CHAPTER II.

FIRST DAY.

_Section_ I.--CHAOS.

Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man -- Character of Moses as a sacred historian important -- Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients -- Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency of the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and proved.

As creatures possessed of conscious existence, and furnished with both intellectual and moral powers, it is very natural for us to inquire into the origin and first state of things; and, when difficulties present themselves, to meet with clear and satisfactory solutions of them, removing the darkness in which they were enveloped, affords to reflecting minds a high gratification. Without the aid of divine revelation, the creation of the world would have been involved in uncertainty, and our unassisted reason left to speculate in fields of wide conjecture. But in following the luminous torch of sacred communication, we are safely conducted to the first great Cause, by whose almighty _fiat_ matter was called into existence, and afterwards disposed and modified according to the plan devised by the eternal Mind.

Moses, considered as a man of scientific habits, being well versed in all the “wisdom of the Egyptians”--mathematical, physical, moral, and divine; could not but know that his cosmogony would have to pass the ordeal of critical investigation, and undergo the best of philosophical inquiry: that contemporaries, as well as future and remote nations and generations, would minutely examine his historical record; and science, in its progressive state of improvement, try the validity of his system: that it would meet the inquisitive eye of genius and learning, and fall into the hands of both sincere friends and insidious enemies to religious truth: that candor would patiently search into its pretensions, impartially weigh its evidence, and sober inquiry respect its claims: while narrow prejudice, blind bigotry, or superstitious enthusiasm, would dispute its authority, deny its veracity, and disdainfully reject its aid. But listening to an all-wise Instructor, following a Guide that could not deceive him; and disregarding the envenomed tongue of calumny, the lampooning pen of the satirist, the surly frown of literary pride, and the imperious authority of exalted rank; he committed to writing a true account of the creation of the world, for the information and religious improvement of mankind to the latest generation.

Viewed as the ground-work of all future revelations, if any defect or false position were discovered in his relation of things, that would deprive his history of credibility, and decisively prove him to have been led by the sallies of a vain and heated imagination, and not the Spirit of the living God. But of this there was no danger; and, as a distinguished author pertinently observes, “from the book of Genesis, almost all the ancient philosophers, astronomers, chronologists, and historians, have taken their respective _data_: and all the modern improvements and accurate discoveries in different arts and sciences have only served to confirm the facts detailed by Moses, and to show, that all the ancient writers on these subjects, have approached to, or receded from truth, and the phenomena of nature, in the exact proportion as they have followed the Mosaic history.” As a writer, Moses does not attack other systems, formed on this or that hypothesis; but in a simple and incontrovertible narrative, acquaints us with the origin of matter, and the progressive formation and completion of the solar system.

The Scriptures inform us, that Moses was privileged to converse with God “face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend,” and from him received clear and manifest revelations, not by visions, ecstasies, dreams, inward inspirations, or the mediation of angels, but familiarly and with confidence, by articulate sounds, in his own language. The Lord said, “With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the Lord shall he behold.” God being a Spirit, has neither shape nor parts, consequently is invisible, and cannot be seen by eyes of flesh: he is the most simple essence. When he speaks of himself as having a face, mouth, eyes, hands, &c, he adapts his language to our capacities, designing to express by these figures the perfections of his nature; but he is really one undivided essence. That which Moses saw, was only the _Shekinah_, a glorious brightness, the symbol of the Divine presence, and not the essence, which is invisible.

In giving an account of the true origin of things, he attends particularly to the _mode_, _agent_, and _time_ of their being produced. His history commences with the creation of matter, “In the beginning.” Before the creative acts mentioned by him, all was eternity. _Time_ signifies _duration_ measured by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies; but prior to the creation of these bodies, there could be no measurement of duration, and consequently no _time_; therefore, “In the beginning,” must necessarily mean the commencement of time which followed, or rather was produced by God’s creative acts, as an effect follows, or is produced by a cause.

[From several expressions in this chapter, it is obvious that Mr. Wood considered the account given by Moses, in the first chapter of Genesis, to apply to _universal creation_, and not to be restricted to our _Solar System_. It is also plainly inferable, that he considered this the _first exercise of God’s creative energy in any way_. This view is entirely too contracted, is not clearly warranted by the text of the sacred historian, and is unnecessary.

There are no passages of Scripture which say distinctly, the Mosaic creation is the first or only acts of creative energy: but there are several which intimate the _previous existence of creatures_, and of course imply a previous exercise of creative power.

It is sufficiently clear that there were intelligent beings existing at the creation of this world. Hence it is said, “the morning stars sang together, and the sons of God shouted for joy,” in view of the rising creation.

Since, therefore, the previous existence of intelligent beings is established, we must, of course, assign to them some _mode_ of subsistence; and this will compel us to assign at least what must be _necessary_ to every creature, a _place of abode_, suited to his wants and conditions, without which he cannot subsist. Thus we establish even a _material_ creation, _anterior_ to the creation mentioned by Moses.

After weighing the account which Moses gives in the first chapter of Genesis, together with the facts and analogies in Nature, the conclusion seems irresistible, _that he describes only our Solar System_; which includes the seven primary planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel: the four asteroides, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas: and the eighteen moons which attend the primary planets. Because,

1. As this account forms the introduction to a revelation designed for the _human family only_, it is reasonable to conclude it would have reference to those bodies only which operate materially to their benefit or injury. But there are no such bodies except in the Solar System.

2. Moses in describing the formation of the heavenly bodies, mentions only the _sun_ and _moon_ in a conspicuous manner: because, these are the only luminaries which contribute _essentially_ to our comfort: and then, lest a beholder might imagine God did not also make the other suns and stars, says incidentally, “He made the stars also.”

3. The conclusion is clear from the fact, that _the Solar System is complete in itself_: forming a perfect whole, which could exist were all other stars and suns destroyed, and vice versâ, all other systems could exist were the Solar System destroyed.

4. It does not well comport with the character of the Divine Being, when we consider his eternal power, infinite wisdom, and boundless goodness, to suppose He never exercised his creative energies but _once_, and that not until a few thousand years since. Yet we are compelled to this conclusion, however reluctantly, unless we restrict the Mosaic account of the creation to our Solar System.

This argument will derive additional weight, when we recollect the _immensity_ of God’s works taken together, and the _illimitable space_ in which he has, and may, exercise his creative energy. We may _approximate towards_ a very faint idea of their immensity, by calling to mind the immense number of _fixed stars_. All astronomers admit their number to be very great indeed, but how many cannot be correctly known. There may be millions whose light has not reached us yet. Of those which may be detected, Professor _Vince_, says, there are at least _seventy-five millions_; and each the centre of a system as large, possibly much larger than our own. Indeed we can scarcely approach towards a competent idea of _illimitable space_. The nearest _fixed star_ is supposed to be Sirius, or the dog-star, at the lowest calculation _twenty-two billions of miles distant_. If we compute according to this analogy, and say there are seventy-five millions of fixed stars, each the _centre_ of a system, perfect, and independent: what mind can conceive the illimitable space through which these worlds must lie? Yet this would scarcely be an approximation towards the true extent. Beyond this there is still _unoccupied space_, “where existence sleeps in the wide abyss of possibility.”

It may, therefore, be asked with justice, whether a being capable of creating, even in this limited view, would have exercised his creative powers _but once_, and that not until a few thousands years since? _Credat qui posset, non ego._ Who can tell what may have been the _successive_ creations, durations, and, possibly, destructions of those worlds which we see, and of others, of which the inhabitants of this earth have never heard, whose light has not yet reached us since their creation, though coming at the rate of nearly _twelve millions of miles in a minute_?

Finally: A _succession_ of creative acts, whose commencement runs back _almost_ parallel with eternity, and will extend forward _almost ad infinitum_, seems to comport best with the eternal, immense, and immutable activity, energy, and goodness of the Divine Being.]

The word _created_ means, that God caused that to exist which, previously to this moment, had no being. The Rabbins, who are legitimate judges in a case of verbal criticism on their own language, are unanimous in asserting, that the word ברא _bara_ expresses the commencement of the existence of a thing, or its egression from nonentity to entity. It does not, in its primary meaning, denote the _preserving_ or _new forming_ things that had previously existed, as some imagine; but _creation_, in the proper sense of the term, though it has some other acceptations in other places. The supposition that God formed all things out of a pre-existing eternal nature, is certainly absurd: for, if there was an eternal nature besides an eternal God, there must have been two self-existing, independent, and eternal Beings, which is a most palpable contradiction. _Ex nihilo nihil fit_, “That out of nothing, nothing is produced” is a maxim that applies itself in every case where Deity is not concerned; it was the main argument used by Aristotle and his followers, but is completely refuted by the authority of Divine revelation. God created את השמים ואת הארץ _eth hashamayim veet haarets_, “the heavens and the earth.” The word את _eth_, which is generally considered as a particle, simply denoting that the word following is in the accusative or oblique case, is often understood by the Rabbins in a much more extensive sense, “The particle את _eth_,” says Aben Ezra, “signifies the _substance_ of the thing.” The like definition is given by Kimchi in his _Book of Roots_. “This particle,” says Mr. Ainsworth, “having the _first_ and _last_ letters of the Hebrew alphabet in it, is supposed to comprise the _sum_ and _substance_ of _all things_.” “The particle את _eth_,” says Buxtorf, Talmudic Lexicon sub voce, “with the Cabalists, is often mystically put for the _beginning_ and the _end_, as Α alpha and Ω omega are in the Apocalypse.” On this ground, these words should be translated, “God in the beginning created the _substance_ of the heavens, and the substance of the earth: i.e. the _prima materia_, or first elements, out of which the heavens and the earth were successively formed.”[23]

During the first state of things, Moses informs us, that “the earth was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.” The original terms תהו _tohoo_, and בהו _bohoo_, translated, “without form and void,” convey the idea of confusion and disorder. The translation by Paginus, is _desert and emptiness_; in the Vulgate, it is _empty and void_; in the Septuagint, _invisible and incomposed_; from the Syriac, _desert and uncultivated_; the Samaritan is the same as the Vulgate; the Arabic, _covered with abysses_: these translations are allowed by the learned Walton. There is but little difference in their real meaning, and all the Versions express the first state of things.[24] The whole collection of matter, created in a fluid state, was a crude, indigested chaos: all belonging to our system, as the sun, moon, stars, earth, and seas, lay blended together in one vast, confused mass, without any arrangement of their constituent particles, heavy and light, dense and rare, fluid and solid, being all mixed together; air, water, and earth, (which have since obtained the name of elements,) were promiscuously scattered throughout.

The chaotic mass remained in this primitive state, till God was pleased to assimilate, assort, and arrange the materials,--out of which he built up, in the space of six days, the whole of creation.[25] _The Spirit of God_, represented us sitting upon the vast abyss, like a bird, while either in the act of incubation or fostering its young, _moved_ or brooded _upon the face of the waters_, communicating, by his vital energy, life and motion to the unformed chaos.

Some writers understand by רוח אלהימ _the Spirit of God_, a “mighty sweeping wind,” a “tremendous tempest,” separating diversified particles of the elementary principles of matter, and combining those of the same kind together. But this is making an effect to be produced by a cause, which, as yet, had no existence; nor, as a cause, is it sufficient to produce so great an effect. To make an effect superior to its cause, is as absurd and contradictory as to say, a long line and a short one are equal. That the single Hebrew word רוח _ruach_, the Greek πνευμα _pneuma_, the Latin _spiritus_, and the ancient Saxon _ghost_ or _gast_, signifies _wind_, as well as the vital breath, the soul of man, a created spirit good or evil, is readily admitted. But concerning the phrase רוח אלהימ, _the Spirit of God_, so frequently used in the Scriptures of the Old Testament, there is not one instance that it signifies _wind_, and to attempt to force such meaning upon it, is a most manifest violation done to the text. By _the Spirit of God_, is meant the third subsistence in the Divine essence, distinguished from the person of the Father, and that of the Son; he is called a _Spirit_, to signify his spiritual and immaterial nature, as well as to express his mighty agency; and the works of which he is the author can only be effected by an omnipotent power.

Milton, who was well versed in the Hebrew language, in his address to the Holy Spirit, says,

“Thou from the first Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread, Dove-like, sat’st brooding on the vast abyss, And mad’st it pregnant.”

The Holy Spirit, by his vital influence, infused that efficient power into the great mass of matter, which was necessary for the assumption of different forms, and the discharge of the assigned functions of selecting and arranging the materials out of which the world is formed. By brooding over the mingled earth and water, says Dr. Owen, “he communicated a prolific virtue; and inlaid them with the seeds of animal life; and therefore the earth and the water brought forth all sorts of creatures in abundance, according to the seeds and principles communicated to them by the cherishing motion of the _Spirit of God_.”

As several of the ancients have described the elementary principles of all things to be a gloomy chaos, consisting of _darkness_ and _water_, we may easily infer from what source they derived this notion. Aristotle observes, the theologists and natural philosophers agreed, that all things were produced, as the former said, “out of night;” or, as the latter, “out of a confused mixture.” Whatever knowledge the inhabitants of Chaldea had of the creation of the world, they ascribe to the teaching of an amphibious monster denominated Oannes. He taught his auditors, that there was a time when all things were darkness and water, in the midst of which various monsters of horrible forms received life and light. Over this chaotic mass presided the demon Omoroca, a mythological personification of the ocean. At length arrived the destined hour of the creation. The monster Omoroca fell subdued beneath the victorious arm of Belus; the animals which composed her empire were annihilated; and the world was formed out of her substance. Oannes, however, taught, that this physiological description was to be taken merely in an allegorical sense, and that the whole fable alluded to the aqueous origin of the universe. Matter having been thus created, Belus divided the darkness from the light, separated the earth from the heavens, disposed the world in order, and called the starry host into existence.

According to the Phœnician system, the principle of the universe was a _dark air_, and a _turbulent evening chaos_; an opinion not very dissimilar to that given by Moses. Sanchoniathon afterward ascribes to material operation the origin of that which may be denominated the will or desire of God, when in his great wisdom he thought fit to create the world out of nothing. From this personification of Divine love, a chaotic mixture was produced, and within it were comprehended the rudiments of all things.

The cosmogony of the ancient Egyptians, though more obscure, is given by Diodorus Siculus. “Damascius having inquired about what was the first principle in the world, gives this as an ancient Egyptian doctrine. The Egyptians have chosen to celebrate the first cause as _unspeakable_. They accordingly style it _darkness unknown_ and mention it with a three-fold acclamation. Again. In this manner the Egyptians styled the first principle _an inconceivable darkness; night and darkness past all imagination_.” This is perfectly consonant to passages from the same author, quoted by Dr. Cudworth. “There is one origin of all things, celebrated by the name of _unknown_ (incomprehensible) _darkness_.” Again. “They hold, that the first beginning or cause of things was _darkness beyond all conception; an unknown darkness_.”

