Chapter 8

CASSINI.--This remarkable ring-plain, about 36 miles in diameter, is very similar in character to Posidonius. It has a very narrow wall, nowhere more than 4000 feet in height, and falling on the E. to 1500 feet. Though a prominent and beautiful object under a low sun, its attenuated border and the tone of the floor, which scarcely differs from that of the surrounding surface, render it difficult to trace under a high angle of illumination, and perhaps accounts for the fact that it escaped the notice of Hevel and Riccioli; though it is certainly strange that a formation which is thrown into such strong relief at sunrise and sunset should have been overlooked, while others hardly more prominent at these times have been drawn and described. The outline of Cassini is clearly polygonal, being made up of several rectilineal sections. The interior, nearly at the same level as the outside country, includes a large bright ring-plain, A, 9 miles in diameter and 2600 feet in depth, which has a good-sized crater on the S. edge of a great bank which extends from the S.W. side of this ring-plain to the wall. On the E. side of the floor, close to the inner foot of the border, is a bright deep crater about two- thirds of the diameter of A, and between it and the latter Brenner has seen three small hills. The outer slope of Cassini includes much detail. On the S.W. is a row of shallow depressions just below the crest of the wall, and near the foot of the slope is a large circular shallow depression associated with a valley which runs partly round it. The shape of the _glacis_ on the W. is especially noteworthy, the S.W. and N.W. sides meeting at a slightly acute angle at a point 10 or 12 miles W. of the summit of the ring. On the outer E. slope is a curious elongated depression, and on the N. slope two large dusky rings, well shown by Schmidt, but omitted in other maps. Most of these details are well within the scope of moderate apertures. Perhaps the most striking view of Cassini and its surroundings is obtained when the morning terminator is on the central meridian.

ALEXANDER.--A large irregularly shaped plain, at least 60 miles in longest diameter, enclosed by the Caucasus Mountains. On the S.W. and N.W. the border is lineal. It has a dark level floor on which there is a great number of low hills.

EUDOXUS.--A bright deep ring-plain, about 40 miles in diameter, in the hilly region between the Mare Serenitatis and the Mare Frigoris, with a border much broken by passes, and deviating considerably from circularity. Its massive walls, rising more than 11,000 feet above the floor on the W., and about 10,000 feet on the opposite side, are prominently terraced, and include crater-rows in the intervening valleys, while their outer slopes present a complicated system of spurs and buttresses. There is a bright crater on the N. _glacis_, and some distance beyond the wall on the N.W. is a small ring-plain, and on the S.E. another, with a conspicuous crater between it and the wall. Neison draws attention to an area of about 1400 square miles on the N.E. which is covered with a great multitude of low hills. E. of Eudoxus are two short crossed clefts, and on the N. a long cleft of considerable delicacy running from N.E. to S.W. It was in connection with this formation that Trouvelot, on February 20, 1877, when the terminator passed through Aristillus and Alphonsus, saw a very narrow thread of light crossing the S. part of the interior and extending from border to border. He noted also similar appearances elsewhere, and termed them _Murs enigmatiques_.

ARISTOTELES.--A magnificent ring-plain, 60 miles in diameter, with a complex border, surmounted by peaks, rising to nearly 11,000 feet above the floor, one of which on the W., pertaining to a terrace, stands out as a brilliant spot in the midst of shadow when the interior is filled with shadow. The formation presents its most striking aspect at sunrise, when the shadow of the W. wall just covers the floor, and the brilliant inner slope of the E. wall with the little crater on its crest is fully illuminated. At this phase the details of the terraces are seen to the best advantage. The arrangement of the parallel ridges and rows of hills on the N.E. and S.W. is likewise better seen at this time than under an evening sun. A bright and deep ring-plain, about 10 miles in diameter, with a distinct central mountain, is connected with the W. wall.

EGEDE.--A lozenge-shaped formation, about 18 miles from corner to corner, bounded by walls scarcely more than 400 feet in height. It is consequently only traceable under very oblique illumination.

