PART I

GRAMMAR

MONTESSORI ELEMENTARY MATERIAL

I

THE TRANSITION FROM THE MECHANICAL TO THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

In the "Children's Houses" we had reached a stage of development where the children could write words and even sentences. They read little slips on which were written different actions which they were to execute, thus demonstrating that they had understood them. The material for the development of writing and reading consisted of two alphabets: a larger one with vowels and consonants in different colors, and a smaller one with all the letters in one color.

(In English, to diminish the phonetic difficulties of the language, combinations of vowels and consonants, known as phonograms, are used. The phonograms with few exceptions have constant sounds and little attention is paid to the teaching of the separate values of the different letters: not until the child has built up his rules inductively does he realize the meaning of separate vowel symbols.)

However, the actual amount of progress made was not very precisely ascertained. We could be sure only that the children had acquired the mechanical technique of writing and reading and were on the way to a greater intellectual development along these lines. Their progress, however extensive it may have been, could be called little more than a foundation for their next step in advance, the elementary school. What beyond all question was accomplished with the little child in the first steps of our method was to establish the psycho-motor mechanism of the written word by a slow process of maturation such as takes place in the natural growth of articulate speech; in other words, by methodically exercising psycho-motor paths.

Later on the child's mind is able to make use of the successive operations performed with the written language which has been thus built up by the child as a matter of mechanical execution (writing) and to a certain extent of intelligent interpretation (reading). Normally this is an established fact at the age of five. When the child begins to think and to make use of the written language to express his rudimentary thinking, he is ready for elementary work; and this fitness is a question not of age or other incidental circumstance but of mental maturity.

We have said, of course, that the children stayed in the "Children's House" up to the age of seven; nevertheless they learned to write, to count, to read, and even to do a certain amount of simple composition. It is clear, accordingly, that they had gone some distance in the elementary grade as regards both age and educational development. However, what they had actually accomplished beyond the mechanical technique of writing was more or less difficult to estimate. We can now say that our later experiments have not only clarified this situation, but enabled us to take the children much farther along than before.

This only proves, however, that on beginning elementary grade work we did not depart from the "Children's House" idea; on the contrary we returned to it to give distinct realization to the nebulous hopes with which our first course concluded. Hence the "Children's House" and the lower grades are not two distinct things as is the case with the Fröbel Kindergarten and the ordinary primary school--in fact, they are one and the same thing, the continuation of an identical process.

Let us return then to the "Children's House" and consider the child of five and one-half years. To-day in those "Children's Houses" which have kept up with the improvements in our method the child is actually started on his elementary education. From the second alphabet of the "Children's House" we go on to a third alphabet. Here the movable letters are a great deal smaller and are executed in model hand-writing. There are twenty specimens of each letter, whereas formerly there were but four; furthermore, there are three complete alphabets, one white, one black, and one red. There are, therefore, sixty copies of each letter of the alphabet. We include also all the punctuation marks: period, comma, accents (for Italian), apostrophe, interrogation and exclamation points. The letters are made of plain glazed paper.

The uses of this alphabet are many; so before we stop to examine them let us look somewhat ahead. Everybody has recognized the naturalness of the exercise, used in the "Children's House," where the children placed a card bearing the name of an object on the object referred to. This was the first lesson in reading. We could see that the child knew how to read as soon as he was able to identify the object indicated on the card. In schools all over the world a similar procedure would, I imagine, be considered logical. I suppose that in all the schools where the objective method is used much the same thing is done; and this is found to be not a hindrance but a help to the child in learning the names of objects. As regards the teaching of the noun, accordingly, we have been using methods already in use--the objective method, with practical exercises. But why should we restrict such methods to the noun? Is the noun not just as truly a _part of speech_ as the adjective, or the verb? If there is a method by which the knowledge of a noun is made easy, may there not be similar ways of facilitating the learning of all the other parts of speech (article, adjective, verb, pronoun, adverb, interjection, conjunction, and preposition)?

When a slip with the interpreted word is placed on the object corresponding to it, the children are actually distinguishing the noun from all the other parts of speech. They are learning intuitively to define it. The first step has thus been taken into the realm of grammar. But if this "reading" has brought the child directly into word _classification_, the transition has not been for him so abrupt as might at first appear. The child has built _all_ his words with the movable alphabet, and he has, in addition, _written_ them. He has thus traversed a two-fold preparatory exercise involving, first, the analysis of the sounds and, second, the analysis of the words in their meaning. In fact, we have seen that, as the child reads, it is his discovery of the tonic accent that brings him to recognize the word. The child has begun to analyze not only the sounds and accent but also the form of the word.[1]

How absurd it would seem to suggest a study of phonology and morphology in a nursery with four-year-old children as investigators! Yet our children have accomplished this very thing! The analysis was the means of attaining the word. It was what made the child able to write without effort. Why should such a procedure be useful for single words and not so for connected discourse? Proceeding to the classification of words by distinguishing the noun from all other words, we have really advanced into the analysis of connected speech, just as truly as, by having the sand-papered letters "touched" and the word pronounced, we took the first step into the analysis of words. We have only to carry the process farther and perhaps we shall succeed in getting the analysis of whole sentences, just as we succeeded in getting at the composition of words--discovering meanwhile a method which will prove efficacious in leading the child to write his thoughts more perfectly than would seem possible at such a tender age.

For some time, then, we have been actually in the field of grammar. It is a question simply of continuing along the same path. The undertaking may indeed seem hazardous. Never mind! That "awful grammar," that horrible bugaboo, no less terrible than the frightful method, once in use, of learning to read and write, may perhaps become a delightful exercise, a loving guide to lead the child along pleasant pathways to the _discovery_ of things he has _actually performed_. Yes, the child will suddenly find himself, one day, in possession of a little composition, a little "work of art," that has issued from his own pen! And he will be as happy over it as he was when for the first time words were formed by his tiny hands!

How different grammar will seem to the young pupil, if, instead of being the cruel assassin that tears the sentence to pieces so that nothing can be understood, it becomes the amiable and indispensable help to "the construction of connected discourse"! It used to be so easy to say: "The sentence is written! Please leave it alone!" Why put asunder what God has joined? Why take away from a sentence its meaning, the very thing which gave it life? Why make of it a mere mass of senseless words? Why spoil something already perfect just for the annoyance of plunging into an analysis which has no apparent purpose? Indeed, to impose upon people who can already read the task of reducing every word to its primal sounds, would be to demand of them an effort of will so gigantic that only a professional philologist could apply himself to it with the necessary diligence, and then only because he has his own particular interests and aims involved in such work. Yet the four-year-old child, when he passes from those meaningless sounds to the composition of a whole, which corresponds to an idea and represents a useful and wonderful conquest, is just as attentive as the philologist and perhaps even more enthusiastic. He will find the same joy in grammar, if, starting from analyses, it gains progressively in significance, acquiring, step by step, a greater interest, working finally up to a climax, up to the moment, that is, when the finished sentence is before him, its meaning clear and _felt_ in its subtlest essences. The child has created something beautiful, full grown and perfect at its birth, not now to be tampered with by anybody!

The analysis of sounds which, in our method, leads to spontaneous writing, is not, to be sure, adapted to all ages. It is when the child is four or four and a half, that he shows the characteristically childlike passion for such work, which keeps him at it longer than at any other age, and leads him to develop perfection in the mechanical aspect of writing. Similarly the analytical study of parts of speech, the passionate lingering over words, is not for children of all ages. It is the children between five and seven who are the _word-lovers_. It is they who show a predisposition toward such study. Their undeveloped minds can not yet grasp a complete idea with distinctness. They do, however, understand _words_. And they may be entirely carried away by their ecstatic, their tireless interest in the _parts_ of speech.