Hesiod mentions, “A chaos as first existing. Next was produced the spacious earth, the seat of the immortals; Tartarus hid within the recesses of the ample globe; and divine love, the most beautiful of the deities. From chaos sprung Erebus, and black night; and from the union of night and Erebus were born ether and the day.”[26] Zeno, of Cittium, the founder of the Stoics, said, Hesiod meant by the chaos, “Water, out of which all things were formed, which by concretion became firm earth.”

In the work of Aristophanes, we meet with a similar passage. “Chaos, and night, and black Erebus, and wide Tartarus, first existed; at that time, there was neither earth, air, nor heaven. But in the bosom of Erebus, black-winged night produced an aërial egg; from which, in due season, beautiful Love, decked with golden wings, was born. Out of dark chaos, in the midst of wide-spreading Tartarus, he begot our race, and called us forth into the light.”[27]

It is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove, that the ancients were not only acquainted with the cosmogony of Moses, but received it as true; to which they added their own coloring.

[It is now generally agreed by cosmogonists, commentators, biblical critics, and natural philosophers, that the _substance_ of the earth certainly, and probably the materials of the Solar System, was first created in a chaotic state, and subsequently arranged in order. This opinion is very ancient and almost universal, found in all nations. Ovid, an ancient heathen poet, has well described this chaos:

Ante mare et terras, et, quod teget omnia, Cœlum, Unus erat toto naturæ vultus in orbe, Quem dixére Chaos; rudis indigestaque moles, Nec quicquam nisi pondus iners; congestaque eodem. Non bene junctarum discordia semina rerum.

Before the seas, and this terrestrial ball, And heaven’s high canopy that covers all: _One_ was the face of nature if a face: _Rather a rude and indigested mass: A lifeless lump, unfashioned and unframed, Of jarring seeds, and justly_ CHAOS _named_.--Dryden.

Notwithstanding the general prevalence of this opinion, and the high authorities which support it, the reader must not imagine it is absolutely _universal_. Some eminent men have suggested, that the earth, and matter generally, was created in a _solid_ state at first. This is the view taken by Mr. Ure, of the Andersonian University. He supposes _the earth was created a solid ball, or spheroid, regular on its surface, without hills and vallies, and immersed in a crust of ice, which completely and uniformly surrounded it: that it was a cold lifeless lump; heat not yet having pervaded it_. The first, and all quickening operation of heat he supposes to be indicated by these words of Moses: “And the Spirit of God moved on the face of the waters.” He supposes, all the matter of our earth is in the same relative position, in which it was when it first existed at the command of God; _except such cases in which some subsequent force has disarranged it_. These cases he supposes to have been many, and to have operated to the _upheaving_ the mountains, and hollowing out the beds of the sea, &c. He says of the earth: “The central mass composed, most probably, of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies, as volcanic phenomena seem to attest, would fuse, when first the calorific energy was made to actuate the body of the earth, and the exterior parts would oxydize into the crust of mineral strata, and the outermost coat of all, the fixed ice, would melt into the moveable _waters_.” _New Syst. of Geol. B. 1. chap. 1. p. 7._

Perhaps Mr. Ure’s view might be improved, and made to approximate much nearer the common opinion, possibly identified with it, by supposing the mass of matter composing our earth, was confusedly mixed,--and of course chaotic--but was in a frozen, hard, inactive state: that the quickening energy, which softened and fused it, was simultaneous with its revolution on its axis. The consequence then would be precisely what we find it to be; viz: an enlargement of the equatorial diameter, and a flattening of the poles. This I conceive to be the true theory in this case.

Mr. Ure confirms his view by a quotation from Sir Isaac Newton; Optics, Book 3. towards the conclusion. “It seems probable to me that God in the beginning formed matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles, of such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such proportions to space, as most conduced to the end for which he formed them. All material things seem to have been composed of the hard and solid particles above mentioned, variously associated in the _first creation_ by the counsels of an intelligent agent. For it became him who created them to set them in order; and if he did so, it is unphilosophical to seek for any other origin of this world, or to pretend that it might rise out of chaos by the mere laws of Nature; though being once formed, it may continue by those laws for many ages.”

I have given this quotation precisely as I found it in Mr. Ure’s New System of _Geology_, B. 1. chap. 1. p. 10. Considering the well founded reputation of Newton, it adds very much to the probability of the above theory: yet it seems to me to be at variance with the commonly received impression of Newton’s opinion on this subject. I have not his work at hand to examine it.

The Encyclopedia Britannica, Article _Earth_, seems to favor this view. It says, “The common notion of the earth’s being originally a chaos, seems neither to have a foundation in reason, nor in the Mosaic account of the creation.”

The reader will here perceive high authorities on both sides, and all claiming to agree with Moses. The weight of evidence seems to be in favor of a chaotic creation, which does _not_ necessarily imply that the mass was created in a _soft_ state. But the configuration, and internal structure of the earth abundantly prove it was in a soft, or compressible state when it was assuming its present form and structure. This condition was the effect of the quickening energy of the Spirit of God. The difference between the _equatorial_ and _polar_ diameters of the earth, which is now well established, and is about twenty-seven miles, can scarcely be accounted for, without supposing the substance of the earth, at least to a great depth, to have been partially or wholly fluid; in which case, by turning round rapidly on its own axis, it would assume the shape it is known to possess. It may, indeed, be said, the Almighty could give it any shape and qualities he pleased, and we cannot well object to it.

As it regards the interior, or central parts of our planet, our author has said nothing, and possibly he would give this very good reason for his silence--_we can know nothing certainly_. Still, however, we may subjoin the conjectures of some eminent philosophers.

Some suppose the central parts of our globe to be _cavernous_ or _hollow_. The principal argument for this theory is the transmission of _sound_ and _motion_ through vast extents of country, in case of volcanoes and earthquakes. It is supposed this could not be done so perfectly and extensively, unless we suppose some _aëriform_, or _gaseous_ body within the earth, by means of which it might be transmitted: which would be to suppose it _cavernous_ or _hollow_.

Dr. Halley supposes the earth is a hollow sphere, in which there is inclosed a central magnetic globe, and by the motions of this globe the variations of the magnetic needle are produced.

Our own ingenious, but unfortunate countryman, _Symms_, supposed the earth to be hollow, and inhabited within, and its interior accessible to us. He argues, there is no necessity, for the purposes of gravitation, or for any other purposes, to suppose the earth solid to the centre: And it is inconsistent with the divine beneficence to suppose such an amount of matter as this globe would be, if solid, should have been created to afford so small a portion, _scarcely one-fourth_, fit for the actual habitation of man, for whom principally it was created. He, therefore, supported, that the interior of the earth was an immense cavern blessed with changes of season, succession of day and night, cold and heat, and inhabited by human beings, and other animals. He supposed the poles of the earth were hollow, and this hollow entrance gradually verged round towards the equator; and ships have, without knowing it, been within the verge, from whence they found no difficulty of returning.

Others have supposed the central parts of our globe are solid. This is the common supposition, and is principally supported by these two arguments:--As the attraction of gravitation depends on the _quantity_ of matter, as well as the distance; unless we suppose the earth a _solid_ body it will not be able to exert a sufficient attractive influence on the moon to keep her in her orbit. Again: it is ascertained by actual experiment, that the _mean_ density of the earth is about _five_ times that of water: from which it is infered it is solid, and must increase in density from the surface to the centre, in order to give this high mean proportion over the bodies at its surface.

The increasing density of the earth, from the surface to the centre is owing to _compression_ in part, and partly to the supposed fact, that the heavier substances are placed nearer the centre. Thus we find the different strata of rocks indicate the same. Granite is the heaviest and lowest rock _in situ_.

Some have supposed that _iron_, probably nearly in a metallic state, constitutes the nucleus of our earth. This idea seems to have been suggested to account for the influence of the earth on a magnetic needle.

But the most splendid, and very probable conjecture is founded on the experiments of Berzelius, and Sir H. Davy, on the earths, which experiments prove them to have _metallic bases_ universally: hence all our earths are _metallic oxides_. From these circumstances it is conjectured, that the nucleus of our globe is constituted of the metals in a pure, or nearly pure state, which are the bases of our earths, alkalis, and alkaline earths.

It would almost seem a legitimate conjecture to suppose the substances of our globe were, at _first, metals_ and _gases_: that the oxygen, combining with the metals formed earths, and alkalis; and the gases combining among themselves formed air, water, &c. This would be a chemical process, and necessarily _fuse_ and soften the earth, and introduce the process of cooling, which would proceed from the surface towards the centre. Hence some eminent philosophers have conjectured that there is a great degree of heat in the interior of the earth yet: probably the central parts are in a state of igneous fusion. Some recent researches of Cordier tend to establish this opinion. The amount of evidence in favor of this conjecture is increasing annually, and probably will prevail. See the _additional_ paper on _volcanos_ in this volume.]

* * * * *

_Section_ II.--_Fire._

Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism on the original word אור aur -- Creation of fire -- Its nature -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire attracted by bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of combination -- Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire -- Subterraneous fires -- Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions -- Air a storehouse of fire -- General and final Dissolution of Nature by fire -- Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, vital influence, transforming energy, and destructive operation.

The sacred historian here informs us of the first regular production reduced from the chaotic mass. With an astonishing majesty of expression, God said, יהי אור ויהי אור YEHI AUR, _vayehi aur_, _Let there be light: and there was light_. Or, more literally, _Be light: and light was_. Pagninus translates the words יהי אור YEHI AUR, literally, _Sit lux, Be light_. In the Greek it is γενεθητω φῶς, _Be light made_, or _generated_. In the Vulgate, _Fiat lux_, which is much the same as the Greek. The celebrated Dionysius Longinus, meeting with this passage in the Septuagint, considered it as a specimen of the _true sublime_. Though a heathen, he thus expresses himself: “So likewise the Jewish lawgiver, (who was no ordinary man) having conceived a just idea of the divine power, he expressed it in a dignified manner; for at the beginning of his laws he thus speaks: GOD SAID--_What?_ LET THERE BE LIGHT! _and there was light_. LET THERE BE EARTH! _and there was earth_.”[28]

Here we may inquire, Whether this was a word uttered with a sound, like that which God spake from mount Sinai in giving the Law; or only the exercise of the inward faculty of reason or understanding? It could not be a word spoken with a sound, for that requires air as its _medium_, and none as yet existed; neither was there any ear to hear, nor any use of such words. Nor could it be any exercise of the Divine Mind, now beginning to think of the creation and formation of things; for this purpose was in his thoughts from eternity. The meaning therefore is, that God did, without any instruments, toil, labor, alteration, or delay, for the manifestation of his own infinite goodness, wisdom, power, and will, actually working like a powerful word or command, instantaneously produce _light_.[29] Thus

“Dark Chaos heard his voice.”

The Psalmist, touching on the subject of creation, says, “He spake, and it was done: he commanded, and it stood fast”--יעמד _jagnamad, it stood forth_, as a servant at his master’s command, prepared to do his will, and to execute his pleasure.[30]

The divine commandment which produced light, says an intelligent writer, must be considered as operating on the properties of matter already created; and as light is found to proceed from the motion of luminous particles, we must conceive some central force, or attracting power, to be the instrument of producing this phenomenon of light, by its attractive or propelling properties. There seem to be moving principles in all nature, which, when put in action by the first Cause, produce natural effects according to established laws, which cannot be altered unless by the first Mover. As the Hebrew word תהומ _tehom, abyss_, translated _deep_, signifies also to move with a sort of confused motion; we may justly conclude that the chaotic mass had some gravitating powers in it, before the forming of the system; and that attracting and repelling force was naturally and originally in the universe; and that the first Mover gave them in a regular course, the specifical direction, and systematical attractions. What our distinguished philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton, has suggested concerning attraction and gravitation, even in point of philosophy, appears to agree with the Principia of Moses.

Another author writes, Whether Moses intended a philosophical account of light in this place, I will not pretend to say; but one thing is certain, that he makes use of a word which points out some of the principal properties of light. The original word אור _aur_ signifies that body which renders objects visible, which we call _light_; it also signifies _fire_, and perhaps Moses intended to point out in one word, what in our language requires two, _light_ and _fire_. When we consider the words of Moses, it appears evident that what is in our version called _light_, is in the Hebrew rather something that sends forth light. The original word אור _aur_ may signify any thing that makes things visible by emitting particles of light. When the Almighty said, “Let there be אור _aur, light_,” it is not certain that he meant elementary fire, or original unpropagated light. It is more probable that he intended by that word, a body that sent forth light by means of the motion of similar particles of luminous and igneous matter.

Whatever may be the philosophic differences between these two, _light_ and _fire_, continues the same author, we are certain that they are seldom separated. The origin of that light which now renders bodies visible to us, seems chiefly to be _fire_, though light and fire are not inseparably connected; for light may be propagated where there is no fire, as from putrid bodies, &c, and fire may be where there is no light, as in iron, sulphur, &c.

The Hebrew word אור _aur_, signifies not only light, but _fire_. God created this powerful agent on the first day, and diffused it through every part of nature; because without it no operation could be carried on and perfected. T. Bartholine quotes Aristotle as saying, “That fire is the efficient cause of all things.” Robison says, “Heat is susceptible of fixation--of being accumulated in bodies, and, as it were, laid up till we have occasion for it; and we are as certain of getting the stored-up heat, as we are sure of obtaining from our drawers the things we put in them.”[31] It pervades all bodies: this is not the case with any other substance we know of--not even light. It lies hid in every thing around us. It is a substance which we are ever in want of; it is therefore deposited on every side, and is ready for every exigency.

_Caloric_ is the name given by modern chemists, to that substance by whose influence the phenomena of heat are produced, and which had before been distinguished by the terms _igneous fluid_, _matter of heat_, and other analogous denominations. In order to give precision to chemical language, it was necessary to adopt a word by which to distinguish between the substance which produces the sensation we call heat, and the sensation itself; these being connected as cause and effect; for whenever caloric becomes fixed in a body, it loses its property of affording heat. Whatever is the nature of that quality in bodies called heat, we are assured it does resemble the sensation of heat. A man whose mind is destitute of the cultivation of science, if endued with common sense, never imagines the sensation of heat to be in the fire; he only imagines that there is something in fire which occasions this sensation.