THE GREAT ALPINE VALLEY.--A great wedge-shaped depression, cutting through the Alps W. of Plato, from W.N.W. to E.S.E. It is more than 80 miles in length, and varies in breadth from 6 miles on the S. to less than 4 miles on the N., where it approaches the S. border of the Mare Frigoris. For a greater part of its extent it is bounded on the S.W. side by a precipitous linear cliff, which, under a low evening sun, is seen to be fringed by a row of bright little hills. These are traceable up to one of the great mountain masses of the Alps, forming the S.W. side of the great oval-shaped expansion of the valley, whose shape has been appropriately compared to that of a Florence oil-flask, and which Webb terms "a grand amphitheatre." On the opposite or N.E. side, the boundary of the valley is less regular, following a more or less undulating line up to a point opposite, and a little N. of, the great mountain mass, where it abuts on a shallow _quasi_ enclosure with lofty walls, which, projecting westwards, considerably diminish the width of the valley. South of this lies another curved mountain ring, which still farther narrows it. This curtailment in width represents the neck of the flask, and is apparently about 16 or 17 miles in length, and from 3 to 4 miles in breadth, forming a gorge, bordered on the W. by nearly vertical cliffs, towering thousands of feet above the bottom of the valley; and on the E. by many peaked mountains of still greater altitude. At the entrance to the "amphitheatre," the actual distance between the colossal rocks which flank the defile is certainly not much more than 2 miles. From this standpoint the view across the level interior of the elliptical plain would be of extraordinary magnificence. Towards the S., but more than 12 miles distant, the outlook of an observer would be limited by some of the loftiest peaks of the Alps, whose flanks form the boundary of the enclosure, through which, however, by at least three narrow passes he might perchance get a glimpse of the Mare Imbrium beyond. The broadest of these aligns with the axis of the valley. It is hardly more than a mile wide at its commencement on the S. border of the "amphitheatre," but expands rapidly into a trumpet-shaped gorge, flanked on either side by the towering heights of the Alps as it opens out on to the Mare. The bottom, both of the "amphitheatre" and of the long wedge-shaped valley, appears to be perfectly level, and, as regards the central portion of the latter, without visible detail. Under morning illumination I have, however, frequently seen something resembling a ridge partially crossing "the neck," and, near sunset, a tongue of rock jutting out from the E. flank of the constriction, and extending nearly from side to side. At the base of the cliff bordering the valley on the S.W., five or six little circular pits have been noted, some of which appear to have rims. They were seen very perfectly with powers of 350 and 400 on an 8 1/2 inch Calver reflector at 8 h. on January 25, 1885, and have been observed, but less perfectly, on subsequent occasions. The most northerly is about 10 miles from the N.W. end of the formation, and the rest occur at nearly regular intervals between it and "the neck." In the neighbourhood of the valley, on either side, there are several bright craters. Three stand near the N.E. edge, and one of considerable size near the N.W. end on the opposite side. A winding cleft crosses the valley about midway, which, strange to say, is not shown in the maps, though it may be seen in a 4 inch achromatic. It originates apparently at a bright triangular mountain on the plain S.W. of the valley, and, after crossing the latter somewhat obliquely, is lost amid the mountains on the opposite side. That portion of it on the bottom of the valley is easily traceable under a high light as a white line. The region N. of the Alps on the S.W. side of the valley presents many details worthy of examination. Among them, parallel rows of little hills, all extending from N.W. to S.E. There is also a number of still smaller objects of the same type on the E. side. The great Alpine valley, though first described by Schroter, is said to have been discovered on September 22, 1727, by Bianchini, but it is very unlikely that an object which is so prominent when near the terminator was not often remarked before this.

ARCHYTAS.--A bright ring-plain, 21 miles in diameter, on the edge of the Mare Frigoris, due N. of the Alpine Valley, with regular walls rising about 5000 feet above the interior on the N.W., and about 4000 feet on the opposite side. It has a very bright central mountain. Several spurs radiate from the wall on the S., and a wide valley, flanked by lofty heights, forming the S.W. boundary of W.C. Bond, originates on the N side. There is also a crater-rill running towards the N.W. On the Mare, S.W. of Archytas, is a somewhat smaller ring-plain, Archytas A (called by Schmidt, PROTAGORAS), with lofty walls and a central hill.