It is true that our whole method was born of heresy. The first departure from orthodoxy was in holding that the child can best learn to write between the ages of four and five. We are now constrained to advance another heretical proposition: children should begin the study of grammar between the ages of five and a half and seven and a half, or eight!

The idea that analysis must be preceded by construction was a matter of mere prejudice. Only things produced by nature must be analyzed before they can be understood. The violet, for instance, is found perfect in nature. We have to tear off the petals, cut the flower into sections to see how it grew. But in making an artificial violet we do just the opposite. We prepare the stems piece by piece; then we work out the petals, cutting, coloring, and ironing them one by one. The preparation of the stamens, even of the glue with which we put the whole together, is a distinct process. A few simple-minded people, with a gift for light manual labor, take unbounded delight in these single operations, these wonderfully varied steps which all converge to the creation of a pretty flower; the beauty of which depends on the amount of patience and skill applied to the work on the individual parts.

Analysis, furthermore, is involved quite as much in building as in taking to pieces. The building of a house is an analytical process. The stones are treated one by one from cellar to roof. The person who puts the house together knows it in its minutest details and has a far more accurate idea of its construction than the man who tears it down. This is true, first, because the process of construction lasts much longer than that of demolition: more time is spent on the study of the different parts. But besides this, the builder has a point of view different from that of the man who is destroying. The sensation of seeing a harmonious whole fall into meaningless bits has nothing in common with the alternating impulses of hope, surprise or satisfaction which come to a workman as he sees his edifice slowly assuming its destined form.

For these and still other reasons, the child, when interested in words at a certain age, can utilize grammar to good purpose, dwelling analytically upon the various parts of speech according as the processes of his inner spiritual growth determine. In this way he comes to own his language perfectly, and to acquire some appreciation of its qualities and power.

Our grammar is not a book. The nouns (names), which the child was to place on the objects they referred to as soon as he understood their meaning, were written on cards. Similarly the words, belonging to all the other parts of speech, are written on cards. These cards are all of the same dimensions: oblongs (5 × 3-1/2 cmm.) of different colors: black for the noun; tan for the article; brown for the adjective; red for the verb; pink for the adverb; violet for the preposition; yellow for the conjunction; blue for the interjection.

These cards go in special boxes, eight in number. The first box has two compartments simply; the second, however, three; the third, four; and so on down to the eighth, which is divided into nine. One wall in each section is somewhat higher than the others. This is to provide space for a card with a title describing the contents of the section. It bears, that is, the name of the relative part of speech. The title-card, furthermore, is of the same color as that used for the part of speech to which it refers. The teacher is expected to arrange these boxes so as to provide for the study of two or more parts of speech. However, our experiments have enabled us to make the exercises very specific in character; so that the teacher has at her disposal not only a thoroughly prepared material but also something to facilitate her work and to check up the accuracy of it.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The process of learning to read has been more fully set forth in _The Montessori Method_; the child at first pronounces the sounds represented by the individual letters (phonograms), without understanding what they mean. As he repeats the word several times he comes to read more rapidly. Eventually he discovers the tonic accent of the word, which is then immediately identified.

II

WORD STUDY

When a little child begins to read he shows a keen desire to learn words, words, words! Indeed in the "Children's House" we had that impressive phenomenon of the children's tireless reading of the little slips of paper upon which were written the names of objects.

The child must acquire his word-store for himself. The peculiar characteristic of the child's vocabulary is its meagerness. But he is nearing the age when he will need to express his thoughts and he must now acquire the material necessary for that time. Many people must have noticed the intense attention given by children to the conversation of grown-ups when they cannot possibly be understanding a word of what they hear. They are trying to get hold of _words_, and they often demonstrate this fact by repeating joyously some word which they have been able to grasp. We should second this tendency in the child by giving him an abundant material and by organizing for him such exercises as his reactions clearly show us are suitable for him.

The material used in our system not only is very abundant, but it has been dictated to us by rigid experimentation on every detail. However, the same successive choices of material do not appear among the children as a whole. Indeed their individual differences begin to assert themselves progressively at this point in their education. The exercises are easy for some children and very hard for others, nor is the order of selection the same among all the children. The teacher should know this material thoroughly. She should be able to recognize the favorable moment for presenting the material to the child. As a matter of fact, a little experience with the material is sufficient to show the teacher that the educational facts develop spontaneously and in such a way as to simplify the teacher's task in a most surprising manner.

SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES

Here we use charts with printed lists of words which may be hung on the wall. The children can look at them and also take them in their hands.

LIST I

SUFFIXES: AUGMENTATIVES, DIMINUTIVES, PEGGIORATIVES, ETC.

_buono_ (_good_): buonuccio, buonino, buonissimo

_casa_ (_house_): casona, casetta, casettina, casuccia, casaccia, casettaccia

_formica_ (_ant_): formicona, formicuccia, formicola, formichetta

_ragazzo_ (_boy_): ragazzone, ragazzino, ragazaccio, ragazzetto

_lettera_ (_letter_): letterina, letterona, letteruccia, letteraccia

_campana_ (_bell_): campanone, campanello, campanellino, campanino, campanaccio

_giovane_ (_youth_): giovanetto, giovincello, giovinastro

_fiore_ (_flower_): fioretto, fiorellino, fioraccio, fiorone

_tavolo_ (_board_): tavolino, tavoletta, tavolone, tavolaccio

_seggiola_ (_chair_): seggiolone, seggiolina, seggiolaccia

_pietra_ (_stone_): pietruzza, pietrina, pietrone, pietraccio

_sasso_ (_rock_): sassetto, sassolino, sassettino, sassone, sassaccio

_cesto_ (_basket_): cestino, cestone, cestello, cestellino

_piatto_ (_plate_): piattino, piattello, piattone

_pianta_ (_plant_ or _tree_): piantina, pianticella, pianticina, pianterella, piantona, piantaccia

_fuoco_ (_fire_): fuochetto, fuochino, fuocherello, fuocone, fuochettino

_festa_ (_festival_): festicciola, festona, festaccia

_piede_ (_foot_): piedino, piedone, pieduccio, piedaccio

_mano_ (_hand_): manina, manona, manaccia, manuccia

_seme_ (_seed_): semino, semetto, semone, semaccio, semettino

_semplice_ (_simple person_): semplicino, semplicetto, sempliciotto, semplicione

_ghiotto_ ("_sweet-tooth_"): ghiottone, ghiottoncello, ghiottaccio, ghiottissimo

_vecchio_ (_old man_): vecchietto, vecchione, vecchiaccio, vecchissimo

_cieco_ (_blind_): ciechino, ciechetto, ciecolino, ciecone, ciecaccio

Note:--The rôle of augmentative and diminutive suffixes in English is vastly less important than in Italian. Here are a few specimens:

_lamb_--lambkin _duck_--duckling _bird_--birdling _nest_--nestling _goose_--gosling _mouse_--mousie _girl_--girlie _book_-booklet _brook_--brooklet _stream_--streamlet _poet_--poetaster

The child's exercise is as follows: he composes the first word in any line with the alphabet of a single color (e.g., black). Next underneath and using the alphabet of the same color, he repeats the letters in the second word which he sees also in the first. But just as soon as a letter changes he uses the alphabet of another color (e.g., red). In this way the root is always shown by one color, the suffixes by another; for example:--

buono buon_uccio_ buon_ino_ buon_issimo_

_For English:_

stream stream_let_ lamb lamb_kin_

Then the child chooses another word and repeats the same exercise. Often he finds for himself words not included in the list which is given him.