Though we are well acquainted with the effects of fire, we know but little of its nature. It is so active, as well as powerful a principle, that it eludes all our researches. We may, however, define it to be the phlogiston or inflammable principle, which pervades in a greater or less degree all substances. Boerhaave thinks it is a fluid of a nature peculiar to itself; that it was created such as it is, and cannot be altered in its nature or its properties; that it naturally exists in equal quantities in all places; and that it is wholly imperceptible to our senses, being only discoverable by such effects as in its operation it produces.[32]

That fire is really a substance, and not a quality, appears from its acting upon other substances, the reality of which has never been doubted. Charcoal, in its natural state, contains within its pores a large quantity of air; but if charcoal is heated, this air is expelled by the fire, which assumes its place, and occupies the pores of the charcoal. The burning of lime also, which deprives it of a great part of its weight by expelling the fixable air, demonstrates that fire, as a substance, enters into the pores of the lime, and forces out those other substances which are least intimately combined with it.

Collision or friction of solid bodies, is the means most generally used for exciting the action of fire. The vacuities of all solid bodies are replete with fire, so that it is impossible to agitate or separate their parts swiftly, without giving the same rapid motion to the element contained within them. When a piece of hardened steel is struck with a flint, some particles of the metal are scraped away from the mass, and so violent is the fire which follows the stroke, that it melts and vitrifies them. If the fragments of steel are catched upon paper, and viewed with a microscope, you will find most of them perfect spherules, and very highly polished. Their sphericity demonstrates that they have been in a fluid state, and the polish upon their surface shows them to be vitrified; the fire being disengaged with violence, disposes the particles of the substance to combine with the vital air, while this air accelerates the combustion. The whole of the heat produced is not afforded by the body itself, because in proportion as the interior fire is disengaged, the external air acts upon the body and gives out fire.

If the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied to each other, without the interposition of some unctuous matter to keep them from immediate contact, they will become so hot when the carriage runs swiftly along, as to set the wood on fire; and the fore wheels being smallest, and making more revolutions, will be most in danger. The same will happen to mill-work, or any other machinery, if the necessary precautions are neglected. It is no uncommon practice with a blacksmith to use a plate of iron as an extemporaneous tinder-box; for it may be hammered on an anvil till it becomes red hot, and will fire a match of brimstone. A strong man who strikes quick, and keeps turning the iron, so that both sides may be equally exposed to the force of the hammer, will perform this in less time than would be expected. If in the coldest season you lay one dense iron plate upon another, and press the upper one, by a weight, on the lower one, and then rub the one over the other; by reciprocal motions, they will first grow warm, and at length so hot, as in a short time to emit sparks, and at last grow red hot, as if taken out of a vehement fire.

It is not necessary that the substance should be very hard; a cord rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly against a post or a tree will take fire; a stick of wood pressed against another which is turned swiftly about in a lathe, will soon make it turn black and emit smoke. Even the palms of your hands, if you rub them briskly together, when they are dry, will smell as if they were scorched. The method of exciting fire by rubbing two sticks of wood together, was anciently practised by country people, and is still retained in some parts of the world. The manner is exactly described in Captain Cook’s voyage. The inhabitants of New-Holland are there said to produce fire with great facility, and spread it in a wonderful manner. To produce it, they take two pieces of _soft_ dry wood; one is a stick about eight or nine inches long, the other piece is flat. The stick they shape into an obtuse point at one end, and pressing it upon the other, turn it nimbly by holding it between both their hands, as we do a chocolate mill, often shifting their hands up and down, and then moving them down upon it to increase the pressure as much as possible. By this method they get fire in less than two minutes, and from the smallest spark they increase it with speed and dexterity.

The matter of fire is attracted more or less by all bodies. When any heated body comes in contact with a cold one, the former loses a part of its heat, and both of them become equally warm. If heated iron is laid upon a stone, its heat will flow into the stone; if thrown into the water, the heat will be diffused through the water. If a number of different substances, as metals, wood, wool, &c, are brought together into a place where there is not a fire, if they are of different temperatures, that is of different degrees of heat, the fire will be attracted from the hottest to those that are colder, till a perfect equilibrium is produced, or till they have all acquired the same temperature, as may be proved by applying the thermometer successively to each of them.

It does not appear, however, that all bodies have an equal attraction for the matter of fire. If a rod of iron is put into the fire for a short time, the end which is at a moderate distance from the fire will almost burn the hand; but a rod of wood, of the same length will be consumed to ashes at the end which is in the fire, before the other end is sufficiently heated to burn the hand. A ball of lead, and a ball of wool, may be of exactly the same temperature by the thermometer, but they will not appear of the same degree of heat on applying the hand. If they are of a temperature below that of our bodies, the lead will appear much colder than the wool, because it attracts the heat more rapidly from the hand; if they are of a higher temperature, the lead will appear much hotter, from the facility with which it parts with its heat. This property in bodies is called their _conducting_ power; and those bodies through which the element of fire most rapidly circulates, are called good conductors.

The power of conducting the matter of fire seems to depend upon the texture of bodies, that is, upon the contact of their parts; hence the excessive slowness with which heat is communicated to bodies of a rare and spongy texture. Thus flannel, wool, and feathers, are considered as warm coverings, not because they possess more heat in themselves--for they serve to preserve any cold body in a cool state better than other substances--but because they prevent the escape of the animal heat from our bodies.

The matter of fire will exist in a state of combination, in a _latent_ state, so as not to be perceptible to our senses. It will be found by observation, that every body which exists contains a quantity of the matter of fire in a fixed or neutralized state, disarmed of all its active, penetrating, and destructive qualities, like an acid and an alkali in combination.

Fluids, from their very nature and constitution, contain a greater quantity of caloric in a latent state than solid bodies: indeed it is now universally admitted, and may be easily proved, that the fluidity of all bodies is altogether owing to the quantity of fire which they retain in this latent or combined state, the elasticity of which keeps their particles remote from each other, and prevents their fixing into a solid mass. All bodies, therefore, in passing from a fluid to a solid state, emit a quantity of fire or heat. When water is thrown upon quick lime, it is absorbed by the lime, and in this state it is capable of retaining a much smaller quantity of caloric than in its natural state; on the slacking of lime, therefore, a very intense heat is produced, the matter of fire which preserved the water fluid being disengaged and detached. If spirit of vitriol is added to strong oil of turpentine, they will condense into a solid mass, and a great quantity of heat will be sensibly emitted. Upon the same principle it will be found, on the other hand, that when any body passes from a solid to a fluid state, the adjacent bodies will be deprived of a quantity of their natural heat.

[This theory of what is called _burning lime_, is not sufficiently clear. Fire does not enter into the pores of the lime by burning. The mineral commonly used for procuring _quick lime_ is the _carbonate_ of lime, or common _limestone_, which is composed of carbonic acid with a small quantity of water, 43, and lime 57, in 100 parts. By submiting it to a strong heat, the carbonic acid is driven off, and the quick or pure lime remains, which is an _oxide of calcium_. The loss in weight is owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid, with the small portion of water. By adding water to the quick lime, it is dissolved, and falls into a powder. This process is called _slacking lime_, and the product, _slack-lime_. During the process a large quantity of heat is disengaged; and if the slacking be done in the dark, _light_ is also observed to be thrown out. This heat is given out by the _water_, not the lime. The lime having a _greater affinity_ for the _hydrogen_ of the water than exists between the hydrogen and oxygen in water, seizes upon it, and the _oxygen passes off_, together with the _latent caloric_ of the water, and thus the heat is produced which is observed in slacking lime. The hydrogen of the water combines with the lime and becomes solid, forming an _hydrate of lime_, which is the common slacked lime used in mortar.]

The matter of fire is _elastic_, as is proved evidently from all its effects. There is indeed reason to believe, that caloric is the only fluid in nature which is permanently elastic, and that it is the cause of the elasticity of all fluids which are esteemed so. From the elasticity of this element it results, that all natural bodies can only retain a certain quantity of it, without undergoing an alteration in their state and form. Thus a moderate quantity of fire admitted into a solid body expands it; a still larger quantity renders it fluid; and if the quantity is still increased, it will be converted into vapor.

Caloric expands all bodies which it penetrates, more or less, in proportion to its quantity, and to the nature of those bodies. The expansion of water, even previous to its assuming the form of vapor, may be seen in an easy experiment. If a quantity of cold water, contained in a clear flask, is immersed in a vessel of boiling water; as the heat enters, the water in the flask will be seen to rise in the neck till it overflows.

An iron rod a foot long being heated red hot, became 1-60 longer than before; and a glass cylinder, a fathom long, under the same circumstances, gained 1-50 in length. A metalline ring thus heated was increased 9-100 in its diameter; and a glass globe became extended 1-100 part by the heat of the hand only applied to its surface.[33]

The _general_ effects of caloric are to increase the bulk of the substances with which it unites, and to render them specifically lighter than they were before; but in whatever quantity it is accumulated in bodies, it never adds to their absolute weight. Caloric favors the solution of salts, and promotes the union of many substances. In other cases it serves to separate bodies already united; so that in the hands of chemists it is the most useful and powerful agent with which they are acquainted. It is the cause of fluidity in all substances which are capable of becoming fluid, from the heaviest metal to the lightest gas. Let it be remembered that _all_ fluids are formed from solids by an addition of caloric; and that, by abstracting this caloric, solids would be reproduced. It insinuates itself among their particles, and invariably separates them in some measure from each other. We have reason to believe that every solid substance on the face of the earth might be converted to a fluid, or even a gas, were it submitted to the action of a very high temperature in peculiar circumstances.[34]

[The general and aggregate bearing of the facts and experiments which are now known, render the statement here made by Mr. Wood extremely probable, viz; That caloric is a very subtle fluid which pervades in large quantities every particle of matter in the universe--that it is the agent which regulates the _densities_ of all bodies, and by consequence, regulates in some measure their _weight_ and _dimensions_. It is considered as an almost settled question, _that a stratum of caloric surrounds each ultimate particle of every body, so that the ultimate particles of bodies do not, and cannot be made to touch each other_. Their inherent inclination to come into actual contact is called their _attraction of cohesion_: the power of this attraction is in proportion to the distance at which they are kept from each other by the atmosphere of caloric which intervenes between them. This atmosphere of caloric is _idio-repulsive_: of course the particles of caloric have an inherent _repulsion_ among themselves, and are ever struggling to get further asunder.

This idio-repulsive nature of caloric is the great, and constant antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion. Caloric has a tendency to drive the particles of matter further from each other, and these particles have a mutual tendency to approach. Hence these two principles are ever in conflict. As a general rule we may say, when the attraction of cohesion prevails greatly, the body becomes _solid_: when the two forces are pretty nearly balanced, the body becomes _liquid_: when the caloric prevails greatly, the body becomes _gaseous_.

There is sufficient reason to believe, that _every_ body in nature might be raised to a _gaseous_ state by the addition or action of a sufficient quantity of caloric: and there is, probably, a sufficient quantity in nature, to render the whole _universe_ gaseous, were it sufficiently excited to a state of freedom. It is a well known fact, that _all the metals are fusible by heat_, and many of them have been _volatalized_, and it is extremely probable all of them may be.

As caloric regulates the density of bodies, by resisting and modifying the influence of the attraction of cohesion: if it were entirely withdrawn from nature, or the whole of it rendered perfectly latent, _all matter would become perfectly_ SOLID and FIXED: even _water_ and _air_ would assume the _solidity of the diamond_.

We must, therefore, regard caloric as the great conservative principle of the Universe, and yet capable, if called into action, of destroying it instantly.

These views strongly corroborate _our_ paper on _chaos_.]

From the experiments of General Roy, in the 75th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, it appears that the expansion of a steel pendulum of a clock is such, that every four degrees of the thermometer will cause a variation of a second per day; and that the difference between the going of a clock in summer and winter will be about six seconds per day, or one minute in ten days, owing to the metallic pendulum varying in length with every change of temperature. A knowledge of this circumstance gave rise to Harrison’s self-regulating time-piece, which, by the different expansion of _different_ metals, accommodates its movements to every change of seasons or climate.

The fire deposited below the surface of the earth is peculiarly important, having produced earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Dr. Watson, late Bishop of Llandaff, in his Chemical Essays, says, The most remarkable changes which have taken place in the form and constitution of the earth, since the deluge, have probably been produced by subterraneous fires; for it is to their agency that philosophers ascribe volcanos and earthquakes; those tremendous instruments of nature, by which she converts plains into mountains, the ocean into islands, and dry land into stagnant pools. Mr. Lemery, as far as I have been able to learn, adds the learned Bishop, was the first person who illustrated, by actual experiment, the origin of subterraneous fires. He mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered sulphur with an equal weight of iron filings; and having kneaded the mixture together, by means of a little water, into the consistency of a paste, he put it into an iron pot, covered it with a cloth, and buried the whole a foot under ground. In about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled, grew warm, and cracked: hot sulphureous vapors were perceived: a flame which dilated the cracks was observed; the superincumbent earth was covered with a yellow and black powder: in short, a subterraneous fire, producing a volcano in miniature, was spontaneously lighted up from the reciprocal actions of sulphur, iron, and water.

Volcanic eruptions are awfully terrific, and sometimes extensively destructive. The violent eruption of Vesuvius, in 1767, is reckoned the 27th since that which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, in the reign of the Emperor Titus; and this eruption of 1767, has been succeeded by several others. Of the eruptions of Ætna, Mr. Oldenburg has given a historical account in the Philosophical Transactions, No. xlviii. p. 967. A very great eruption of this mountain was in the year 1669. The progress of the lava, or fiery deluge, was at the rate of a furlong a day. It advanced into the sea 600 yards, and was then a mile in breadth. It had destroyed, in forty days, the habitations of 27,000 persons; and of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catanea, only 3,000 escaped. This inundation of liquid fire, in its progress, met with a lake four miles in compass, and not only filled it up, although it was four fathoms deep, but raised it into a mountain. Borelli, an ingenious Neapolitan, has calculated, that the matter discharged at this eruption was sufficient to fill a space of 93,838,750 cubic spaces. The lava which ran from it is fourteen miles in length, and, in many parts, six in breadth. There have been no such eruptions since, although there have been signs of many, more terrible, that preceded it.[35]

The principal volcanos in Europe are Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, in Italy; Mount Ætna, in Sicily; Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and Stromboli, the most northern of the Lipari islands, north of Sicily. Of all the volcanos recorded in history, Stromboli seems to be the only one that burns incessantly. Ætna and Vesuvius are sometimes many months, and even years, without the least emission of fire; but this is ever at work, and, for ages past, has been considered as the light-house of the Mediterranean Sea. It is very probable, that Mount Vesuvius and Mount Ætna form but different portions of _one_ chain of mountains that passes under the sea, and the isle of Lipari; for whenever one of the volcanos has a great eruption, it is observed that the other, and the volcano in the isle of Lipari, throw out more flames than ordinary. This remark was made by Huet, Bishop of Avranches, in France, a celebrated philosophical, historical, and commercial writer. The force of volcanos is supposed to be the greatest of any thing yet known in nature. In the great eruption of Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of lava, of an immense magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height of at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain.