CHRISTIAN MAYER.--A prominent rhomboidal-shaped ring-plain, 18 miles in diameter, associated on every side, except the N., with a number of irregular inconspicuous enclosures. It has a central peak. Madler discovered two delicate short clefts, both running from N.W. to S.E., one on the W. and the other on the E. of this formation.

W.C. BOND.--A great enclosed plain of rhomboidal shape on the N. of Archytas, the bright ring-plain Timaeus standing near its E. corner, and another conspicuous but much smaller enclosure with a smaller crater W. of it on the floor at the opposite angle. The interior, which is covered with rows of hillocks, is very noteworthy at sunrise.

BARROW.--There are few more striking or beautiful objects at sunrise than this, mainly because of the peculiar shape of its brilliant border and the remarkable shadows of the lofty peaks on its western wall. There is a notable narrow gap in the rampart on the W., which appears to extend to the level of the floor. The walls, especially on the S., are very irregular, and include two large deep craters and some minor depressions. If the formation is observed when its E. wall is on the morning terminator, a fine view is obtained of the remarkable crater-row which winds round the N. side of Goldschmidt. Barrow is about 40 miles in diameter. According to Schmidt, there is one crater in the interior, a little S.E. of the centre.

SCORESBY.--A much fore-shortened deep ring-plain, 36 miles in diameter, between Barrow and the limb. It has a central mountain with two peaks, which are very difficult to detect.

CHALLIS.--A ring-plain adjoining Scoresby on the N.E. It is of about the same size and shape.

MAIN.--A very similar formation, on the N. of the last, much too near the limb to be well observed.

SECOND QUADRANT

EAST LONGITUDE 0 deg. TO 20 deg.

MURCHISON.--A considerable ring-plain about 35 miles across on the E., where it abuts on Pallas. It is a pear-shaped formation, bounded on the N. by a mountainous region, and gradually diminishes in width towards the S.E., on which side it is open to the plain. The walls are of no great altitude, but, except on the N.W., are very bright. At the S. termination of the W. wall there is an exceedingly brilliant crater, Murchison A, five miles in diameter and some 3000 feet deep; adjoining which on the N.W. is an oval depression and a curious forked projection from the border. The only objects visible in the interior are a few low ridges on the E. side, and a number of long spurs running out from the wall on the N. towards the centre of the floor. Murchison A is named CHLADNI by Lohrmann.

PALLAS.--A fine ring-plain, about 32 miles in diameter, forming with Murchison an especially beautiful telescopic object under suitable illumination. Its brilliant border, broken by gaps on the W., where it abuts on Murchison, has a bright crater on the N.E., from which, following the curvature of the wall, and just below its crest, runs a valley in an easterly direction. There is a large bright central mountain on the floor, with a smaller elevation to the S. of it, and a ridge extending from the N. wall to near the centre. On the W., a section of the border is continued in a N. direction far beyond the limits of the formation; and on the S. it is connected with a small incomplete ring; on the E. of which, near the foot of the wall, is a somewhat smaller and much duskier enclosure.

BODE.--A brilliant ring-plain, 9 miles in diameter, situated on the N. side of Pallas. Its walls rise about 5000 feet above the interior, which is considerably depressed, and includes, according to Schmidt and Webb, a mountain or ridge. There are two parallel valleys on the W., which are well worth examination.

SOMMERING.--An incomplete ring-plain, 17 miles in diameter, situated on the lunar equator. It has rather low broken walls and a dark interior.