In the following chart the suffixes are constant while the root varies. Here the suffix changes the meaning of the word. From the original meaning is derived the word for a trade, a place of business, an action, a collective or an abstract idea. Naturally, the child does not realize all this at first but limits himself merely to building the words mechanically with the two alphabets. Later on, however, as grammar is developed, he may return to the reading of these charts, which are always at his disposal, and begin to realize the value of the differences.

LIST II

macello (slaughter) macellaio (butcher) sella (saddle) sellaio (saddler) forno (oven) fornaio (baker) cappello (hat) capellaio (hatter) vetro (glass) vetreria (glaziery) calzolaio (shoe-maker) calzoleria (shoe-shop) libro (book) libreria (book-store) oste (host) osteria (inn) pane (bread) panetteria (bakery) cera (wax) cereria (chandler's shop) dente (tooth) dentista (dentist) farmacia (pharmacy) farmacista (druggist) elettricita (electricity) elettricista (electrician) telefono (telephone) telefonista (telephone operator) arte (art) artista (artist) bestia (beast) bestiame (cattle) osso (bone) ossame (bones, _collective_) corda (string) cordame (strings, _collective_) foglia (leaf) fogliame (foliage) pollo (chicken) pollame (poultry) grato (grateful) gratitudine (gratitude) beato (blessed) beatitudine (blessedness) inquieto (uneasy) inquietudine (uneasiness) grano (grain) granaio (barn) colombo (dove) colombaio (dove-cote) paglia (straw) pagliaio (hay-stack) frutto (fruit) frutteto (orchard) canna (reed) canneto (brake) oliva (olive) oliveto (olive-grove) quercia (oak) querceto (oak-grove)

ENGLISH EXAMPLES

teach teacher sing singer work worker cater caterer wring wringer conduct conductor direct director launder laundry seam seamstress song songstress priest priestess mister mistress cow cowherd piano pianist art artist pharmacy pharmacist drug druggist physic physician prison prisoner house household earl earldom king kingdom count county real reality modern modernness good goodness sad sadness aloof aloofness

The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows:

frutto frutt_eto_ canna cann_eto_ oliva oliv_eto_ quercia querc_eto_

_For English_:

song song_ster_ song_stress_ art art_ist_ art_less_ art_ful_

LIST III

PREFIXES

_nodo_ (_knot_): annodare, snodare, risnodare

_scrivere_ (_write_): riscrivere, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, descrivere

_coprire_ (_cover_): scoprire, riscoprire

_gancio_ (_hook_): agganciare, sganciare, riagganciare

_legare_ (_bind_): collegare, rilegare, allegare, slegare

_bottone_ (_button_): abbottonare, sbottonare, riabbottonare

_macchiare_ (_spot_): smacchiare, rismacchiare

_chiudere_ (_close_): socchiudere, schiudere, richiudere, rinchiudere

_guardare_ (_look at_): riguardare, traguardare, sogguardare

_vedere_ (_see_): travedere, rivedere, intravedere

_perdere_ (_lose_): disperdere, sperdere, riperdere

_mettere_ (_put_, _place_): smettere, emettere, rimettere, permettere, commettere, promettere, sottomettere

_vincere_ (_overcome_): rivincere, avvincere, convincere, stravincere

_For English:_

_cover_: uncover, discover, recover

_pose_: impose, compose, dispose, repose, transpose

_do_: undo, overdo

_place_: displace, replace, misplace

_submit_: remit, commit, omit, permit

_close_: disclose, foreclose, reclose

_arrange_: rearrange, disarrange

The child's exercise with the two alphabets will be as follows:

coprire _s_coprire _ri_coprire

_For English:_

place _dis_place _re_place

LIST IV

COMPOUND WORDS

cartapecora (parchment) cartapesta (papier maché) falsariga (guide) madreperla (mother-of-pearl) melagrana (pomegranate) melarancia (orange) biancospino (hawthorn) ficcanaso (busybody) lavamano (wash-stand) mezzogiorno (noon) passatempo (pastime) ragnatela (cobweb) madrevite (vine) guardaportone (doorkeeper) capoluogo (capital) capomaestro ("boss") capofila (pivot-soldier) capopopolo (demagogue) caposquadra (commodore) capogiro (dizziness) capolavoro (masterpiece) giravolta (whirl) mezzaluna (half-moon) mezzanotte (midnight) palcoscenico (stage) acchiappacani (dog-catcher) cantastorie (story-teller) guardaboschi (forester) lustrascarpe (boot-black) portalettere (letter-carrier) portamonete (pocketbook) portasigari (cigar-case) portalapis (pencil-case) portabandiera (standard bearer) guardaroba (wardrobe) asciugamano (towel) cassapanca (wooden bench) arcobaleno (rainbow) terrapieno (rampart, terrace) bassorilievo (bas-relief) granduca (grand-duke) pianoforte (piano) spazzacamino (chimney-sweep) pettorosso (redbreast)

_For English:_

sheepskin cardboard shoestring midnight midday noontime redbreast appletree afternoon moonlight starlight doorknob bedtime daytime springtime flagstaff rainbow workman housekeeper pastime chimneysweep sheepfold barnyard sidewalk snowshoe shoeblack firefly steamboat milkman bathroom streetcar lifelike pocketbook inkwell tablecloth courtyard honeycomb beehive flowerpot buttonhole hallway midway storekeeper horseman masterpiece bookcase

The children read one word at a time and try to reproduce it from memory, distinguishing through the two alphabets the two words of which each one is composed:

carta _pecora_ bianco _spino_ piano _forte_ spazza _camino_ lava _mano_

_For English:_

moon _light_ work _man_

In the following chart the words are grouped in families. This chart may be used by children who are already well advanced in the identification of the parts of speech. All the words are derived from some other more simple word which is a root and of which the other words, either by suffix or prefix, are made up. All these roots are primitive words which some day the child may look for in a group of derivatives; and when he finds them he will realize that the primitive word is a noun, adjective, or a verb, as the case may be, that it is the word which contains the simplest idea, and so the derivatives may be nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs.

On these charts appear various word-families. The teacher is thus spared the trouble of looking them up. Furthermore the child will some day be able to use them by himself. The exercises based on these are still performed with two different alphabets of different color so that the child can tell at a glance which is the root word.

WORD-FAMILIES

_terra_ (_earth_): terrazzo, terremoto, terrapieno, atterrare, terreno, terriccio, terricciola, territorio, conterraneo, terreo, terroso, dissotterrare

_ferro_ (_iron_): ferraio, ferriera, ferrata, ferrigno, ferrugginoso, ferrare, sferrare, inferriata

_soldo_ (_penny_): assoldare, soldato, soldatesca, soldatescamente

_grande_ (_great_): ingrandire, grandiosità, grandioso, grandiosamente, grandeggiare

_scrivere_ (_write_): scrittura, scritto, scritturare, scrittore, inscrizione, trascrivere, sottoscrivere, riscrivere

_beneficio_ (_benefit_): beneficare, benefattore, beneficato, beneficenza, beneficamente

_benedizione_ (_benediction_): benedire, benedicente, benedetto, ribenedire

_felicità_ (_happiness_): felice, felicemente, felicitare, felicitazione

_fiamma_ (_flame_): fiammante, fiammeggiante, fiammeggiare, fiammelle, fiammiferi, infiammare

_bagno_ (_bath_): bagnante, bagnino, bagnarola, bagnatura, bagnare, ribagnare

_freddo_ (_cold_): freddolose, infreddatura, freddamente, raffreddore, raffreddare, sfreddare

_polvere_ (_dust_): spolverare, impolverare, polverino, polverizzare, polverone, polveroso, polveriera, polverizzatore

_pesce_ (_fish_): pescare, pescatore, ripescare, pescabile, ripescabile

_opera_ (_work_): operaio, operare, operazione, operoso, operosamente, cooperare, cooperazione, inoperare