[The present state of chemical science, and the geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years, seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and earthquakes result from _sulphur_, _iron_, and _water_, as Mr. Lemery’s experiment seems to indicate.

The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.

Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in producing volcanic action, and earthquakes, _volcanic products would give evidence of it_, by being, principally, _sulphate of iron_. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100 parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at all.

Volcanic products are generally, “mixtures of the earth in an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed oxidated matter.” URE.

These two simple considerations must set aside the theory mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.

As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.

By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic action, as well as an examination of its products, we are clearly convinced, the _agents are aëriform_; chiefly _steam_ and the _gases_, and they act with an _expansive force from beneath_.

Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet, and has on its top a crater _eight miles_ in circumference, containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it in 1824. He says, “exhalations escape from all the fissures of the lava crust, producing here and there a blast _like strong vapor blowing out of a steam boiler_.”

Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it, and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has given a description of the crater. He says, “its surface had all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high.” _Ure’s New Syst. Geol._ pp. 381-2.

In both these accounts we clearly see aëriform agents acting from beneath. The _hissing_ noise of steam escaping from a boiler, convinces of the _nature_ of the body escaping. The _upheaving_ of the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent acts from _beneath_ by expansion, but also, by its resemblance to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava, heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.

We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments, observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava, resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion occurred, the lava appeared _inflated_, and _large bubbles_, some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation followed and the lava sunk. During the rising, _a sound issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling violently in a caldron_. In this case we have every evidence of an _aëriform agent acting from beneath_.

An aëriform agent is detected also by examining the _structure_ of volcanic products, which have been ejected in a melted state. They are found to be _vesicular_, _cellular_, and _porous_. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these cavities and cells were filled with an aëriform body, which escaped upon cooling.

This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it is unnecessary. It remains only to ask, _whether these elastic agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and products of volcanic action and earthquakes_?

The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers this question promptly in the _affirmative_. A very few grains of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier which man can construct, unless it find vent.

As we have seen sufficiently clearly that aëriform bodies, as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into the _production_ and _action_ of those agents.

As it regards their production, the present state of geological and chemical science suggests _three_ theories, each of which would be adequate to the object.

It is necessary to premise that _water_ is a common agent in each of the three theories.

1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to the _bases_ of the earths, demonstrating them to be _metallic_, and the earths merely _oxides_ of those metals, have led to the conjecture, _that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth_; of course the _crust_ of the earth is composed of the various metallic oxides.

It is well known that many of these metals _take fire on coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c_; and _all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air_, and thus _large quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved_.

This theory is so reasonable, in view of the _combustibility_ of metals, and so conformable to science, that we almost decide it is true, without further examination.

But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it must first be shown, _that the metals do exist in nearly a pure state in the interior of the earth_: and then, _that they are accessible by water, or air, or both_.

The first point can only be rendered _probable by analogy_. We _know_ that the earths which are found in the crust of our planet are _metallic oxides_. It is very natural to suppose these metals existed in a pure _metallic state at the creation, as well at the surface as at the centre_; as all other bodies most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state when God first produced them. From this supposition it is easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which would be at the earth’s surface, these metals would be rapidly oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would commence at the _surface_ of the earth, and _tend towards the centre_, it is evident its _progress would be arrested by its own action_.

For the _accumulation of the earths_, by the oxidation of the metals, would gradually form the _superincumbent crust_, which would act as a _barrier_ to the water and air, preventing their contact with the metals in the interior, _which_, of course, _would not be oxidized_.

In this state they would remain buried deep under the superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and air should find access to them. When this should take place a rapid, and extensive _chemical action_ would commence, generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metals _decomposing_ the air and water, in the process of oxidation, and setting the _hydrogen_ of the water, and _nitrogen_ of the air _free_. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action would _raise the temperature_ of these gases, and thus _increase their bulk_ immensely, which would produce an irresistible _expansive force_, which would _increase the pressure_ against the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated, _and the_ IGNITION _of the hydrogen would be a necessary consequence_. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly to _decompose_ or _melt_ the substances in its neighborhood, and set at liberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which being _ignited_, and of course _expanded_ immeasurably, would not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from its seat to the surface of the earth, _that opening would_ CONSTITUTE A VOLCANO; from which the gases would escape, and throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products which are known to come forth of the craters.

It now remains to inquire, _whether a sufficient quantity of water can be supposed to have access to these metals_?

From what we know of the distribution of water generally in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in admitting the _affirmative_. But this question may be clearly answered by two circumstances.

First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves an _excess_ of water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those in South America. “Bouguer and Condamine saw these formidable torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood.” _Ure’s New Sys. Geol._ p. 386.

Secondly: The position of volcanos, _always near the sea_, together with the _agitations of the sea_, previous to, and during an eruption, as well as the _saline_ matter in the ejected substances, render it very clear, _that the sea, by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat of volcanic action_. “The sea seems to sympathise with the agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with rapid alternation--_caused by the sudden deflux of a great body of water into the vast volcanic caverns_.” _Ure’s New Sys. Geol._ p. 388.

This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos, that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or near the sea coast. Indeed many of them are _submarine_, and have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water of the sea for a great distance round became _hot_, fishes died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels in the neighborhood.

2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ from the first, in regard to the _materials_ employed at the seat of volcanic action, nor in the _manner_ of the process; but in regard to the _condition_ of those materials when they _begin_ to operate in the production of the elastic agents. These materials may be in a state of _igneous fusion_ in the interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted thus:

When God created the substances of the earth, they were in an _elementary_ and _uncombined_ state, promiscuously mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By his _Spirit brooding over the great deep_, caloric and light, which were in a _latent_ state, were called into action, which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter, thus quickening the whole mass by producing _intense heat_. This would cause the _aqueous_ and _gaseous_ particles to rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which would of course _oxidize_, and become _earths_. This action would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which have been gradually cooling ever since. The _primitive_ rocks, which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as in the first theory to the metals in their pure state, _and we have the same results in all respects_.

This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light, in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the earth.

Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on the _temperature_ of the earth at different depths. The following tables are extracted from Mr. Ure’s New System of Geology, pp. 426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the tables.

_Observations on the temperature of the earth._

In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort, M. Gensanne found:

At 333 feet, 54½ Fahr. 680 “ 62 1016 “ 66½ 1429 “ 73

In the mines of Freyberg, M. D’Aubuisson found

External air 41 In the galleries 50 528 feet, water pool 52 858 water of a spring 57

At Junghohebirke,

external thermometer 32 1040 feet, water was 63

Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of Cornwall.

At surface, in June, 59 118 feet deep 64½ 480 “ 68 840 “ 69½ 1144 “ 79

_December._

At the surface air 50 120 feet air 57 600 “ air 66 ---- “ water 64 962 “ air 70 ---- “ water 74 1200 “ air 78 ---- “ water 78

M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines in South America. The evidence in favor of a _perpetually increasing temperature as you descend into the earth_, and a _higher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth_, is increasing daily. _See the conclusion of this paper._

3. There is yet a third theory, founded on _voltaic energy_, or _galvanism_ and _electricity_.

The application of these agents to the production of volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the “Outline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale College,” by Professor Silliman, from which the following extract is made. I had not regarded their application in the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I shall transcribe from his “Outline,” pp. 118-19, inserted in “Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology, first American Edition.”

“Whatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic powers which we _know_ to exist--whose action we can command, and whose effects having been first observed within the memory of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos?

“Arrangements of metals and fluids are the common means by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories; and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed, a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It would seem indeed that metals and fluids are not _necessary_ to the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power. Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at particular places.

“In our laboratories we see emanating from this source, intense light, irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy, and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their combinations.

“Sir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their oxidated products, at the negative--proved that even the firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their immediate principles and elements being separated by its energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of voltaic energy--their metals being set at liberty, and being combustible both in air and water--elastic agents produced by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos.”

The reader will perceive that all of the above theories agree in one respect, viz; in the agency of _elastic bodies_, as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories. They are all scientific in their principles, and fully competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some instances, and combined in others.

Under the agency of either of them the products would be the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51--Alumina, 19--Lime, 9.5--Oxide of iron, 14.5--Soda, 4--Muriatic acid, 1--in 100 parts.

As it regards the extent of volcanic action and earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult. _This is found to be the fact by observation in different countries._

In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not, and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active volcano, _there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may be counted from seventy to one hundred craters_. They are so close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries. _See Ure’s New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell’s Geology._

Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and five _active_ volcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and ninety-eight on continents.

It is very evident that the _seat_ of volcanic action is vastly below the surface of the earth. The _extent_ of country which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and even _across the Atlantic_!

Again: If the action were not situated far below the surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve as _chimnies_, and which have been formed by the action of the volcanos, _would sink in_. This has been the case in a few instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider the _amount_ of matter ejected. Did it not come from an immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the surface of the earth would break down the _substrata_ which lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. The _dimensions_ of those caverns, situated under the volcanic mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first consideration. _The internal caverns must be as large as the ejected masses, which came out of them._ Ætna is known to have thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in height. He considers the _whole mountainous district of Quito as one immense volcano_.

Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude that its amount is growing less every year, of course the destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe, which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.

P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that the _expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5_. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass of 30,000. _See the text under the head_, “SALUTARY EFFECTS OF WATER.”

APPENDIX.

_On the temperature of the earth anciently._

That the temperature of the earth’s surface was much higher in the first ages of its existence, than since the period of authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, in the opinion of the learned, and only requires time to have the weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass of community.

Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view of the reasons which induce this opinion.

1. _It may be inferred from the original constitution of the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it._ It has been seen above that the _natural_ condition of matter is _cold_, _frozen_, _inactive_, and _solid_: and that the elements of this globe were created in a _simple, uncombined state_. If this mass of elements received a quickening impulse, the chemical laws of _affinity_ and _attraction_, and also the natural law of _gravitation_, would commence exerting their influence. This we know would create a rise in the temperature of the whole mass, in proportion to the _amount_ of matter acted on, and the _force_ of the different principles and agents which were in operation. Upon consideration of these points in regard to our earth, no one can doubt but that they would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height.

_Refrigeration_ would commence at the surface as soon as the first violent action was abated, and the water and air began to assume their relative places, through which the heat would escape into celestial space. This refrigeration would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the crust of the earth, which would confine the interior heat more effectually, because, the earths are almost complete _non-conductors_ of caloric. Thus the crust of the earth would continue to cool, and the oxidation would thicken it, and, of course, contribute to the reduction of its temperature.

From this natural process it is very evident that the earth was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and volcanos much more common than now, and a general instability in the condition of our globe. The deluge was the climax of its alternations, and settled, in some measure, its constitution by a sudden and great reduction of temperature.

2. _It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, and their effects on the earth._ This argument is merely _called up here_, not to be discussed at length, but to be _referred_ to, as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.

It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has not closely studied the geological phenomena which present themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not be exaggeration to say, there was a remote period _when our globe was a single volcano_: the whole surface of it being subject to its action.

Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even continents, possibly, was volcanic force.

“Those ranges of volcanos,” says the celebrated Humboldt, “those eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and slate in the new world, remind us of the present activity of subterranean fire, of the power, which in remote ages, _has raised up chains of mountains, broke the surface of the globe, and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most ancient strata_.”

From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.

3. _It may be inferred from the origin of primitive, trapean, and basaltic rocks._ The primitive rocks, as granite, gneiss, mica slate, &c, give evidence on this consideration; they must have been deposited when their substance was in solution, admitting of _chemical mobility_, in order that they might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have.

It is not easy to conceive _how_ the substances of the primitive rocks could be solved, except by _heat_, as a _principal solvent_. The acids, and water also, may have contributed to their solution, but would not be competent of themselves. This consideration would give a high temperature for the earth anciently.

It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic rocks are of _igneous_ origin. When we consider the _magnitude_ of the trap and basalt formations, the extent of surface which they cover, the hills, and even elevated and lofty mountains which they form, we shall not hesitate to assign a higher temperature to our earth at the period when fires, so immense as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these, actually burned in the bowels of the earth.

4. _It may be inferred from the well preserved remains of vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in high northern latitudes where they have not been found since the memory of man._ This is a conclusive argument if its _data_ be well established. Because, if _tropical_ and _equatorial_ animals and fruits are _now_ found buried and fossilized in Siberia, and the islands of the _arctic sea_, in such a state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were transported thither, it will follow inevitably, that they _grew there_, and there flourished, died, and were buried.

Moreover, if _herbivorous_ animals are found fossilized in those high northern latitudes, under such circumstances as forbid the supposition, that they were transported thither, it will doubtless, follow, that not only _they_ lived there, but also _luxuriant vegetation_ must at the same time have covered the plains where their remains are entombed.

The inference which we are forced to draw from these _data_, is this: _As no such tropical and equatorial animals or plants have been known to exist there, nor even herbage of any kind, on which such animals might subsist, since the memory of man, there was a time anciently when the climate suited their growth, and of course was very much warmer than it is known to be now, its temperature then corresponding to the temperature of the present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot subsist in any other climates._

In proof of the above position, it is well known that animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which they are _indigenous_, and out of which they cannot thrive, or even live, if too far removed. It is also well known, that the warmer, and more moist the climate is, the more luxuriant the vegetation, and the more huge the animals.

Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, as _arctic_, or northern; _tropical_, or southern. Let us now see if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in high northern latitudes. The best authorities follow.

“We proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds: _these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals do not_ NOW _exist_. Some are buried deep in gypsum.--Some present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, and destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, situated to the NORTH _of Siberia_, are, according to a modern traveller, _only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and rhinoceros_, mixed with those of great cetaceous animals, and even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with the remains of gigantic birds.

“There have been found in _Siberia, whole carcases of the elephant, covered with their_ FLESH and SKIN, preserved by the frosts which prevail in those regions.--Germany has furnished the greatest number (of bones:)--In France a great many bones of the elephant have been met with.

“These discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have thrown already _a new light upon the revolutions which our globe must have undergone, and upon the_ STATES WHICH MUST HAVE PRECEDED THE PRESENT COURSE AND CONSTITUTION OF NATURE.

“These bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled up and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of our domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the form of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common cemeteries, clearly demonstrate, _that the catastrophe which has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must have overtaken them in the_ SAME CLIMATES WHERE WE MEET WITH THESE RECORDS OF THEIR FORMER EXISTENCE.