SCHROTER.--A somewhat larger formation, with a border wanting on the S. Schmidt draws a considerable crater on the S.W. side of the floor. It was in the region north of this object, which abounds in little hills and low ridges, that in the year 1822 Gruithuisen discovered a very remarkable formation consisting of a number of parallel rows of hills branching out (like the veins of a leaf from the midrib) from a central valley at an angle of 45 deg., represented by a depression between two long ridges running from north to south. The regularly arranged hollows between the hills and the longitudinal valley suggested to his fertile imagination that he had at last found a veritable city in the moon--possibly the metropolis of Kepler's _Subvolvani_, who were supposed to dwell on that hemisphere of our satellite which faces the earth. At any rate, he was firmly convinced that it was the work of intelligent beings, and not due to natural causes. This curious arrangement of ridges and furrows, which, according to Webb, measures about 23 miles both in length and breadth, is, owing to the shallowness of the component hills and valleys, a very difficult object to see in its entirety, as it must be viewed when close to the terminator, and even then the sun's azimuth and good definition do not always combine to afford a satisfactory glimpse of its ramifications. M. Gaudibert has given a drawing of it in the _English Mechanic_, vol. xviii. p. 638.

GAMBART.--A regular ring-plain, 16 miles in diameter, with a low border and without visible detail within; situated nearly on the lunar equator, about 130 miles S.S.W. of Copernicus, at the N.W. edge of a very hilly region. A prominent pear-shaped mountain, with a small crater upon it, stands a short distance on the S.W., and further in the same direction, a large bright crater with two much smaller craters on the N. of it. The rough hilly district about midway between Copernicus and Gambart is remarkable for its peculiar dusky tone and for certain small dark spots, first seen by Schmidt, and subsequently carefully observed by Dr. Klein. The noteworthy region where these peculiar features are found represents an area of many thousand square miles, and must resemble a veritable _Malpais_, covered probably with an incalculable number of craters, vents, cones, and pits, filled with volcanic _debris_. It is among details of this character that the true analogues of some terrestrial volcanoes must be looked for. Under a low angle of illumination the surface presents an extraordinarily rough aspect, well worthy of examination, but the dusky areas and the black spots can only be satisfactorily distinguished under a somewhat high sun. I have, however, seen them fairly well when the W. wall of Reinhold was on the morning terminator.

MARCO POLO.--A small and very irregularly-shaped enclosure (difficult to see satisfactorily) on the S. flank of the Apennines. It is hemmed in on every side by mountains.

ERATOSTHENES.--A noble ring-plain, 38 miles in diameter; a worthy termination of the Apennines. The best view of it is obtained under morning illumination when the interior is about half-filled with shadow. At this phase the many irregular terraces on the inner slope of the E. wall (which rises at one peak 16,000 feet above an interior depressed 8000 feet below the Mare Imbrium) are seen to the best advantage. The central mountain is made up of two principal peaks, nearly central, from which two bright curved hills extend nearly up to the N.W. wall,--the whole forming a V-shaped arrangement. On the S. there is a narrow break in the wall, and the S.W. section of it seems to overlap and extend some distance beyond the S.E. section. The border on the S.W. is remarkable for the great width of its _glacis_. Eratosthenes exhibits a marked departure from circularity, especially on the E., where the wall consists of two well-marked linear sections, with an intermediate portion where the crest for 20 miles or more bends inwards or towards the centre. From the S.E. flank of this formation extends towards the W. side of Stadius one of the grandest mountain arms on the moon's visible surface, rising at one place 9000 feet, and in two others 5000 and 3000 feet respectively above the Mare Imbrium. If this magnificent object is observed when the morning terminator falls a little E. of Stadius, it affords a spectacle not easily forgotten. I have often seen it at this phase when its broad mass of shadow extended across the well-known crater-row W. of Copernicus, some of the component craters appearing between the spires of shade representing the loftiest peaks on the mountain arm. There is a prominent little crater on the crest of the arm between two of the peaks, and another on the plain to the west.