_canto_ (_song_): cantore, cantante, cantare, cantarellare, cantiochiare ricantare

_gioco_ (_game_): giocare, giocattolo, giocarellare, giocatore, giocoso, giocosamente

_dolore_ (_pain_): doloroso, dolorosamente, dolente, addolorare, dolersi, condolersi, condoglianza, addolorato

_pietra_ (_stone_): pietrificare, pietrificazione, pietroso, impietrire, pietraio

_sole_ (_sun_): assolato, soleggiante, soleggiare

_festa_ (_festival_): festeggiare, festino, festeggiatore, festeggiato, festaiolo, festante, festevole, festevolmente, festosamente

_allegro_ (_happy_): allegria, allegramente, rallegrare, rallegramento

_seme_ (_seed_): semina, semenze, seminare, semenzaio, seminatore, riseminare, seminazione, disseminare, seminatrice

_For English:_

_wood_: wooden, woodworker, woody, woodsman, woodland

_earth_: earthen, earthy, earthly, earthborn, earthward, earthquake, earthling

_fish_: fishing, fisherman, fishery, fishy, fishmonger, fishnet

_well_: welcome, wellmeaning, wellknit

_war_: warrior, warlike, warship, warhorse, war-whoop, warsong, war-cry

_play_: player, playful, playhouse, playmate

_politic_: politics, politician, political, polity, politically

_hard_: hardly, harden, hardness, hardship, hardy, hardihood, hardware

_turn_: return, turner, turnstile

_close_: disclose, closet, unclose, closure, foreclose

The child sees that the mother word is always the shortest. The _root_ remains in one color.

III

ARTICLE AND NOUN

[Note:--The English language presents a far simpler situation than the Italian as regards the agreement of article and adjectives. Gender itself being, in the case of English nouns, more a matter of logical theory than of word-ending, adjectival agreement in the formal sense in practically unknown to English grammar. Likewise the formation of the plural is much simpler in English than in Italian, where the singular and plural word-endings are closely associated with gender. It is a question, in fact, whether the whole subject of the gender of English nouns should not be taken up somewhat later in connection with the pronouns, where English shows three singular forms masculine, feminine, neuter (him, her, it) as against the Italian two, masculine and feminine (_lo_, _la_, plural _li_, _le_, etc.). Signora Montessori's discussion of the situation in Italian still remains instructive to the teacher of English as an illustration of method. We retain her text, accordingly, in its entirety.--TR.]

As we have already said, the words chosen for grammatical study are all printed on small rectangular pieces of cardboard. The little cards are held together in packages by an elastic band and are kept in their respective boxes. The first box which we present has two compartments. In the holders at the back of each compartment are placed the cards which show the part of speech to be studied, in this case _article_ and _noun_. The article cards are placed in the article compartment and the nouns in the noun compartment. When the children have finished their exercise they replace the cards--the nouns in the place for the nouns and the articles in the place for the articles. If the words _article_ and _noun_ are not a sufficient guide for the child, the color at least will make the task easy. In fact the child will place the black cards for the noun in the compartment indicated by the black guide-card (marked _noun_); the tan cards for the article with the tan guide-card (marked _article_). This exercise recalls the child's experience with the alphabet boxes, where one copy of each letter is pasted to the bottom of the box as a guide for the child in replacing the other letters. The child begins to speak of the _article-section_, the _noun-section_, and the _article-cards_ and _noun-cards_. In so doing he begins to _distinguish_ between the parts of speech. The material must be prepared very accurately and in a definitely determined quantity. For the first exercise, the children are given boxes with the articles and nouns shuffled together in their respective compartments. But there must be just enough articles of each gender to go with the respective nouns. The child's task is to put the right article in front of the right noun--a long and patient research, which, however, is singularly fascinating to him.

We have prepared the following words. We should recall, however, that the cards are not found in the boxes in this order, but are mixed together--the articles shuffled in their box-section and the nouns in theirs.

il fazzoletto (the handkerchief) il libro (the book) il vestito (the dress) il tavolino (the little table) lo specchio (the mirror) lo zucchero (the sugar) lo zio (the uncle) lo stivale (the boot) i colori (the colors) i fiori (the flowers) i disegni (the drawings) i compagni (the companions) gli zoccoli (the wooden shoes) gli uomini (the men) gli articoli (the articles) le sedie (the chairs) la stoffa (the cloth) la perla (the pearl) la piramide (the pyramid) la finestra (the window) le scarpe (the shoes) le addizioni (the sums) le piante (the plants, the trees) l'occhio (the eye) l'amico (the friend) l'acqua (the water) l'albero (the tree) gl'invitati (the guests) gl'incastri (the insets) gl'italiani (the Italians) gl'insetti (the insects)

(We suggest as a corresponding English exercise the introduction of the _indefinite_ article. This substitution involves four processes against the eight of the Italian exercise. The use of _an_ before a vowel is quite analogous to the problem of the Italian _l'_ and _gl'_. However the theoretical distinction between the definite and indefinite article, as regards meaning, is reserved by Signora Montessori to a much later period, though the practical distinction appear in the earliest _Lessons and Commands_.--Tr.)

the handkerchief the book the dress the table the mirror the sugar

the colors the flowers the drawings the children the shoes the men

a man a pearl a prism a card a window a chair a tree

an orange an apple an uncle an eye an insect an American an aunt

The child tries to combine article and noun and puts them side by side on his little table. In this exercise he is guided by sound just as he was in building words with the movable alphabet. There the child's first step was to find relationships between real objects and the linguistic sounds corresponding to them. Now he sees suddenly revealed to him hitherto unsuspected relationships between these sounds, these words. To have an empirical way of demonstrating and testing these relationships, to practise very thoroughly on two kinds of words, suddenly brought forth into systematic distinctness from the chaos of words in his mind, offers the child not only a necessary exercise but the sensation of relief which comes from satisfying an inner spiritual need. With the most intense attention he persists to the very end of the exercise and takes great pride in his success. The teacher as she passes may glance about to see if all the cards are properly placed, but the child, doubtless, will call her to admire or verify the work that he has done, before he begins to gather together, first, all the articles, then, all the nouns, to return them to their boxes.

This is the first step; but he proceeds with increasing enthusiasm to set the words in his mind "in order," thereby enriching his vocabulary by placing new acquisitions in an already determined place. Thus he continues to construct, with respect to exterior objects, an inner spiritual system, which had already been begun by his sensory exercises.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

The exercises on the number and gender of nouns are done without the help of the boxes. The child already knows that those words are articles and nouns, so we give him now small groups of forty cards (nouns and articles) held together by an elastic band. In each one, the group (tied separately) of the ten singular nouns serves as the guide for the exercise. These nouns are arranged in a column on the table, one beneath the other, and the other cards, which are shuffled, must be placed around this first group in the right order. There are two more cards of different colors on which the words _singular_ and _plural_ respectively are written; and these are placed at the top of the respective columns. We have prepared four series of ten nouns in alphabetical order. In this way four children may do the exercise at the same time and by exchanging material they come in contact with a very considerable number of words.

This is the way the cards should finally be arranged in the four different exercises:

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ il bambino i bambini the child the children, etc. il berretto i berretti the cap la bocca le bocche the mouth il calamaio i calamai the inkstand la calza le calze the stocking la casa le case the house il cappello i cappelli the hat

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ la maestra le maestre the teacher the teachers, etc. la mano le mani the hand la matita le matite the pencil il naso i nasi the nose il nastro i nastri the ribbon l'occhio gli occhi the eye l'orologio gli orologi the clock (watch) il panchetto i panchetti the bench

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ il dente i denti the tooth the teeth, etc. l'elastico gli elastici the elastic il fagiolo i fagioli the bean la fava le fave the bean la gamba le gambe the leg il gesso i gessi the plaster la giacca le giacche the coat il grembiale i grembiali the apron

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ il piede i piedi the foot the feet, etc. il quaderno i quaderni the copy book la rapa i rape the turnip la scarpa le scarpe the shoe la tasca le tasche the pocket il tavolino i tavolini the table la testa le teste the head l'unghia le unghie the nail (finger)

Like material has been prepared for the masculine and feminine forms: The masculine group is kept by itself, while the feminines are shuffled.

_Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_

il conte la contessa the count the countess, etc. l'amico l'amica the friend l'asino l'asina the donkey il babbo la mamma the father il benefattore la benefattrice the benefactor il bottegaio la bottegaia the shop-keeper il cugino la cugina the cousin il cuoco la cuoca the cook il cacciatore la cacciatrice the hunter il cavallo la cavalla the horse

_Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_

il duca la duchessa the duke the duchess, etc. il canarino la canarina the canary il dottore la dottoressa the doctor il dattilografo la dattilografa the stenographer l'elefante l'elefantessa the elephant il figlio la figlia the son il fratello la sorella the brother il gallo la gallina the cock il gatto la gatta the cat

_Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_

il leone la leonessa the lion the lioness, etc. l'ispettore l'ispettrice the inspector il lupo la lupa the wolf il lettore la lettrice the reader il maestro la maestra the schoolmaster il marchese la marchesa the marquis il mulo la mula the mule il nonno la nonna the grandfather il nemico la nemica the enemy l'oste l'ostessa the host the hostess, etc. l'orologiaio l'orologiaia the watch-maker il poeta la poetessa the poet il pellicciaio la pellicciaia the furrier il padre la madre the father il re la regina the king il ranocchio la ranocchia the frog lo sposo la sposa the husband il servo la serva the man-servant il somaro la somara the ass

Finally there are three series of nouns in four forms: Singular and Plural, Masculine and Feminine. Each group has eighty cards counting both nouns and articles, and the ten singular masculines in the guiding group are kept together, apart from the others. The title cards (twelve in number) are _singular_ and _plural_ and for each of them is a card marked _masculine_ and a card marked _feminine_. The following is the order of the material when properly arranged by the child:

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ l'amico l'amica the friend the friend, etc. il bambino la bambina the child il burattinaio la burattinaia the puppet-player il contadino la contadina the peasant il cavallo la cavalla the horse il compagno la compagna the companion il disegnatore la disegnatrice the designer il dattilografo la dattilografa the stenographer l'ebreo l'ebrea the Jew il fanciullo la fanciulla the boy

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ gli amici le amiche the friends the friends, etc. i bambini le bambine the children i burattinai le burattinaie the puppet-players i contadini le contadine the peasants i cavalli le cavalle the horses i compagni le compagne the companions

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ i disegnatori le disegnatrici the designers i dattilografi le dattilografe the stenographers gli ebrei l'ebree the Jews i fanciulli le fanciulle the boys

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ il gatto la gatta the cat the cat, etc. il giardiniere la giardiniera the gardener il giovinetto la giovinetta the youth l'infermiere l'infermiera the nurse l'italiano l'italiana the Italian il lavoratore la lavoratrice the worker il medico la medichessa the physician il materassaio la materassaia the mattress-maker l'operaio l'operaia the workman il pittore la pittrice the painter

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ i gatti le gatte the cats the cats, etc. i giardinieri le giardiniere the gardeners i giovinetti le giovinette the youths gl'infermieri le infermiere the nurses gl'italiani le italiane the Italians i lavoratori le lavoratrici the workers i medici le medichesse the physicians i materassai le materassaie the mattress-makers gli operai le operaie the workmen i pittori le pittrici the painters

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ il ragazzo la ragazza the boy the girl, etc. il romano la romana the Roman lo scolare la scolara the scholar il sarto la sarta the tailor il santo la santa the saint il tagliatore la tagliatrice the cutter l'uomo la donna the man il vecchio la vecchia the old man il visitatore la visitatrice the visitor lo zio la zia the uncle

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ i ragazzi le ragazze the boys the girls, etc. i romani le romane the Romans gli scolari le scolare the scholars i sarti le sarte the tailors i santi le sante the saints i tagliatori le tagliatrici the cutters gli uomini le donne the men i vecchi le vecchie the old men i visitatori le visitatrici the visitors gli zii le zie the uncles

Occasionally class exercises are used in our schools for the four forms of the Italian noun, masculine and feminine, singular and plural. They take the form almost of a game, which the children find amusing. A child for instance distributes around the class all the plural nouns. Then he reads aloud a noun in the singular. The child who holds the corresponding plural answers immediately. The same thing is next done for masculine and feminine, and, finally, for all four forms at once.

When these exercises have become familiar to the child, others somewhat more difficult may be presented. These new ones comprise: nouns which change form completely as they change gender and of which, so far, only the most familiar examples (_babbo_, "father," _mamma_, "mother," etc.) have been given (Series A); nouns in which the form is the same in the singular of both genders (Series B); those in which both genders have a common form in the singular and a common form in the plural (Series C); nouns which have only one form for both singular and plural (Series D); nouns where the same form appears in both genders but with a different meaning (Series E); finally, nouns which change gender as they pass from the singular to the plural (Series F).

SERIES A

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ il babbo la mamma the father the mother il becco la capra the he-goat the she-goat il frate la suora the friar the nun il fratello la sorella the brother the sister il genero la nuora the son-in-law the daughter-in-law il montone la pecora the ram the ewe il maschio la femmina the male the female il marito la moglie the husband the wife il padre la madre the father the mother il padrino la madrina the godfather the godmother il porco la scrofa the hog the sow il toro la vacca the bull the cow l'uomo la donna the man the woman il re la regina the king the queen

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ i babbi le mamme the fathers the mothers, etc. i becchi le capre the he-goats i frati le suore the friars i fratelli le sorelle the brothers i generi le nuore the sons-in-law i montoni le pecore the rams i maschi le femmine the males i mariti le mogli the husbands i padri le madri the fathers i padrini le madrine the godfathers i porci le scrofe the hogs i tori le vacche the bulls gli uomini le donne the men i re le regine the kings

SERIES B

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ l'artista l'artista the artist the artist, etc. il collega la collega the colleague il dentista la dentista the dentist il pianista la pianista the pianist il telefonista la telefonista the telephone operator il telegrafista la telegrafista the telegraph operator il violinista la violinista the violinist gli artisti le artiste the artists the artists, etc. i colleghi le colleghe the colleagues i dentisti le dentiste the dentists i pianisti le pianiste the pianists i telefonisti le telefoniste the telephone operators i telegrafisti le telegrafiste the telegraph operators i violinisti le violiniste the violinists

SERIES C

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ il consorte la consorte the husband the wife, etc. il custode la custode the keeper il cantante la cantante the singer l'erede l'erede the heir il giovane la giovane the youth l'inglese l'inglese the Englishman il nipote la nipote the nephew (grandson)

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ i consorti le consorti the husbands the wives, etc. i custodi le custodi the guards i cantanti le cantanti the singers gli eredi l'eredi the heirs i giovani le giovani the youths gl'inglesi le inglesi the Englishmen i nipoti le nipoti the nephews (grandsons)

SERIES D

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ il bazar i bazar the bazaar the bazaars, etc. il caffè i caffè the coffee il gas i gas the gas la gru le gru the crane il lapis i lapis the pencil la libertà le libertà the liberty l'omnibus gli omnibus the omnibus la virtù le virtù the virtue