“The quantity of nourishment which such huge animated masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence of the carnivorous kinds, _render it probable that the countries where we find their remains_ ONCE _enjoyed a temperature, if not warmer, at least more favorable to vegetation_.” MALTE BRUN, _Physical Geography, Book 12_.

In the above quotations, the data on which our argument rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated by scores of weighty names, and in reference to all the _northern_ countries of Asia, Europe, and America.

It is impossible to read the above extracts without being convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived, flourished, and died _where_ their remains are _now_ found. And it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion; viz: that there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains, where _now_ the rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.

From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but that the temperature of the _frigid zones_, was anciently much higher than at present; and of course the general temperature of the earth also.

From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from the fact that they are found in their relative position, bone to bone, and, in some instances, with their _hair_, _skin_, and _flesh undecayed_, it is obvious, _the animals must have perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and was, instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming waters_. Such was the catastrophe of the _scripture deluge_, which _physically_ was competent to perform the phenomena, as shall be shown presently.

Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion by examining the _fossil_ VEGETABLES.

At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil plants _akin to the cycas family of Malabar_, from which he concludes, “it is probable that the climate of these regions, _at the time when the oolites_ (a series of rocky strata) _were deposited, was of the same warm temperature with that_ (the tropical) _which produces a large proportion of the existing cycadeæ_.” URE, _New Syst. Geol._ p. 433.

“The remarkable development of these vegetables (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) period, _smaller_ than before, but still far greater than our existing equisetums, accord with many other facts, furnished by fossil vegetables of many other families, to lead us to regard the _climate of the earth, at these remote epochs, to have been hotter than the hottest of modern climates_.” _Ibid_, p. 443.

“There is no doubt, however, that _palms with fan-shaped leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this remote period, in regions where no species of these plants could_ NOW _grow_!” _Ibid_, p. 452.

The palm is well known to be a _tropical_ plant, and cannot thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of Europe, when it grew in the north, must have been tropical. Indeed, in all parts of northern Europe _tropical flowers_, _leaves_, and _fruits_ are found in such a state of preservation as to convince the most incredulous, _that they must have grown on the spot_; which would be to convince him of the high temperature, anciently, of those regions.

“Professor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments of Novogorod and Twer in the _north_ of Russia, _where no such trees are now found to grow_.

“Near Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an entire forest of the trunks of _palm trees_, buried along with the remains of elephants.” _Ure, Ibid_, p. 455.

“The fossil shells found in the strata of England, and France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most part, no _antitypes alive except in equatorial regions_, harmonize with the preceding details.” _Ibid_, p. 456.

To the above testimony might be added the _caves_ in Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under such circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and perished in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed with sand and gravel, _but not water-worn_. Of these bones, the great majority are those of the hyæna; hence these dens, specially in England, are called _hyæna dens_. In them are also found the bones of other animals _gnawed_ by the hyænas.

From these facts there can be no doubt but the hyæna inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these countries were once _warm_, _when these tropical animals lived in them_.

5. _The same fact may be inferred from the immense amount of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials for the coal measures._ This is an irresistible argument in view of the _immense amount_ of coal in the bowels of the earth, which must be of _vegetable origin_. Because at the ratio of vegetable product of _our age_, the earth would not produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of millions of years.

The _vegetative power_ of the earth, therefore, must have been anciently very much greater than at present, which could only be on the supposition of a _warmer_ and more moist climate.

Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures in the _northern latitudes_, is proof direct. This is clear from the fact that their roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits are found impressed on the coal, in such a manner that there can be no mistake; and the _perfection_ of the impression forbids the supposition that they were _transported_ thither from tropical climates.

“Brown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground. It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen, _various vegetable principles, and the branches or trunks of trees_ partially decomposed, _which mark the origin of this kind of coal_.” _Bakewell’s Geology_, p. 111.

“Wood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations and appears to have been _formed of heaps of trees_ buried by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or gravel.--In some specimens of this coal the _vegetable fibre, or grain_, is perceptible in one part, and the other part is reduced to coal.” _Ibid_, p. 121.

“In wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of making coal, before the process is completed. These formations of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal, though their origin must be referred to a former condition of our globe, _when the vegetable productions of tropical climates flourished in northern latitudes_. The _vegetable origin_ of common mineral coal appears to be established by its association with strata _abounding in vegetable impressions_, by its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly a _vegetable product_) and lastly by the decisive fact, that some mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field is _entirely composed of the layers of mineralized plants_.” _Ibid_, p. 122.

“When we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded with sandstone, having their thin scaly bark _converted into a true coal_, it is _impossible to doubt of its vegetable origin_.” _Ure’s New System Geol._ p. 166.

Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied to the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains to repeat the question, _Could such an amount of vegetable matter have been accumulated, short of millions of years, at the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth?_ It is impossible. The only remaining conclusion is, the vegetative power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present, which could not have been except its temperature was much higher also.

In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say, that the reduction of the earth’s temperature would be gradual, in a natural way, by the heat flying off into celestial spaces, until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then the surface of the earth would depend on the heating power of the sun altogether. The thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended with earthquakes, volcanos, and partial deluges, the natural and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals. Hence we would have different strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c, deposited at different times, and over different sections of the country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes or seas; which explains the origin of _coal-basins_. This state of things also well explains the alternations of strata of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh and salt water deposites, &c, as well as the dislocations, fractures, contortions, and confusions observable in the structure of the earth’s crust.

There are however various phenomena which indicate clearly that there was _a general and sudden reduction of temperature_. The state of preservation, in which those animals in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of the _last_ great revolution in our globe clearly indicate the DELUGE to have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction of temperature. This would be the natural consequence of _submerging_ the earth in water: and the suddenness of the event is well attested both by the scriptures, and the physical history of our earth.

The action of the deluge does not come within the contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be noticed here.]

The air is another storehouse of fire. When lucid igneous particles are strongly attracted to one another in great quantities, their heat becomes intolerable, and is capable of destroying the most solid bodies. It is well known, that when converged in the focus of one of Hartsocker’s burning-glasses, they will produce wonderful effects: tin, lead, or any soft metal, will dissolve at the first touch; and iron, which requires a very strong fire for liquefaction, will melt before one of these glasses almost as soon as applied. They will consume wood, though wet, in a moment; vitrify bricks and pumice stones, and dissolve earthen vessels full of water; and plume-allum, which will resist the fire of the hottest glass-houses, without alteration, is instantly melted. Even gold, that resists the force of common fire, is soon liquefied by their powerful agency. This plainly shows us that, provided there were not a wise and almighty Providence, superintending all his works, those materials which are of the greatest utility to the harmony and order of things, would have a direct tendency to destroy the whole. If lucid igneous particles were to form solid bodies, and depart from their state of fluidity, they would, in an instant, reduce this globe to ashes, or render it liquid fire. Were they all of one kind, it is probable they might unite in solid bodies; but the wisdom of Providence has formed them of various colors, and of different reflections and refrangibility. This prevents them from associating in such a manner as to do harm, which can only be produced by converging them with some instrument which prevents their flying off. As all these have not the same degree of reflexibility and refrangibility, but as some are capable of greater reflections and refractions than others, they cannot, without force, be united in one solid body, yet they are all serviceable for important purposes, contributing to the happiness of man, and the welfare of all living creatures.

Considering the extent of fire, and that its property is, when put into motion, to consume all combustible substances within its reach, it is astonishing that the world has not long since been destroyed! This terrible element is at present restrained and directed by its almighty Creator; but divine revelation informs us, that a period will arrive when its utmost energies shall be called into action. The apostle Peter asserts, that “the heavens and earth, which are now, by the same word are kept in store, reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men;--in the which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat; the earth also, and the works that are therein shall be burnt up.” Again he says, “looking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of God, wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat.” The _passing away of the heavens_ means the same as their being _dissolved by fire_. The word Ῥοιζηδὸν signifies with a _very loud_ and _terrible noise_: with a sound resembling that of a great _storm_. In this place it more particularly denotes the horrid crackling noise of a wide-spreading fire.

“The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces, The solemn temples, the great globe itself Yea, all which it inherit, shall _dissolve_; And, like the baseless fabric of a vision, Leave not a wreck behind.”

The word rendered _melt_, is a metaphor taken from _metals_, dissolving in the fire, or _wax_ before the flame; so will the fierce and spreading fire of the last day _melt down_ this globe, and its surrounding atmosphere.[36] That the world was to be dissolved by fire was the opinion of Anaximander, Anaxiphanes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Diogenes, and Leucippus.[37] The inference which the apostle deduces from this view of the general and final conflagration of the world, is highly impressive. “Seeing then that all these things shall be dissolved, what manner of persons ought ye to be in all holy conversation and godliness.”

* * * * *

_Section_ III.--LIGHT.

Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause of light -- Light the most simple body --Velocity of light -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author, in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness, manifestation, glory.

Moses, in the original word אור _aur_, seems plainly to hint at the operation of a principle in the universe which, as a second cause, produced the phenomenon of _light_. This, most probably, was the motion of the luminous and fiery particles in the chaotic mass which, at the Divine command, separated themselves from the other gross materials of the miscellaneous composition, and by an attractive sympathy associated in one body.

It is conjectured, that light was at first impressed on some part of the heavens, or collected in some lucid body. Dr. Wall says, Though the sun was not yet formed into a compact body, yet the most subtile and active particles had already begun to fly together to the centre of the solar system, which gave some light; though probably not so great as when afterward they made the compact body of the sun. And the earth, which was then only a round lump of mud, or muddy salt-water, being turned, as it has been ever since, upon its own axis, receiving that light on its several hemispheres successively, made night and day, or evening and morning. Milton gives his opinion in the following lines:

“Let there be light! said GOD; and forthwith light Ethereal, first of things, quintessence pure, Sprung from the deep; and from her native east To journey through the aery gloom began, Spher’d in a radiant cloud; (for yet the sun Was not;) she in a cloudy tabernacle Sojourn’d the while.”

Light, after a short progression, concentrated in the sun, the common centre of our system; the various parts of this system, by his central light or fire, are balanced, and, by mutual attraction, move in the expanse, according to fixed laws, or determined distances.[38]

Light was once considered to be a property or quality of matter only; but more recently it has been discovered to be a _body_, a very subtile fluid, consisting of minute particles. We have no certain knowledge of its nature; though a collection of its rays make other things visible, yet its constituent parts themselves are most exquisitely small, and quite imperceptible; and therefore it approaches the nearest to the nature of spirit.[39]

Of all material bodies, light is the most _simple_. Most others are compounded of several parts, not only of different, but sometimes of contrary natures: but light is an unmixed body. It is also a most pure matter; It has no defilement in itself, neither is it capable of contracting pollution from other objects. When it shines upon a dunghill or sepulchre, which sends forth the most offensive effluvia, it still remains uncontaminated.

[The author is undoubtedly mistaken when he considers light “of all material bodies--the most simple,” and “an unmixed body.”

It is well known that a beam, or pencil, of light, as emitted from the sun, is _not_ a simple body, but is capable of being divided into seven prismatic colors. The image which is formed by the refraction of the pencil, by means of a prism, is called a _Spectrum_, and clearly exhibits the compound nature of light. The refracted rays of the Spectrum may be collected and made to constitute a pencil of light again, which will be white, or colorless as before.

If this prismatic Spectrum be examined closely, it will be found that the different colored rays differ very much in their _heating_, _illuminating_, and _chemical_ powers. Dr. Herschell, and other experimenters, have found that the _orange_ rays possess a greater illuminating power than the red; and the _yellow_ more than the orange: but the _maximums_ of illumination lies in the _brightest yellow_ or _palest green_.

There is also a very sensible difference in the _heating_ power of these colored rays. By passing the bulb of a delicate air thermometer through the different colored rays, it indicates the greatest heat in the _red_ rays; next in the _green_, and so on diminishing to the _violet_. But the maximum of heat has been ascertained to be immediately _beyond_ the red rays, and of course _out_ of the Spectrum, in an _unilluminated_ spot: thus indicating that there are _invisible_ rays possessing a greater heating power than any of the seven colored rays. These are called _calorific rays_.

By the experiments of Ritter and Wallaston it is now satisfactorily ascertained that there are also _chemical rays which excite neither heat nor light_, and lie on the _other side_ of the Spectrum from the invisible calorific rays, just without the violet. It is true, the chemical effect can be distinguished even to the green rays, but this seems to be by _diffusion_, or a species of sympathy. The sensible chemical power is exerted just without the violet rays.

This fact is established more clearly by Berard. He concentrated, by a lens, all the portion of the Spectrum from the green to the red rays, and made them act on muriate of silver _two hours_ without effect. He then concentrated all the portion of the Spectrum from the green to the violet rays, and made them act on muriate of silver, and _they blackened it in less than six minutes_. Thus, evidently, are detected very different properties in the different portions of the prismatic Spectrum.

Instead, therefore, of light being a “simple substance,” and “unmixed” it is found to be decidedly _compound_. It is capable of being divided into seven differently colored rays, and these rays, according to their natural properties, into three classes: the _illuminating_ rays, _calorific_ rays, and _chemical_ rays.]

The rays of light always proceed in _straight lines_, unless diverted by some intervening body. They are subject to the laws of attraction like other small bodies. If a stream of light be admitted through a small hole into a dark room, and the edge of a knife be applied, it will be diverted from its natural course, and _inflected_ towards it. When the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing body, they are said to be _reflected_. When in passing from one medium to another, they are inflected or diverted from their rectilineal course, they are said to be _refracted_; and this property of light is called its _refrangibility_. Refraction arises from this, that the rays are more attracted by a dense, than by a rare medium.

The _velocity_ of light is prodigious, and almost incredible; it moves at the rate of near 200,000 miles in _a second_ of time! Roemer, a Danish philosopher, was the first who found the means of determining the velocity of light, by the difference of time in the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, when the earth was on the same, or on the contrary side of the sun, with that planet. This point may be easily proved; for when the earth is between the sun and this planet, those eclipses will happen about 8¼ minutes sooner, than according to the tables; but when the earth is in the contrary position, the eclipses happen about 8¼ minutes later than they are predicted by the tables. Hence, therefore, light takes up about 8¼ minutes in passing from the sun to the earth, a distance of 95,513,794 miles; and it takes about 16½ minutes of time to go through a space equal to the diameter of the earth’s orbit, which is at least 190 millions of miles in length; which is near a million of miles swifter than the motion of a cannon-ball, which flies with the velocity of about a mile in eight seconds.[40] In comparing this velocity of light with that of a cannon-ball, it has been observed, that light passes through a space in about eight minutes, which a cannon-ball with its ordinary velocity, could not traverse in less than thirty-two years! The velocity of sound bears a very small proportion to that of light. Light travels, in the space of eight minutes, a distance in which sound could not be communicated in seventeen years; and even our senses may convince us, if we attend to the explosion of gunpowder, &c, of the almost infinite velocity of the one compared with that of the other.[41] Were the propagation of the rays of light less rapid, the darkness would be very slowly dissipated, and great inconveniences would result to the inhabitants of the earth.