STADIUS.--An inconspicuous though a very interesting formation, 43 miles in diameter, W. of Copernicus, with a border scarcely exceeding 200 feet in height. Hence it is not surprising that it was for a long time altogether overlooked by Madler. Except as a known object, it is only traceable under very oblique illumination, and even then some attention is required before its very attenuated wall can be followed all round. It is most prominent on the W., where it apparently consists of a S. extension of the Eratosthenes mountain-arm, and is associated with a number of little craters and pits. This is succeeded on the S.W. by a narrow strip of bright wall, and on the S. by a section made up of a piece of straight wall and a strip curving inwards, forming the S. side. On the E. the border assumes a very ghostly character, and appears to be mainly defined by rows of small depressions and mounds. On the N.E., N., and N.W. it is still lower and narrower; so much so, that it is only for an hour or so after sunrise or before sunset that it can be traced at all. On every side, with the exception of the curved piece on the S., the wall consists of linear sections. The interior contains a great number of little craters and very low longitudinal mounds. Ten craters are shown in Beer and Madler's map. Schmidt only draws fifteen, though in the text accompanying his chart he says that he once counted fifty. In the monograph published in the _Journal_ of the Liverpool Astronomical Society (vol. v. part 8), forty-one are represented. They appear to be rather more numerous on the S. half of the floor than elsewhere. Just beyond the limits of the border on the N., is a bright crater with a much larger obscure depression on the W. of it. The former is surrounded by a multitude of minute craters and crater-cones, which are easily seen under a low sun. Though almost every trace of Stadius disappears under a high light, I have had little difficulty in seeing portions of the border and some of the included details when the morning terminator had advanced as far as the E. wall of Herodotus, and the site was traversed by innumerable light streaks radiating from Copernicus. At this phase the bright crater, just mentioned, on the N. edge of the border was tolerably distinct.

COPERNICUS.--This is without question the grandest object, not only on the second Quadrant, but on the whole visible superficies of the moon. It undoubtedly owes its supremacy partly to its comparative isolation on the surface of a vast plain, where there are no neighbouring formations to vie with it in size and magnificence, but partly also to its favourable position, which is such, that, though not central, is sufficiently removed from the limb to allow all its manifold details to be critically examined without much foreshortening. There are some other formations, Langrenus and Petavius, for example, which, if they were equally well situated, would probably be fully as striking; but, as we see it Copernicus is _par excellence_ the monarch of the lunar ring-mountains. Schmidt remarks that this incomparable object combines nearly all the characteristics of the other ring-plains, and that careful study directed to its unequalled beauties and magnificent form is of much more value than that devoted to a hundred other objects of the same class. It is fully 56 miles in diameter, and, though generally described as nearly circular, exhibits very distinctly under high powers a polygonal outline, approximating very closely to an equilateral hexagon. There are, however, two sections of the crest of the border on the N.E. which are inflected slightly towards the centre, a peculiarity already noticed in the case of Eratosthenes. The walls, tolerably uniform in height, are surmounted by a great number of peaks, one of which on the W., according to Neison, stands 11,000 feet above the floor, and a second on the opposite side is nearly as high. Both the inner and outer slopes of this gigantic rampart are very broad, each being fully 10 miles in width. The outer slope, especially on the E., is a fine object at sunrise, when its rugged surface, traversed by deep gullies, is seen to the best advantage. The terraces and other features on the bright inner declivities on this side may be well observed when the sun's altitude is about 6 deg. Schmidt, whose measures differ from those of Neison, estimates the height of the wall on the E. to be 12,000 feet, and states that the interior slopes vary from 60 deg. to 50 deg. above, to from 10 deg. to 2 deg. at the base. The first inclination of 50 deg., and in some cases of 60 deg., is confined to the loftiest steep crests and to the flanks of the terraces. There are apparently five bright little mountains on the floor, the most easterly being rather the largest, and a great number of minute hillocks on the S.E. quarter. S.W. of the centre is a little crater, and on the same side of the interior a curious hook-shaped ridge, projecting from the foot of the wall, and extending nearly halfway across the floor. The region surrounding Copernicus is one of the most remarkable on the moon, being everywhere traversed by low ridges, enclosing irregular areas, which are covered with innumerable craterlets, hillocks, and other minute features, and by a labyrinth of bright streaks, extending for hundreds of miles on every side, and varying considerably both in width and brilliancy.