SERIES E

SINGOLARE SINGULAR _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculinr_ _Feminine_ il melo la mela the apple tree the apple il pesco la pesca the peach tree the peach l'ulivo l'uliva the olive tree the olive il pugno la pugna the blow (punch) the battle il manico la manica the handle the sleeve il suolo la suola the floor the sole

PLURALE PLURAL _Maschile_ _Femminile_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ i meli le mele the apple tree the apples i peschi le pesche the peach tree the peaches gli ulivi le ulive the olive trees the olives i pugni le pugne the blows (punches) the battles i manichi le maniche the handles the sleeves i suoli le suole the floors the soles

SERIES F

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ _Singular_ _Plural_ il centinalo le centinala the hundred the hundreds, etc. il dito le dita the finger la eco gli echi the echo il paio le paia the pair il riso le risa the smile (laugh) l'uovo le uova the egg

THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL IN ENGLISH

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE:--While the formation of the English plural does not present the complications of gender that appear in Italian, the phonetic adaptations required by the plural ending -s along with certain orthographical caprices and historical survivals of the language, result in a situation somewhat more complex than treated by Signora Montessori. In fact, her analysis of the Italian plural requires eight word-lists, while English requires at least fourteen, not including the question of foreign nouns. The special stress on the article is hardly necessary in English. An analogous treatment for English would be somewhat as follows:

SERIES I

(Simple plurals in _-s_)

_Singular_ _Plural_

book books bed beds desk desks street streets tree trees card cards prism prisms lamp lamps cow cows cat cats train trains ticket tickets car cars floor floors chairs chairs pin pins shoe shoes wagon wagons bean beans counter counters

SERIES II

(Plurals in _-es_, including _-s_ pronounced like _-es_)

LIST A

_Singular_ _Plural_

house houses horse horses prize prizes judge judges cage cages case cases sausage sausages wedge wedges edge edges ledge ledges

LIST B

_Singular_ _Plural_

bush bushes church churches box boxes fox foxes glass glasses watch watches topaz topazes class classes wretch wretches

SERIES III

(Plurals of Nouns in _-o_)

LIST A

_Singular_ _Plural_ potato potatoes negro negroes volcano volcanoes tomato tomatoes

SERIES III

(Plurals of Nouns in _-o_)

LIST A

hero heroes mosquito mosquitoes motto mottoes domino dominoes

LIST B

_Singular_ _Plural_ piano pianos soprano sopranos zero zeros banjo banjos halo halos dynamo dynamos canto cantos solo solos memento mementos chromo chromos

SERIES IV

(Nouns in _-f_ or _-fe_)

LIST A

_Singular_ _Plural_ calf calves elf elves half halves loaf loaves wolf wolves shelf shelves thief thieves leaf loaves self selves

LIST B

_Singular_ _Plural_ knife knives wife wives life lives

LIST C

_Singular_ _Plural_ staff staffs wharf wharfs puff puffs cliff cliffs scarf scarfs chief chiefs fife fifes

SERIES V

(Nouns in _-y_)

LIST A

_Singular_ _Plural_ body bodies sky skies gipsy gipsies berry berries penny pennies soliloquy soliloquies sty sties Mary Maries ferry ferries country countries

LIST B

_Singular_ _Plural_ boy boys valley valleys day days derby derbys

SERIES VI

(Plurals in _-en_)

_Singular_ _Plural_ child children ox oxen brother brethren (brothers)

SERIES VII

(Plurals with internal change (umlaut))

_Singular_ _Plural_ foot feet tooth teeth goose geese louse lice mouse mice man men woman women

SERIES VIII

(Singular and Plural identical)

_Singular_ _Plural_ sheep sheep fish fish deer deer swine swine

SERIES IX

(Compound words)

LIST A

_Singular_ _Plural_ black-bird black-birds steamboat steamboats redcoat redcoats redbreast redbreasts forget-me-not forget-me-nots spoonful spoonfuls mouthful mouthfuls

LIST B

_Singular_ _Plural_ brother-in-law brothers-in-law mother-in-law mothers-in-law court-martial courts-martial attorney-general attorneys-generals general-in-chief generals-in-chief Knight-Templar Knights-Templar

All these groups of words in their order are reproduced in special booklets which the children may take home and read. In actual practise such books have proved both convenient and necessary. The children generally spend much time on them and delight in reading the words over and over in the order in which they themselves have discovered them in the card exercise. This recalls and fixes their own ideas, inducing a sort of inner maturation which is often followed by the spontaneous discovery of grammatical laws on the relations of nouns, or by a lively interest which throws the children into exclamations or laughter as they observe what great differences of meaning are sometimes caused by a very slight change in the word. At the same time these simple exercises, so fruitful in results, may be used for work at home and well meet the demands for something to do with which children are continually assailing their parents. For homework we have prepared alphabets where the letters are printed in type-writing order. With them the child can compose words, or later, sentences, at the same time becoming familiar with the alphabet arrangement of standard typewriters.

IV

LESSONS--COMMANDS

The first lessons in grammar which I gave to children go back fully sixteen years. I first attempted the education of defectives in the "Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica" in Rome in the year 1899 following a course of lectures I had given to teachers in the normal school of our capital. In this experiment I went far enough with primary work to prepare some of the defective children for successful examinations in the public schools. A very brief and incomplete summary of my pedagogical studies delivered in the teacher's courses is given in the appendix to this volume.

The teaching of grammar was not at that time so complete as it has since been made in my work with normal children; even so it was a marked success. Grammar was actually _lived_ by the children, who became deeply interested in it. Even those wretched children who came, like rubbish thrown out of the public schools, directly off the street or from the insane asylums, passed delightful half hours of joyous laughter over their exercises in grammar. Here are some excerpts from the old pamphlet of 1900 giving an idea of the didactic material which was then used and some notion of a lesson on nouns. "As each word is read or written for every object-lesson, for every action, printed cards are being assembled which will later be used to make clauses and sentences with words that may be moved about just as the individual letters were moved about in making the words themselves. The simple clauses or sentences should refer to actions performed by the children. The first step should be to bring two or more words together: e.g., _red-wool_, _sweet-candy_, _four-footed dog_, etc. Then we may go on to the sentence itself: _The wool is red_; _the soup is hot_; _the dog has four feet_; _Mary eats the candy_, etc. The children first compose the sentences with their cards; then they copy them in their writing books. To facilitate the choice of the cards, they may be arranged in special boxes: for instance, one box may be labeled _noun_; or the boxes may be distinguished thus: _food_, _clothing_, _animals_, _people_, etc. There should be a box for _adjectives_ with compartments for colors, shapes, qualities, etc. There should be another for _particles_, with compartments for articles, conjunctions, prepositions, etc. A box should be reserved for _actions_, with the label _verbs_ above it, containing compartments for the infinitive, present, past and future. The children gradually learn by practise to take their cards from the boxes and put them back in their proper places. They soon learn to know their "word boxes" and they readily find the cards they want among the _colors_, _shapes_, _qualities_, etc., or among _animals_, _foods_, etc. Ultimately the teacher will find occasion to explain the meaning of the big words written at the top of the drawers, _noun_, _adjective_, _verb_, etc., and this will be the first step into the subject of _grammar_.

NOUNS

We may call persons and objects by their _name_, their _noun_. People answer if we call them, so do animals. Inanimate objects, however, never answer, because they cannot; but if they could they would. For example, if I say _Mary_, Mary answers; if I say _peas_, the peas do not answer, because they cannot. You children _do_ understand when I call an object and you _bring_ it to me. I say, for example, _book_, _beans_, _peas_. If I don't tell you the name of the object, you don't understand what I am talking about; because every object has a different name. This _name_ is the word that stands for the object. This name is a _noun_.