The _divisibility_ of the parts of matter is no where more apparent than in the minuteness of the particles of light. The unobstructed rays of light which proceed from a candle, will, almost instantaneously, fill a space of two miles; and it has been computed, says Dr. O. Gregory, that there fly out of the end of the flame of a burning candle, in a second of time, ten thousand millions of times more such particles than there are visible grains of sand in the whole earth. Dr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that an inch of candle, when converted to light, becomes divided into 269,617,040 parts, with 40 ciphers annexed; at which rate there must issue out of it, when burning, 418,660, with 39 ciphers more, particles in the second of a minute; vastly more than a thousand times a thousand million of times the number of sands the whole earth can contain; reckoning ten inches to one foot, and that 100 sands are equal to one inch.[42] As sound is propagated only at the rate of 1,142 feet in a second, a particle of light must be 786,000 times more subtile than a particle of air. If the particles of light were not extremely small, their velocity would be highly destructive. Indeed, were they equal in bulk to the two millionth part of a grain of sand, this impulse would not be less than sand shot from the mouth of a cannon. If the particles of light had more density, they would not only dazzle us by their splendor, but injure us by their heat.

There is no creature of God that _diffuses_ itself, and whose influence reaches so far and wide, and fills so large a vacuum, as light. All that inconceivable space between this globe and the fixed stars, a distance which numbers cannot reach, is replete with light. Nay, the space in which it is diffused is not less than the universe itself; the immensity of which exceeds the conception of human understanding. It is from this almost unlimited diffusion of light that the very remotest of the heavenly bodies in the solar system become discernible, either by the naked eye or by telescopes. And had we instruments that could carry our sight as far as the light is extended, we should discover those bodies which are placed at the very extremity of the universe.[43]

Light is the _medium_ through which objects become _visible_ to us. It is owing to it, that we are enabled to behold and contemplate the wonderful works of the great Creator; to discover unexplored systems in the trackless regions of unbounded space, to imbibe knowledge from things created, to hold intercourse with each other, to steer the hollow bark to distant climes, and to investigate the records of all science. Without its aid, the world would have been an inhospitable wilderness, involved in sable shades of perpetual night. “Truly the light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold it.”

Light _beautifies_ every delightful object which comes within the reach of its rays.

“Nature’s resplendent robe! Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt In unessential gloom.”

All colors are rays of light differently reflected. The cause of their diversity was first rationally accounted for by Sir Isaac Newton. He has shown that color is not a specific property of bodies, but is caused by the different rays of light being reflected from the surface of the body; the rest of the rays passing into or through the body. He discovered that in the rays of light are all the colors in nature; and the primary colors he considered to be seven in number, namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; and that bodies appear of different colors, as they have the property of reflecting some rays more powerfully than others. These colors are poetically enumerated by Thomson.

“First the flaming _red_ Sprung vivid forth; the tawny _orange_ next; And next delicious _yellow_; by whose side Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing _green_: Then the pure _blue_, that swells autumnal skies, Ethereal play’d; and then, of sadder hue, Emerg’d the deepen’d _indigo_, as when The heavy-skirted evening droops with frost; While the last gleamings of refracted light Dy’d in the fainting _violet_ away.”

Since the time of this justly celebrated philosopher, it has been objected, that the seven colors above mentioned are not primitive. It seems very obvious that there can be only three primitive colors, namely, red, yellow, and blue; since all the colors can be made by means of these. It has lately been advanced by Prieur, that the primitive colors are violet, green, and red; that the yellow is formed with red and green, the latter being in excess; and that when the red is in excess, they form orange; the green and violet form blue. The colors excited by the different refrangible rays do not appear to determine what are the primitive colors, since we find that different rays are capable of producing the same color, as a mixture of the yellow with the red produces orange. And it must be admitted, that the violet rays excite, in some degree, the idea of red along with the blue; as in the green, the yellow and blue may be discerned, but none of the red. When the different colored rays are mixed together, either by recomposition, or by getting each color by a separate Spectrum, the result will be white light. Hence Sir Isaac Newton concluded, that when the rays are promiscuously reflected from any surface it will appear white. He also found, and the discovery has since been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Herschell, that the different colored rays have not by any means the same illuminating power. The violet rays appear to have the least luminous effect, the indigo more, the blue a little more, the green very great, between the green and the yellow the greatest of all, the yellow the same as the green, and the red less than the yellow.[44] From experiments it is found, that those rays of light are of the largest quantity that paint the brightest colors; and of all these, the red rays have the least refrangibility. Without light vegetables would have no color, but would appear white; this has been remarkably illustrated by Professor Robison. Some bodies absorb one colored ray, others another, while they reflect the rest. This is the cause of color in bodies. A red body, for instance, reflects the red rays and absorbs the rest. A white body reflects all the rays, and absorbs none; while a black body, on the contrary, absorbs all the rays, and reflects none:[45] this shows, that black colored apparel is very improper during the heat of summer, or in tropical climates.

[There is one difficulty scarcely mentioned, and surely not accounted for, in the preceding chapter: i.e. _How are we to reconcile the creation of light on the first day, and the creation of the sun not until the fourth?_

This has been a standing proposition since the revival of learning. There can be no doubt but the account of the creation, arrangement and nature of the world, as given by Moses, is correct; and would so appear to the most philosophically scientific, could we ascertain certainly the meaning of the sacred historian, and did we understand perfectly the phenomena of nature.

It is reasonable to suppose that the discoveries in natural philosophy would tend to influence the explanations of Moses’ account. This is the fact. These discoveries have produced two theories in regard to light: The _vibratory_, or Cartesian; and the _corpuscular_, or Newtonian.

The Newtonian theory supposes the sun to be the original and principal source of light; and that light is emitted from the sun’s surface in inconceivably small _corpuscles_, in such rapid succession, and in straight lines, as to seem a continuous ray, though, in reality, the particles are a thousand miles apart in their approach to the earth.

This is the most popular of modern theories, and the only one, as I recollect, employed by commentators in illustrating the account of Moses; or rather in solving the difficulty by reconciling this theory with his account.

Some have supposed the sun was created long before, our earth, and that his beams took effect on our earth, as now, on the fourth day from his creation. Others have supposed that the sun and earth were created _simultaneously_, but that the sun’s beams did not fully penetrate our atmosphere, so as to make himself distinctly visible as now, until the fourth day. In both these cases it is supposed that the words of Moses, in regard to the creation of the sun on the fourth day, are to be interpreted of his _appearance_, and _influence_ on the earth, by dispensing light. But this does not account for the _existence_ of light _from the first to the fourth day_. This is an insuperable objection here.

Finding the foregoing theories pressed with this insurmountable difficulty, other commentators have supposed, Light was a real substance, created _simultaneously_, and in conjunction with the original chaotic mass of our earth; and when God said “Let there be light, and there was light,” He, by his divine power, caused the chaotic light to separate itself from the earth, and, departing, _to condense_ in the body of the sun; or, as some would probably say, in view of Dr. Herschell’s solar discoveries, in the phosphoric clouds which surround the real body of the sun. In this case, if the light concentrated in the body of the sun, then that luminary must be a body of _condensed light_: if in the solar phosphoric clouds of Dr. Herschell, then those clouds would be _condensed light_. This body of condensed light is considered the source of our solar light, which flies off from it in the form of rays or beams.

DR. URE, in his Chemical Dictionary, article LIGHT, takes this view. He says, “We learn from scripture, that light pre-existed before this luminary (the sun) and that its _subsequent condensation_ in his orb was a particular act of Almighty Power. The phosphorescence of minerals, buried since the origin of things in the bowels of the earth, coincides strictly with the Mosaic account of the creation. We shall therefore regard light as the first born element of chaos, as an independent essence, universally distributed through the mineral, vegetable, and animal world, capable of being disengaged from its latent state by various natural and artificial operations.”

This theory, as I understand Dr. Ure’s view, has _two_ advantages, and _three_ disadvantages. It accounts for the production of light on the _first_ day, as Moses says. It also accounts for the _artificial production_ of light by friction between bodies which have never been exposed to solar light, by combustion, compression, &c. For though it supposes light “subsequently condensed” in the sun, I presume it does not suppose _all_ the light thus transferred from the earth, and condensed: much of it is latent, and combined with other substances, from which it is evolved by friction, combustion, compression, &c.

But this ingenious theory, which is mentioned by our author, and attributed to Dr. Wall, is pressed with _three_ difficulties:

1. It does not suppose the existence of the sun until the _fourth_ day, and of course no common centre of attraction to the earth and other planets. But it is impossible to conceive of the _safe existence_ of the planets _previous_ to the existence of their common center, which now regulates their order and motion. This is an insuperable difficulty, unless we resort to a “particular act of Almighty Power.”

2. If the body of the sun be “condensed light,” _abstracted_ from the earth, the scene of its creation, then we must suppose that _a body more than a million times greater than the earth was drawn off from it_, which indeed would require an “act of Almighty Power,” and is utterly irreconcilable to the laws of attraction.

3. This view also destroys the idea of the sun’s being an opake and habitable globe, unless we could conceive the inhabitants capable of dwelling in “condensed light;” which supposition is at variance with all our ideas of rational existence. Hence it robs the mind of the pleasing and almost intuitively correct idea of the sun’s being a habitable globe.

These difficulties appeared so great that others, and particularly Dr. Adam Clarke, have offered a new mode of interpretation, founded on the Newtonian theory as improved by Dr. Herschell. Dr. Clarke supposes that _caloric_, or latent heat, was produced on the first day, when God said, “let there be light; and there was light.” In this case he considers that latent heat and latent light are, probably, the same: or that it is the same subtile substance diffused throughout creation, which is capable of producing heat and light, when properly excited.

Yet, in his remarks on the sun, he embraces Dr. Herschell’s ideas of the sun’s real body being opake and habitable, surrounded by phosphoric clouds which are the source of our solar light. Of course the Doctor only transfers the source of light from the real body of the sun to these phosphoric clouds with which he is invested. Our solar light then comes by _impulsion_ from these clouds, and not from the sun’s real body.

These clouds are supposed to give light to the _Solar_ inhabitants also, the intensity of which is regulated by a stratum of clouds placed _below_ the _outer_ phosphoric clouds, and which defends the sun’s real body from too great degree of light.

This is Dr. Herschell’s supposition, and seems to be pretty well established.

This ingenious theory solves the difficulty under notice, by supposing that _caloric_, and not light, is intended in the third verse, where God said, “Let there be light.” And by supposing latent light, as well as latent heat, it seems to provide for the well known existence of light in combination with many, if not all, terrestrial substances; and yet it refers to the sun as the principal source of light, which according to this interpretation, was not necessary to the existence of the substance intended in the third verse--“Let there be light, and there was light.”

This theory has another most excellent suggestion, viz: that the heat excited by the sun at the earth’s surface, is produced by the luminous rays of the sun combining with the caloric in the atmosphere, and other substances at the surface of the earth. This suggestion supposes a very close affinity, if not identity in the matter of light and heat.

Although this explanation approaches much nearer a satisfactory solution of the difficulty in question, yet it is by no means unembarrassed.

In the first place it is built upon a singular translation of a word. The text, according to this theory, should be, “And God said let there be _caloric_, and there was caloric.” This may be the text; but I cannot help thinking, that a bias to a system of philosophy, and a strong desire to _cut_ the difficulty rather than _solve_ it, suggested this translation. The text seems to have been so generally and uniformly understood of light, it would be difficult to alter it. It would be better to suspect a defect in our knowledge of the source and nature of light.

Again: this view seems to suppose a _consecutive_ creation, which is at variance with a seemingly well settled opinion, in regard to the _Solar System_, and even at variance with Dr. Clarke’s own remarks on Gen. chap. i, v. 2. On this verse he says: “God seems at _first_ to have created the elementary principles of _all things_.”

Finally: as his view is Newtonian, it is liable to all the objections to which that theory is liable: such as the _diminution_ which would take place at the source from whence the light came; and the _destructive force_ with which it would fall at the surface of the earth.

These considerations, with others, have influenced many of the most learned and acute philosophers to look for another theory. Our own countryman, Dr. Franklin, felt them. He says, in a letter dated April 23, 1752, in reference to the theory, of light being _particles of matter driven off from the sun’s surface_; “Must not the smallest portion conceivable have, with such a motion, a force exceeding that of a twenty-four pounder discharged from a cannon? Must not the sun diminish exceedingly by such a waste of matter, and the planets, instead of drawing near to him, as some have feared, recede to greater distances, through the lessoned attraction? Yet these particles with this amazing motion, will not drive before them, or remove the least, and slightest dust they meet with, and the sun appears to continue of his ancient dimensions, and his attendants move in their ancient orbits.”

He then supposes the phenomena of light may be more satisfactorily solved by supposing a subtle fluid, universally diffused, which is invisible _when at rest_, but _becomes visible when put in motion_, by affecting the nerves of the eye, as the vibrations of the air affect the ear, and produce the sensation of sound; and that the different degrees of intensity in the vibrations, will account for the different colors. _See Nicholson’s Encyclopedia_, LIGHT.

This is the _vibratory_ or Cartesian system of light. As already suggested, it supposes the existence of a subtle, luminiferous ether, diffused throughout the universe, pervading every particle of matter, and is capable of being put in motion, so as to become visible, by the sun, as the grand natural _excitant_, friction, combustion, compression, &c. The _laws_ of the vibrations of this luminiferous fluid, are precisely the same with those ascertained, and determined, in regard to light as commonly understood. This luminiferous fluid is to be considered an elementary substance, and was created when the different substances composing the chaotic mass were created. At its first creation, like caloric, it was in a _latent_ state, as no excitant as yet had put it in motion.

It is to be understood, therefore, that the substances of each planet in the _Solar System_, as well as the sun himself, were created _simultaneously_ in a chaotic state, at their proper relative distances from each other: that the requisite quantity of each elementary substance was present in each mass: but as caloric, and this luminiferous ether were _latent_, these masses were solid, frozen lumps; inactive and lifeless; and darkness necessarily prevailed. This then was the original condition of the elements of our Solar System, according to the scriptures. “And the earth was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.” Gen. i, 2.

