular membrane, forming what are called adhesions, and in a similar way it is converted into the nature of various parts of the body. We may therefore say, that the coagulating lymph is the most important part of the blood, inasmuch as it is subservient to the formation of various organs in the body. Many parts, particularly the muscles, very nearly resemble it in their nature.

[192] Substances may even be introduced into the blood directly. By way of experiment, Ipecacuanha, or a small portion of Emetic Tartar, or Jalap, have been infused into the veins: the result of this has been found to be, that they have produced the same effect as if introduced by the stomach; the former produced vomiting, the latter purging.

[193] Mr. Hunter, however, found that this natural inclination might be changed by education, for he taught an Eagle, which is a carnivorous animal, to subsist on farinaceous food alone. The plan he adopted was this: he began by abstracting the flesh meat, and substituting bread and butter, till at length the meat was entirely taken away; he then by degrees diminished the quantity of butter, till at length the animal fed on bread alone. It appears, however, from experiment, that this transition cannot be made suddenly, as the gastric juice of the animal is not adapted to act upon an opposite kind of food. It has been found that a quantity of pear or apple introduced into the stomach of a Buzzard Hawk was not digested, but remained unacted upon when the fowl was killed for inspection many hours afterwards; yet the stomach of this animal habitually digested bone.

[194] Dr. A. Hunter says, “When we consider the delicacy of the internal structure of the stomach, and the high and essential consequence of its office, we may truly say, it is treated with too little tenderness and respect on our parts. The stomach is the chief organ of the human system, upon the state of which all the powers and feelings of the individual depend.

“The stomach is the kitchen that prepares our discordant food, and which, after due maceration, it delivers over by a certain undulatory motion, to the intestines, where it receives a further concoction. Being now reduced into a white balmy fluid, it is sucked up by a set of small vessels, called lacteals, and carried to the thoracic duct. This duct runs up the back-bone, and is in length about sixteen inches, but in diameter it hardly exceeds a crow quill. Through this small tube, the greatest part of what is taken in at the mouth passes, and when it has arrived at its greatest height, it is discharged into the left subclavian vein; when mixing with the general mass of blood, it becomes, very soon, blood itself.”

[195] Dr. O. Gregory observes, “Animal heat is preserved _entirely_ by the inspiration of atmospheric air! The lungs which imbibe the oxygen gas from the air, impart it to the blood; and the blood, in its circulation, gives out the caloric to every part of the body. Nothing can afford a more striking proof of creative wisdom, than this provision for the preservation of an equable animal temperature. By the decomposition of atmospheric air, caloric is evolved, and this caloric is taken up by the arterial blood, without its temperature being at all raised by the addition. When it passes to the veins, its capacity for caloric is diminished, as much as it had been before increased in the lungs: the caloric, therefore, which had been absorbed, is again given out; and this slow and constant evolution of the caloric in the extreme vessels over the whole body, is the source of that uniform temperature which we have so much occasion to admire. Dr. Crawford ascertained, that whenever an animal is placed in a medium the temperature of which is considerably high, the usual change of arterial venous blood does not go on; consequently, no evolution of caloric will take place, and the animal heat will not rise much above the natural standard. How pleasing it is to contemplate the arrangements which the Deity has made for the preservation and felicity of his creatures, and to observe that he has provided for every possible exigency!”--Lessons, Astronomical and Philosophical, 4th edit. p. 87.

[196] A London Alderman, who had accidentally heard of the thoracic duct, was so struck with the importance and delicacy of the vessel, that he became very apprehensive lest it should be in the least obstructed; and, being one day caught in a crowd, from whence he could not extricate himself, he most earnestly entreated those who pressed on him, to take care of his thoracic duct.

[197] This is a good example of muscles, which, under ordinary circumstances, are directed by the will, becoming involuntary from an altered excitement.

[198] Dr. A. Hunter remarks, “Were it possible for us to view through the skin and integuments, the mechanism of our bodies, after the manner of a watch-maker when he examines a watch, we should be struck with an awful astonishment! Were we to see the stomach and intestines busily employed in the concoction of our food by a certain undulatory motion; the heart working, day and night, like a forcing pump; the lungs blowing alternate blasts; the humors filtrating through innumerable strainers; together with an incomprehensible assemblage of tubes, valves, and currents, all actively and unceasingly employed in support of our existence, we could hardly be induced to stir from our places!”

[199] Mr. Cruikshank, late Professor of Chemistry at Woolwich, judiciously observes, says Dr. Olinthus Gregory, that the size of the body, the quantity of food taken in, the vigor with which the system is acting, the passions of the mind, and external heat or cold, are circumstances which will ever occasion considerable variety in the quantity of the insensible perspiration. This gentleman, assuming that the surface of the hand is to that of the rest of the body as one to sixty (an assumption which Mr. Abernethy thinks much too small for the body,) and that every part of that surface perspired equally with his hand, concluded that he lost during an hour, by insensible perspiration from the skin, 3 ounces, 6 drams; and in 24 hours, at that rate, would have lost 7 pounds, 6 ounces. Also, that he lost 124 grains of vapor by respiration, in an hour; or 6 ounces, 1 dram, and 36 grains, in 24 hours; which, added to the former cutaneous exhalation, would make the whole insensible perspiration, in 24 hours, equal to 8 pounds, 1 dram, and 36 grains: the evaporation from the lungs will be little more than one-fifteenth of the whole.

Mr. Cruikshank has not the smallest doubt, but that _electric fluid_ is also perspired from the pores of the skin: it appearing to him impossible that an enraged Lion, or Cat, should erect the hairs of the tail on any other principle: indeed he strongly suspects that, as electric fire is now known to be the prime conductor of the variation in the atmosphere, so it is also the grand conductor of insensible perspiration. He likewise states it as a matter beyond doubt, that, independent of aqueous vapor (of fixed air and phlogiston,) emitted from the skin in insensible perspiration, there is an odorous effluvia, which, though generally insensible to ourselves and the by standers, is perceptible to other animals.--Hence it happens, that a Dog follows the footsteps of his master by the smell; and, in like manner, with regard to other animals: the Fox-Hound knows _afar_ the smell of the Fox; the Pointer that of the Partridge, the Snipe, or the Pheasant; and every carnivorous animal that of its prey.--Haüy’s Natural Philosophy, vol. i, p. 27.

[200] Dr. Priestley has positively asserted, that the doctrine of the soul has no foundation in reason or the Scriptures. But Dr. Jortin, in his sermon on John xi, 25, vol. vi, and Dean Sherlock, in his discourse on the immortality of the soul, completely refute the Doctor’s arguments. In the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, there is a very valuable paper, by Dr. Ferriar, proving, by evidence apparently complete, that every part of the brain has been injured without affecting the act of thought; the reasoning of which memoir, being built on matters of fact and experience, appears to have shaken the modern theory of the materialists from its very foundation.

[201] See Wesley’s Sermon on Heb. xi, 1.

[202] Dr. Scott’s Christian Life, vol. v, p. 14.

[203] Practical Treaties on the Holy Spirit, pp. 7, 8.

[204] See Dr. Beattie’s Theory of Language, chap. ii.

[205] It is very singular, says Nicholas, in his very interesting history of New-Zealand, that the natives believe that the first woman was made of one of man’s ribs; and, what adds still more to this strange coincidence, their general term for bone is _hevee_, which, for ought we know, may be a corruption of the name of our first parent, communicated to them, perhaps, originally, by some means or other, and preserved, without being much disfigured, among the records of ignorance.

[206] See Townsend’s Character of Moses, pp. 66-68.

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