Whenever I mention a noun to you, you understand immediately the object which the noun represents: tree, chair, pen, book, lamb, etc. If I do not give this noun, you don't know what I am talking about; for, if I say simply _bring me ... at once, I want it_, you do not know what I want, unless I tell you the name of the object. Unless I give you the _noun_, you do not understand. Thus every object is represented by a word which is its _name_; and this name is a _noun_. To understand whether a word is a noun or not, you simply ask: _Is it a thing? Would it answer if I spoke to it?_ or _Could I carry it to the teacher?_ For instance, _bread_: yes, bread is an object; _table_: yes, it is an object; _conductor_: yes, the conductor would answer, if I were to speak to him.

Let us look through our cards now. I take several cards from different boxes and shuffle them. Here is the word _sweet_. Bring me _sweet_! Is there anything to answer when I call _sweet_? But you are bringing me a piece of candy! I didn't say _candy_: I said _sweet_. And now you have given me _sugar_! I said _sweet_! _Sweet_, you see, is not an object You cannot guess what I have in mind when I say _sweet_. If I say _candy_, _sugar_, then you understand what I want, what object I am thinking about, because the words _candy_, _sugar_, stand for objects. Those words are _nouns_."[2]

This summary, however, fails to give a real idea of the success of these lessons. When I said with a tone of decision, as if I could not think of the necessary word, "Bring me--bring me--bring me--," the children would gather round me, looking fixedly at my lips, like so many little dogs, waiting for me to throw something for them to fetch. They were in fact ready to run and get what I wanted. But the word refused to come. "Bring me--, bring me--." Finally in great impatience I cried, "But bring it to me quick--I want it." Then their faces lit up and they would laughingly cry, "But bring you what? What is it you want? What shall we bring you?"

This was the real lesson on the noun, and when, after great difficulty, the word "_sweet_" came out, the children would run and bring me every possible object that was sweet. I would refuse each one in turn. "No, I didn't ask for candy! No, I didn't ask for sugar!" The children would look at the object they had in their hands, half laughing, half puzzled and beginning to realize that _sweet_ was not a _name_, that it was not a _noun_. These first lessons, which seemed something like commands that needed the help of the children to express themselves, brought the children to understand some part of speech, while evoking, at the same time, vivid and interesting scenes. They furnished the original impulse to the development we have reached to-day in our lessons on grammar. For such lessons we have adopted the term "commands." But with normal children these "commands" were gradually multiplied and evolved. They are no longer entrusted to the teacher's ingenuity; nor are they dependent solely upon her dramatic sense--something essential if she is to stimulate the weak nervous reactions of little defectives and so gain and hold their attention. The "commands" to-day are written and may be read. They are combined with the card-exercises where the cards are read in silence and interpreted through actions--a method which grew spontaneously and with such great success from the work in the "Children's House." That is why, to-day, we speak in the elementary courses of "reading commands" or even of "writing commands."

The study of grammar has finally been arranged in a methodical series of exercises and the material has been prepared after careful and rigid experiment. Those who read this method will get a clear idea of the teacher's task. She has a material ready for use. She need not bother to compose a single sentence nor to consult a single program. The objects at her disposal contain all that is necessary. She need know simply what they are and how they are to be used. The lessons which she must give are so simple, and require so few words, that they become lessons rather of gesture and action than of words. It must be borne in mind, further, that the work is not as uninteresting as would appear from this arid summary. The actual school is a real intellectual laboratory, where the children work all the time and by themselves. After the material has been presented to them, they _recognize_ it and like to hunt for it. They know how to find for themselves the precious objects which they want to use. They often exchange materials and even lessons with other children. The few lessons the teacher gives connect, as it were, a system of live wires, which set in motion activities quite disproportionate to the energy expended in the simple act she performs. She pushes, so to speak, a button and here a bell rings, there a light goes on, there a machine begins to buzz. Very often the teacher sees a whole week go by without any need of intervention on her part.

And yet what delicacy and tact are necessary properly to "offer" this material, to give in an interesting way a lesson calculated to exert a direct action upon the child's spiritual activity! How skilful we must be to leave all the child's spontaneous impulses free to develop themselves, to keep careful watch over so many different individual impulses! This we must do if we are to "keep the lamp burning"! When, for example, on passing a table where the child has analyzed a sentence with the colored cards, the teacher shifts about, as if in play, one of the little slips, not only must she be possessed of the psychological insight necessary for intervening in this child's work at the proper time, but she must also have in mind the grammatical rule of which she wishes to give the child his first intuition. It follows that every single act of the teacher, however insignificant apparently, is, like the acts of the priest in the service, of the greatest importance, and should come from a consciousness thoroughly awake, and full of potentiality. Instead of giving out what she has in herself, the teacher must bring out the full possibilities of the children.

The teacher's extrinsic preparation is a matter of thorough acquaintance with the material. It should be so much a part of her that she knows at once what is needed for each individual case as soon as it arises. Actual practise soon develops this skill.

The exercises are performed with these little packages of specially prepared cards. The most important problem (for Italian grammar) is in the _agreements_; the agreement of article and noun, as we have already shown, the agreement of noun and adjective, and later on of pronoun and verb, and pronoun and noun. There are two kinds of exercises, which we have termed respectively "analyses" and "commands."

The _commands_ involve both work done by the teacher and exercises performed by the children. The purpose here is to clarify the meanings of words and often to suggest a _practical_ interpretation of them. This _explanation_ is followed by an exercise of the children themselves, who in turn practically interpret the meaning of one or more sentences written on a card which they read just as they did in the first exercises of reading in the "Children's House." On this card are the words which the teacher has just explained. In our experiments we gave these lessons immediately after "silence" just as we did for reading in the "Children's House." All the children, however, do not necessarily take part in these executions--oftenest it is only a group of children, sometimes one child alone, again, at other times, almost all of them. If possible the commands are given in another room, while the other children continue their work in the large hall. If this is not possible it takes place in the same room. These commands might be called "an introduction to dramatic art," for right there little dramatic scenes full of vivacity and interest are "acted out." The children are singularly delighted in working for the one exact "interpretation" which a given word requires.

The _analyses_, on the other hand, are of quite different character. "Analysis" is done at the table. It is work which requires quiet and concentration. While the command gives the _intuition_, the analysis provides for the _maturation_ of the idea. The grammar boxes are used in these exercises. In a larger compartment which each box contains, are placed several slips bearing a printed sentence; for example, _Throw down your handkerchief_. The child draws a slip and places it to one side on the table. Then he takes from the different boxes the colored slips corresponding to the different words in the sentence and places them side by side one after the other. In this way he composes the entire sentence: _Throw down your handkerchief_. The child is actually doing here a very simple thing: he is merely translating into colored cards the sentence which is printed on his slip. He composes this sentence in the same way in which he has already composed words with the moveable alphabet. But here the exercise is even more simple because the child need not remember the sentence, for it is there right before his eyes. His attention must be concentrated on other facts, so that all intellectual effort in the composition of the sentence itself is eliminated. The child has to note the colors and the position of the cards in the different boxes, since he must take the cards now from the noun box, now from the adverb box, now from that of the preposition, etc.; and the colors together with the position (each section has a title, as we have already seen) strengthen his consciousness of a _classification_ of words according to _grammar_.

But what really makes this exercise in analysis so interesting is the teacher's repeated permutation of the different cards. As she goes by a table she changes, as though in fun, the position of a card, and in this way provokes the intuition of grammatical rules and definitions. Indeed, when she takes out the card, which refers to some new part of the exercise, the remaining sentence with its changed meaning emphasizes the function of the part of speech which has been moved. The effect shows a distant analogy to the light that pathology and vivisection throw on physiology. An organ which fails in its function illustrates exactly that function, for never does one realize the precise use of an organ more clearly than when it has lost its power of functioning. Furthermore the removal of the words demonstrates that the meaning of the sentence is not given by the word alone but by the _order_ of the word in the sentence, and this makes a great impression on the child. He sees the same cards first in a chaotic mass and then in an orderly arrangement. What was first a collection of meaningless words has suddenly become the expression of a _thought_.