In order, therefore, to produce a quickening in these masses, which rendered them _soft_, it was only necessary to call the latent caloric, and this luminiferous ether into action, which would agitate, and bring to light the whole mass, and thus commence the arrangement and organization of the Solar System. However, as there was no exciting cause _then_ in operation, it is evident the Almighty must have given the _first_ impulse to these elements. This he did, and the important fact is recorded by Moses in these words: “AND THE SPIRIT OF GOD MOVED UPON THE FACE OF THE GREAT DEEP,” Jehovah saying at the same time, “LET THERE BE LIGHT.”

Here is the Mosaic account of the production of light, and possibly heat also, which took place on the _first_ day. The same process went on _simultaneously_ in the sun and planets, and the continued action cleared up their respective atmospheres, and the _sun_ became visible at the earth’s surface on the _fourth_ day. Hence, the sun was said to have been _made_ on the fourth day.

This solution of the difficulty is consistent with the account of Moses; and also all the well ascertained phenomena of light can be satisfactorily explained by it. It will naturally lead the mind to observe the resemblance between the phenomena of light and heat, and impel us to the conclusion, that light, or vision, is the _effect_ of a material cause, as heat is of caloric: and it is natural to suppose this cause is in the same relation to light, that caloric is to heat. Of course we should conclude that light, or the luminiferous ether in a latent state, enters into combination with all substances, as does caloric; and at the same time a large proportion of it is _free_, or in motion, and of course sensible to the eye, as _free_ caloric is to the sense of feeling. Moreover we must conclude that this latent light is capable of being set free or evolved by the exciting influence of the sun, as also by friction, compression, combustion, chemical action, &c. It will be of advantage, therefore, to establish the fact of the existence of _latent_ light, in combination with terrestrial substances.

That this is the fact may be proven by a single reflection on the process of _combustion_. It is a daily observation that light is produced by _burning_ bodies. Let us suppose these bodies burnt at midnight in a close room; still light will be given out copiously and constantly. _Whence_ this light? The natural and obvious answer is, it was in combination in a _latent state_ with the burning bodies, and by combustion it was set free, and thrown out, and thus put the surrounding luminiferous ether in motion.

It is said by some, the light evolved in this case is not from the burning bodies, but from the oxygen which is supplied by the air to support the combustion. This does not alter the case at all: for then the light was in combination with the oxygen, and was invisible, being in a latent state, until it was set free from the oxygen by combustion.

The same conclusion is obtained in the process of _compression_ and _expansion_. If atmospheric air, or oxygen be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe; or if a glass ball, filled with the latter, be suddenly broke _in vacuo_, a _flash of light_ is instantly perceived. In this case the light suddenly becomes visible, which was invisible before, being latent in combination with the air. (URE.)

We arrive at the same conclusion in case of _friction_. It is well known that pieces of wood can be made to _blaze_ by rubbing them together. But it is not so well known, that two pieces of rock crystal, or quartz, taken from any depth in the earth, and which cannot be supposed to have ever been in the light of the sun, when rubbed quickly together, even _under water, will give out volumes of light_. _Whence_ this light? from the quartz doubtless. Of course it must have been in a latent state, and was set free by friction. Let it be strictly observed, the crystals _never were exposed to the light of the sun, of course could not have derived this light from that luminary_.

We must come to the same conclusion, in regard to the light given out by _animal_ substances. Many _insects_ are known to have the power of evolving light, or putting the surrounding luminiferous ether in motion, which is the same. Putrescent animal matter has been observed to possess it, in some cases, in a very great degree; sufficiently to illuminate a room, or pantry, for hours together. In some instances the fingers of those who touched the luminous flesh, became luminous.

This is eminently the case in regard to some fishes. A species of fish called PHOLAS, has the power of evolving a large quantity of light. This power is greater when the fish is sound and fresh. Pliny mentions this fish, and says it rendered the hands and clothes of persons luminous. When put in water, under proper circumstances, it renders the water luminous. But when put in milk, a single _pholas_ made seven ounces of it so luminous as to enable one to distinguish the faces of persons present. _Ency. Brit. Art._ LIGHT.

The evolution of light from the sea in the night, is a fact of common observation, and is sometimes so great as to enable one to read large print on a ship’s deck. _Ency. Brit. Art._ LIGHT.

In all the above instances, and many more might be added, the light evolved, or, (which is the same thing in this investigation,) the luminiferous ether put in motion, must have been in a state of combination with the substances from which it was evolved. The only question which remains is this: _Was all this light transmitted from the sun, and become latent and combined at the earth’s surface by absorption?_

It would certainly be hazardous to answer this question in the affirmative. For how could we account for the evolution of light from those bodies which have never been subject to the sun’s influence?

Again: If all this light had been transmitted from the sun, it will inevitably follow, that there was a time when the quantity of light at the surface of the earth, and in combination with terrestrial bodies, _was very small_, and of course combustion, friction, and compression of bodies produced anciently a much smaller quantity of light than now; because there was a smaller quantity in combination.

It is evident that this supposition would come to this conclusion: _The quantity of light, in combination at the earth’s surface, has increased in the same ratio as the increase of the duration of the influence of the sun on the earth: and, by consequence, the quantity of light produced by artificial means has increased in the same proportion._ Of course, fires and candles burn more brightly now than they did five thousand years since.

Though this conclusion is legitimate from the foregoing supposition, yet it is at war with common sense, and the current observations of the world.

We are therefore compelled to conclude that the MATTER _of light_ is diffused throughout the universe, as is caloric, and that it is evolved, or put in motion by the influence of the sun; as also by artificial and chemical means; as combustion, compression, friction, chemical action, &c.

This conclusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the _existence of caloric_ is well ascertained, _not as proceeding from the sun_, but in combination with all terrestrial substances; and also by the fact of the constant _analogy_ between the phenomena of light and heat. This analogy is so strong and striking that we are compelled to conclude, _if heat be the effect of a real substance, light must be also_. Indeed the analogy is so strong that it almost convinces us of the _identity_ of the matter of heat, light, electricity, and galvanism.

Notwithstanding the amount of evidence is against this supposition at present, yet there is a strong tendency in recent philosophical experiments to confirm it; and I am inclined to believe that future discoveries will confirm this identity. Some of the most obvious evidences in favor of it may be introduced here.

1. Almost all the celebrated authors and experimenters have occasionally _suggested_ the probability of this identity. Mr. Turner, Elements of Chemistry, p. 67, says, in reference to heat and light: “It has been supposed that _they are modifications of the_ SAME AGENT; and though most persons regard them as independent principles, yet they are certainly allied in a way which at present is inexplicable.” Again, p. 71. “Mr. Leslie conceives that light when absorbed, _is converted into heat_.” Dr. Henry (Art. Light,) says, “A new fact has been lately ascertained by Dr. Delaroche, which seems to point out _a close connection_ between heat and light, _and a gradual passage of the one into the other_. The rays of _invisible_ heat pass through glass with difficulty at a temperature below that of boiling water; but they traverse it with a facility always increasing with the temperature, as it approaches the point at which bodies become luminous.” “The general facts, says Sir H. Davy, of the refraction and effects of the solar beam, offer an analogy to the agencies of electricity.” (_Ure, Chemical Dictionary, Article Light._) It is well known that this view pressed itself strongly on the attention of Sir Isaac Newton, during his philosophical investigation. _See Ure, Chem. Dic. Art. Light._

2. This identity is strongly suggested by the constant and striking analogy between the laws of heat and light.

_First:_ The color of surfaces has an influence on the passage of light and heat.

_Secondly:_ The power of light, heat, and electricity diminishes as the squares of their distances.

_Thirdly:_ The particles of heat, light, and electricity, are _idio-repulsive_.

_Fourthly:_ The passage of the electric spark is generally attended with the production of light and heat.

_Fifthly:_ Heat is emitted in all directions from the surface of an ignited body: so is light from the surface of a burning body.

_Sixthly:_ The laws of reflection are the same in light and heat.

Other coincidences might be established, and other celebrated names added.

If this identity should be established finally, it would not effect the doctrine of the foregoing pages in the least. It would only be necessary to say, the luminiferous fluid of this essay is the well established substance now called caloric.

_Addenda on Light._

1. It is now generally admitted that the real body of the sun is surrounded with a peculiar set of clouds, _phosphorescent_ in their nature. It is also allowed that these clouds do not emit heat. And as it is well known that no one of the _planets_ has such clouds, but receive their light from the sun, _it is extremely probable that these phosphorescent clouds are intended by the Creator, to be the great dispenser of light to the solar system, by operating as the exciting cause to put the luminiferous ether in motion throughout the solar system_.

By a parity of reasoning, each centre of a system may be invested with similar clouds, which operate in the same way in reference to the planets which belong to it.

2. If light were a real substance, _as commonly understood_, solar light must proceed from the sun by _impulsion_, and artificial light from burning bodies by _evolution_. Take the case of burning bodies. A single candle placed two miles above the surface of the earth in the air, and lighted up in that position, will _instantly illuminate a space of two miles in every direction from itself, or a spherical space four miles in diameter_. In this case a sufficient quantity of light is instantly evolved to fill this space, and the evolution continues as long as the candle burns. The question upon this fact is this: Can it be supposed that there is a sufficient quantity of light, in combination with a single candle, or the oxygen necessary to keep up its combustion, to fill a spherical space four miles in diameter for several hours together? This would indeed be almost incredible in view of the space filled by light evolved from a single candle.

But this difficulty would be satisfactorily solved upon the supposition that light is the _effect_, produced by a luminiferous ether, universally diffused, and put in motion, by which it becomes visible, by the sun, burning bodies, &c. Because, the motion which renders the luminiferous ether visible, commences instantly upon the commencement of combustion, and is propagated from the point of combustion _in right lines_, under the appearance of rays of light: but the motion ceases instantly on the cessation of combustion, and of course darkness instantly ensues.]

After having attended to the production of _light_, and noticed some of its properties, it is a paramount duty to contemplate its glorious Author; especially as by this mysterious production he himself has chosen to be represented. If creatures be excellent, what must be the Creator? and to admire the former without adoring the latter, would be profane and atheistical. “The Deity,” says Sir Isaac Newton, “in infinite space, as in his own _sensorium_, has an intimate perception of all things:” so we, possessing intellect, should “look through nature up to nature’s GOD.” Then matter, however rarefied or diversified, would serve as his minister to introduce us into his presence. A pious ancient, on being asked by a profane philosopher, How he could contemplate high things, since he had no books? answered, That he had the whole world for his book, ready open at all times, and in all places, and that he could therein read things heavenly and divine. As the visible creation is the outward expression of the existence of God, and displays several of his infinite perfections; so we should study him in the works of nature, and trace him in the operation of his hands.

The late excellent and pious Bishop Horne very beautifully observes,--“When the angels beheld the dark and disordered state of created nature upon its first production, they were, doubtless, thrown into some perplexity to conceive how it should ever be made a means of manifesting forth the glory of the Creator. But when they saw the light spring up, at the Divine command, from that blackness of darkness, and fix its residence in its tabernacle the sun, illuminating and adorning the firmament of heaven with its glorious show, and the earth with its beautiful furniture, all formed out of rudeness and confusion, then they confessed that the difficulty of the work served only to display the skill of the workmaster, which is proportionally estimated by the unpromising nature of the materials.

In like manner, whoever views the chaos to which the infinite wisdom of a presiding Providence sometimes permits the moral world to be reduced by the prevailing power of the prince of darkness, and the agency of his instruments, will scarce be able, at first, to discern any traces of the Divine counsels in a mirror so sullied and clouded over by the enormities of sinful men. Yet let him wait with patience for a little season, and those clouds shall pass away; a light shall shine, and some great end present itself to sight, so worthy of God, so beneficial to man, that standing amazed at a power able to bring the greatest good out of the greatest evil, he will be forced to cry out concerning the economy of the spiritual system, as David did concerning the operations of the natural--‘Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast thou made them all.’”[46]

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_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.

Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and Night -- Religious improvement of Time -- Sin moral darkness -- The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of a transition from the one state to the other.

The separation of _light_ from the _darkness_, was the work of the _first day_. This was an arrangement made by infinite Wisdom, as well as a display of almighty power. When this took place, it is highly probable that God gave to the earth its rotation upon its own axis, to produce the necessary succession of _day_ and _night_. “The word ערב _éreb_, which we translate _evening_, comes from the root ערב _ârab_, to _mingle_, and properly signifies that state in which neither absolute darkness, nor full light, prevails. It has nearly the same grammatical signification with our _twilight_, the time that elapses from the setting of the sun till he is eighteen degrees below the horizon, and eighteen degrees before he arises. Thus we have the morning and evening twilight, or _mixture_ of light and darkness, in which neither prevails; because, while the sun is within eighteen degrees of the horizon, either after his setting, or before his rising, the atmosphere has power to refract the rays of light, and send them back to the earth. The Hebrews extended the meaning of this term to the whole duration of night, because it was ever a _mingled_ state; the moon, the planets, or the stars, tempering the darkness with some rays of light. From the _ereb_ of Moses came the Ερεβος _Erebus_ of Hesiod, Aristophanes, and other heathens, which they _deified_, and made with _nox_, or night, the parent of all things. The word בקר _boquer_, which we translate _morning_, from בקר _boquar_, he _looked out_, is a beautiful figure, which represents the morning as _looking out_ at the east, and illuminating the whole of the upper hemisphere.”[47]

All bodies continue in a state of rest, till they are put into motion by some external force impressed on them. Motion is the removal of a body from one place to another, or a continual change of place.[48] Any force acting on a body to move it, is called a _power_. The _momentum_, or quantity of motion, is in proportion to the force impressed. The heavier any body is, the greater is the power required to move it.

There are but three possible ways of accounting for motion:--either by supposing that there has been an infinite succession of impulses communicated from one body to another from eternity, without any active principle either in matter or without it: or, that there is an active principle in matter that renders it self-active, and motion essential to it: or, else, that there is a Being distinct from matter, and is the cause of its motion.

An infinite succession of impulses, without an active or moving principle, will never give birth to motion, because this would be to produce an effect without the assistance of a cause. This absurdity was asserted by Spinosa; yet when urged by his friends to explain how matter could ever come into motion, if motion was neither essential to matter, nor proceeded from any external cause, he always avoided giving a direct answer. This conduct makes it reasonable to believe, that he himself would have given up his account of motion, if he could have saved his atheistical scheme and his reputation.

That motion is essential to all matter, and action as much an attribute of matter, as extension or solidity; and, consequently, every atom of matter is necessarily self-moving, or active from the necessity of its own nature, is asserted by Toland. Though he thought fit to reject the hypothesis of Spinosa as indefensible, yet he believed in the atheistic notion, that motion is essential to matter, and thinks it will be sufficient without troubling the Supreme Being. The reason which has always determined mankind to look out for a cause of motion extrinsical to matter, was this: though they could easily conceive it capable of being moved and divided; yet the conceiving of it to be undivided, and unmoved, was a more simple notion of matter, than the conceiving it divided and moved. This being first in order of nature, and an adequate conception of it too, they thought it necessary to inquire, how it came out of this state, and by what causes motion, from whence this diversity in matter arose, could come into the world?

Descartes, though he allowed the infinity of matter, as well as Toland, was yet sensible that even this would not alter the nature of matter, nor the idea that every person had of its inactivity, and therefore could see no way of altering its primitive idea, and reconciling it with the motion of matter, but by introducing an infinite Being, who had sufficient power to rouse matter out of that sleepy state in which its original idea had represented it.[49]

That such a circumstance exists, and what it is, a French author very clearly states. He says, The universe is composed of matter, and, as a system, is sustained by motion. Motion is not a property of matter, and without this motion the solar system could not exist. Were motion a property of matter, that undiscovered and undiscoverable thing, called perpetual motion, would establish itself. It is because motion is not a property of matter, that perpetual motion is an impossibility in the hand of every being but that of the Creator of motion. When the pretenders to atheism can produce perpetual motion, and not till then, they may expect to be credited.

The natural state of matter, as to place, is a state of rest. Motion, or change of place, is the effect of an external cause acting upon matter. As to that faculty of matter called _gravitation_, it is the influence which two or more bodies have reciprocally on each other to unite and be at rest. Every thing which has hitherto been discovered with respect to the motion of the planets in the system, relates only to the laws by which motion acts, and not to the cause of motion. Gravitation, so far from being the cause of motion to the planets that compose the solar system, would be the destruction of the solar system, were revolutionary motion to cease; for as the action of spinning upholds a top, the revolutionary motion upholds the planets in their orbits, and prevents them from gravitating and forming one mass with the sun.

“By ceaseless action all that is subsists; Constant rotation of the unwearied wheel That nature rides upon, maintains her health, Her beauty, her fertility. She dreads An instant’s pause, and lives but while she moves. Its own revolvency upholds the world.”

In one sense of the word, philosophy knows, and atheism says, that matter is in perpetual motion. But the motion here meant refers to the state of matter, and that only on the surface of the earth. It is either decomposition, which is continually destroying the form of the bodies of matter, or recomposition, which renews that matter in the same or another form, as the decomposition of animal or vegetable substances enter into the composition of other bodies. But the motion that upholds the solar system is of an entirely different kind, and is not a property of matter. It operates also to an entirely different effect. It operates also to perpetual preservation, and to prevent any change in the state of the system.

Giving then to matter all the properties which philosophy knows it has, or all that atheism ascribes to it, and can prove, and even supposing matter to be eternal, it will not account for the system of the universe, or of the solar system, because it will not account for motion, and it is motion that preserves it. When, therefore, we discover a circumstance of such immense importance, that without it the universe could not exist, and for which neither matter, nor any, nor all, the properties of matter can account, we are by necessity forced into the rational and comfortable belief of the existence of a cause superior to matter, and that cause is GOD.

The motion of the earth, therefore, is an effect of Divine power, because there is none other equal to it; and the constant operation of the same cause is requisite to perpetuate its progress. How amazing it is that this globe, so large in circumference, should move at all! Plato attributes motion to the power of God, “How is it possible,” he argues, “for so prodigious a mass to be carried round for so long a time, by any natural cause? For which reason,” he says, “I assert God to be the cause, and that it is impossible it should be otherwise.”[50] “Every thing that is moved,” adds Aristotle, “must of necessity be moved by some other thing; and that thing must be moved, either by another, or not by another thing. If it be moved by that which is moved by another, we must of necessity come to some Prime Mover that is not moved by another. For it is impossible that what moves, and is moved by another, shall proceed _ad infinitum_.”[51] Since motion then is not a property of matter, but an effect produced by the power of a Divine agent, what a constant display we have of this efficient energy, in moving this earth, and with such a surprising, swiftness! Surely all men should fear and reverence a Being, who possesses and exercises such a power! He who created all things out of nothing, could, if he pleased, extinguish the light, and shake the solid earth into atoms!

When the ponderous wheel of nature first began to move, _time_, consisting of days, months, years, and ages, and measured by the duration and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, commenced.

_Time_ (in eternity parenthesis) Is measur’d by successive days and months, Seasons and years; which closely like the links Of an extended chain progressive join: Or as a clock, with all its hidden springs And constant motions, wound up to the top, Begins its course, revolving until down.

The distinction between _day_ and _night_ is a wise and gracious provision for man. In the morning, after the weary limbs have repaired their exhausted vigor by the indulgence of soft repose, we are pleased with the blessing of light; and, after a few fleeting hours engaged in our diversified pursuits of the day, we begin to court the evening shades, pleased again to enjoy that balmy retreat which alone refits us for the fatigues of the ensuing day. When a few fleeting hours are spent, the day is no longer gratifying; but its light becomes burdensome, and we wish for the shadows of the evening to be stretched over us. This sable period is scarcely gone, when we welcome the dawning day, and leave the place of our rest with gladness.

_Day_ and _night_, and their alternate changes, are adapted to suggest useful thoughts, and calculated to employ our serious meditation.

“From night to day, from day to night, The _dawning_ and the _dying_ light Lectures of heavenly wisdom read; With silent eloquence they raise Our thoughts to the Creator’s praise. And neither sound nor language need.”

A force continually impressed by the supreme Being produces and preserves these different and useful motions, which measure out that portion of time assigned us, for the performance of his work, and the securing of our own salvation. We are directed in his word how to employ this important _talent_ lent to us; also warned to guard against a misapplication of it, and told that a day will come when we shall have to give an account of our stewardship. As _day_ is afforded for the management of those employments which could not be done in the night, how unwise would it be to postpone such concerns till the approach of darkness? So the short period of life is given us that we may “work out our own salvation.” We are favored with the light of Divine truth to illuminate our understandings; the operation of the Holy Spirit to influence our wills; and our pressing necessities should impel us to perform what God requires.

The Greeks have two words for _time_, χρονος and καιρος: the former signifies time in general; and the latter that part of it which is proper for doing a thing--the present season in which any thing to be done may be done fitly and to advantage. Accordingly Solomon says, “To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under heaven.”

What the apostle says to the Christians at Ephesus is equally applicable and interesting to persons in succeeding ages of the world; giving a view of the importance of time, and directing to a right improvement of it. “See that ye walk circumspectly, not as fools, but as wise, redeeming the time, because the days are evil.”

_Walking_, in the Scripture style, is a word frequently used to denote the whole course of a man’s life and conversation, including all his thoughts, words and actions. Walking _circumspectly_, ακριβως, signifies correctly, accurately, consistently, or perfectly. In another place the same word is rendered _diligently_. Herod said to the wise men come from the east, Go to Bethlehem, and search ακριβως, _diligently_, narrowly, for the young child Jesus. But the word _circumspect_ is from the Latin _circumspicio_, and signifies to look round about, on all hands, to be every way watchful, wary, and cautious, in order to avoid danger, discern enemies before they come too nigh, and secure a man’s interest by every possible and lawful means.[52]

The necessity of this duty is suggested in the Greek text, βλεπετε ουν _see then_ or _therefore_, take care of this as a matter of the highest concern and greatest importance; it is that on which your all depends. He adduces a cogent reason for this--“Not as fools, but as wise.” As if he should say, It is your _wisdom_ to walk circumspectly, and not to walk so would be your _folly_: to walk circumspectly is the wisdom that God recommends to you, and which is adapted to make you truly wise, both in this world and in that which is to come.

The word _redeeming_, εξαγοραζομενοι, literally signifies _buying time_. The term _buying_ is proper in reference to civil contracts, but it is here applied morally. Properly speaking, time cannot be bought: it is a commodity for which all the treasures in the world would not be an equivalent. Its price is above rubies. But the term imports the great value of time, and intimates that we should be willing to suffer any privation or inconveniences, rather than lose it. _Redeeming_ properly implies the laying down a price for re-purchasing or recovering that which was ours, but which has fallen into the possession of another. A captive sometimes is redeemed out of the hand of an enemy. Now, in this sense, to redeem time already past is impossible, for when once gone it is irrecoverable. So that by _redeeming_ time, nothing else can be understood but a diligent and prudent improvement of it, which is the only way in our power to counterbalance the loss we have sustained by our former neglect. The effects of our past negligence should be counteracted by double diligence in future: we should do much work in a little time. This is to redeem that time, concerning which we have allowed worldly business, unprofitable visits, sensual indulgence, carnal recreations, and vain thoughts, to rob us, and, as it were, to take and keep us captive. To redeem time then is to be diligent in future, wisely improving it so as may make amends for our very culpable remissness. Future diligence is, as it were, the price of redemption paid down for what we had mortgaged into the hands of those things which we have suffered to deprive us of it.

The argument used to enforce the practice of this duty is, “because the days are evil.” Time, in itself, properly speaking, is neither good nor evil; but in regard to the moral state of mankind may be so called. The days here primarily intended by the apostle, denominated _evil_, were those of his own time, in which he himself and his contemporaries lived, and which abounded with trouble and danger, by reason of the opposition made by unbelieving Jews and Gentiles against Christianity. But all our days, as well as those, may be called evil, because of the prevalence of sin, Satanic delusion, and hostility of the ungodly against real religion. Many persons can adopt the language of the patriarch Jacob, “Few and evil have the days of the years of my life been.” Job gives a similar testimony, “Man that is born of a woman, is of few days, and full of evil.”

The whole argument runs thus: seeing that you cannot enjoy true quiet and substantial comfort in this terrestrial abode, and are in danger of being quickly deprived of all opportunity of getting and doing good, fail not to improve the present time to the best advantage, in reference to the future state, that you may secure for yourselves a happy and glorious eternity.

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Footnotes - Chapter II

[23] See Dr. A. Clarke on Gen. i. 1.

[24] Barington’s Dissertations, &c, p. 82.

[25] An eminent chemist and philosopher, Dr. Priestley, has very properly observed, that it seems plain that Moses considered the whole terraqueous globe as being created in a _fluid_ state, the earthly and other particles of matter being mingled with the water. The present form of the earth demonstrates the truth of the Mosaic account, for it is well known, that, if a soft or elastic globular body be rapidly whirled round on its axis, the parts at the poles will be flattened, and the parts on the equator, midway between the north and the south poles will be raised up. This is precisely the shape of our earth; it has the figure of an _oblate spheroid_, a figure pretty much resembling the shape of an _orange_. It has been demonstrated by admeasurement, that the earth is flatted at the poles, and raised at the equator. This was first conjectured by Sir Isaac Newton, and afterwards confirmed by M. Cassini, and others, who measured several degrees of latitude at the equator and near the north pole, and found that the difference perfectly justified Sir Isaac Newton’s conjecture, and consequently confirmed the Mosaic account. The result of the experiments instituted to determine this point, proved, that the diameter of the earth at the equator is greater by more than _twenty-three_ and _a half_ miles than it is at the poles, allowing the polar diameter to be 1-334 part shorter than the _equatorial_, according to the recent admeasurements of several degrees of latitude made by Messrs. Mechain and Delambre. L’Histoire des Mathem. par M. de la Lande, tom. iv, part v, liv. vi: and Dr. Adam Clarke, on Gen. i. 10.

[26] Hesiod. Theog. 116.

[27] Aristoph. Aves, 694.

[28] Longin, sect. ix, Edit. Pearce.

[29] Walker’s History of the Creation, p. 8, 9.

[30] Benson on the Text.

[31] Preface to Dr. Black’s Lectures, by Robison.

[32] Carpenter’s Lectures on the Works of Creation, vol. i. p. 87.

[33] Boerhaave’s Chem. by Shaw, vol. i. p. 299.

[34] Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, or Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. ii.

[35] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii. p. 149, 150.

[36] See Dr. Burnet’s Theory, vol. ii, p. 30.

[37] Apud Stob. Eclog. Phys. p. 44.

[38] That light is a fluid which encompasses the earth, and requires only to be agitated by some other inflamed body, in order to render it perceptible, is an hypothesis, says a celebrated German divine, that has been adopted by the most eminent philosophers. “It is certain, at least, that there is a great difference between _fire_ and _light_. The latter is incomparably more subtile than the former. It penetrates glass, and other transparent bodies, in a moment; whereas fire does it very slowly. The pores of glass are consequently large enough to give a free passage to the light, while the fire meets with more resistance, because it is less subtile. Fire moves more slowly than light. Let burning coals be brought into a room, the heat diffuses itself very slowly, and the air becomes warm by degrees; but the moment a candle is brought into an apartment, the whole is suddenly illuminated; and wherever the rays can reach the parts become more visible. From these facts, and some others, it is concluded, that fire and light are different substances; although we generally see them both together, and find that one may produce the other. But the consequence drawn from this is possibly false.”

[39] A new material has recently been introduced in this country, for the purpose of lighting houses, streets, manufactories, &c, namely, the inflammable gas of coals. When coals are burning in a common fire-place, a flame more or less luminous, according as it is more or less encumbered with incombustible smoke and vapor, issues from them; and very frequently emit some very beautiful streams of a flame remarkably bright. All this arises from the gases which are extricated from the coal by the heat. It was natural to imagine that such gas might be received in proper reservoirs, and, on being forced out of small apertures, and lighted, would serve, as the flames of candles, to illuminate rooms or other places. The trial was easily made, and has been attended with the desired effect.

[40] Dr. Rees’s New Cyclopædia, Art. Light; and Dr. O. Gregory’s Lessons, Astronomical and Philosophical p. 157.

[41] Gregory’s Economy of Nature, vol. i, p. 173.

[42] See Relig. Philos. vol. iii, pp. 869, 870, Fourth Edition.

[43] Sturm’s Reflections, vol. iii, p. 184.

[44] Dr. Rees’s Cyclopædia, Art. Light.

[45] Parkes’s Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. xii.

[46] Sermon on 1 Pet. ii, 21.

[47] Dr. Adam Clarke on Gen. i, 31.

[48] When Zeno, the Prince of the Stoics, was endeavoring to prove, by a sophistical argument, that there was no motion, Diogenes, the cynic, who had come into his school to hear him, quickly started up and walked: which was an ocular demonstration of motion, and sufficient to refute all his sophisms adduced to the contrary.

[49] See Gurdon’s Sixth Sermon at Boyle’s Lecture.

[50] Plato in Epinom.

[51] Aristot. Physic. lib. vii, c. 5.

[52] Dr A. Clarke on Eph. v, 15.

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