From now on the child begins to experience a keen interest in the _order_ of words. The meaning, the only thing the child is after, is no longer hidden in confusion. He begins to enjoy subtle permutations, changes which, without destroying the expression of a thought, obscure its clarity, complicate it, or make it "sound wrong." It is here that the teacher must have at her fingertips the rules governing the position of the various parts of speech. This will give her the necessary "lightness of touch," perhaps even the opportunity of making some brilliant little explanation, some casual observation, which may suddenly develop in the child a profound "grammatical insight." When the child has understood this he will become a deep "strategist" in mobilizing, disposing and moving about these cards which express _thought_; and if he really succeeds in mastering this secret, he will not be easily satiated with so fascinating an exercise. No one but a child would ever have the patience to study grammar so profoundly and at such length. This subtle work is, after all, not so easy for the teacher. That is why the material must be such as to suggest each step in detail. The teacher should be relieved as much as possible of the labor of preparation and research: for her delicate work of _intervention_ is a task hard enough in itself. In preparing this material we have worked for her: we have acted as the workmen who produce the various objects necessary to life; she has but to "live" and "make live." This will show still more clearly how far from truth is the modern conception of pedagogy which attempts to realize its desire for freedom in the school by saying to the teacher, "Try to respond to the needs of the pupils without being conscious of your authority over them." When we ask a teacher to respond to the needs of the inner life of man, we are asking a great deal of her. She will never be able to accomplish it, unless we have first done something for her by giving her all that is necessary to that end. Here is our material:--

COMMANDS ON NOUNS

"CALLING"

Call loudly: Mary! Lucy! Ethel!

Later call again: Blonde! Beautiful! Good!

Call: Peter! bring a chair. George! bring a cube. Louis! get a frame. Charles! Charles! quick! bring me the ... bring it to me, quick, quick.

Call slowly this way: Come! Come! give me a kiss--please, come!

Then say: Mary! come! give me a kiss!

These commands lend themselves to a little dramatic scene. It is really a sort of play, which the children recite.

The tendency to recitation and to imitation is very strong and often well developed at the age of five years. Little children experience a singular fascination in pronouncing the words with sentiment and in accompanying them with gestures. One can hardly imagine the simplicity of the little dramatic acts which interest the five year old child. Nothing but actual experiment could possibly have revealed it to us. One day, in fact, our little children were invited to be present at a dramatic entertainment given by the older children of the Public Schools. They followed it with really surprising interest. However, they remembered only three words of the play they had heard; but with these three words they made up a little dramatic action of their own, which they repeated over and over again the following day.

The commands of these "call" cards are, accordingly, real plays for our little ones. The child calls, pronouncing the name with a sort of sustained drawl; the child who is called comes forward; then the same thing is done with the other names, and each child obeys as he is called. Then the incomplete calls begin: _blonde!_ _blonde!_ _beautiful!_ And no one moves! This makes a great impression on the children. Imperative commands, like requests, lend themselves to active dramatic action. Peter has been called and has brought his chair; George has brought the cube; Louis has taken out a frame; but Charles sits there intent, expectant, while the child calls out,--_But bring it to me, bring it to me quickly!_ And how expressive we found the vain request,--_Come, come! please give me a kiss,--come, come!_ At last the cry,--_Mary! come!_ brings the resulting action and Mary runs to give the kiss which has been so long invoked!

These little "plays" require a real study of the parts, and the children rehearse their different rôles over and over again.

FOOTNOTE:

[2] See pp. 446-448.

V

ADJECTIVES

ANALYSES

MATERIAL: _Grammar box._ _Various objects already familiar to the children._ _New objects._

The material for word analysis consists of small cards for articles (tan), nouns (black) and adjectives (brown). There is one box with three compartments, each section marked with a card bearing the respective title: _article_, _noun_, _adjective_. At the front of the box is a space for other cards containing printed sentences to be analyzed.

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

The child is to read the sentences, find the objects described in them, and finally build the sentences with his cards as follows: suppose the card reads:

il colore verde the green color il colore turchino the blue color il colore rosso the red color

The child finds the three colored tablets used in the familiar exercise of the "Children's House" for the education of the sense of color. He places these tablets on his table. Then he builds the phrases out of his word cards:

+----+ +--------+ +-------+ +-----+ +-------+ +-------+ | il | | colore | | verde | | the | | green | | color | +----+ +--------+ +-------+ +-----+ +-------+ +-------+

Beside the completed expression he places the green color-tablet. Passing to the next phrase, he does not disturb the words _the_ and _color_. He removes only the word _green_ and substitutes for it the adjective _blue_, at the same time removing the green tablet and substituting for it the blue. Similarly, for the third phrase, he changes the adjective, putting the red tablet at the end. Thus the _three different objects_ were distinguished _only_ by the adjective:

{ verde { green} _il colore_ { turchino _the_ { blue } _color_ { rosso { red }

All the phrases and sentences refer to objects used in the previous educational material. Occasionally the teacher will have to prepare something herself (e.g., hot, cold, warm, or iced water; clear water; colored water). For this exercise on _water_, the box contains six slips with the six printed phrases. In the box-sections, the child finds the corresponding word-cards which are exactly in the number needed for the exercise (not corresponding, that is, to the number of words in the phrases, since the articles and nouns are not repeated). There are five groups of such exercises, dealing with various kinds of sensation.

A. SENSO CROMATICO SENSE OF COLOR

il colore rosa the pink color il colore rosa scuro the dark pink color il colore rosa chiaro the light pink color

il prisma azzurro the blue prism il prisma marrone the brown prism

il colore verde the green color il colore turchino the blue color il colore rosso the red color

i lapis neri the black pencils i lapis colorati the colored pencils

l'acqua colorata the colored water l'acqua incolora the clear water

il colore giallo the yellow color il colore arancione the orange color

B. SENSO VISIVO: DIMENSIONI SENSE OF SIGHT: SIZE

l'asta lunga the long staff l'asta corta the short staff

il cubo grande the large cube il cubo piccolo the small cube

il cilindro alto the tall cylinder il cilindro basso the short cylinder

il prisma marrone grosso the thick brown prism il prisma marrone fino the thin brown prism

il rettangolo largo the broad rectangle il rettangolo stretto the narrow rectangle

l'incastro solido the solid inset l'incastro piano the plane inset

C. SENSO VISIVO: FORMA SENSE OF SIGHT: SHAPE

il triangolo equilatero the equilateral triangle il triangolo isocele the isoceles triangle il triangolo scaleno the scalene triangle

il triangolo acutangolo the acute-angled triangle il triangolo ottusangolo the obtuse-angled triangle il triangolo rettangolo the right-angled triangle

l'incastro circolare the circular inset l'incastro quadrato the square inset l'incastro rettangolare the rectangular inset

la piramide quadrangolare the quadrangular pyramid la piramide triangolare the triangular pyramid il prisma azzurro rettangolare the blue rectangular prism il prisma azzurro quadrangolare the blue quadrangular prism

la scatola cilindrica the cylindrical box la scatola prismatica the prismatic box

D. SENSO TATTILE: MUSCOLARE SENSE OF TOUCH: MUSCULAR SENSE

la superfice piana the flat surface la superfice curva the curved surface

la stoffa ruvida the rough cloth la stoffa liscia the smooth cloth

l'acqua calda the hot water l'acqua fredda the cold water l'acqua tiepida the warm water

l'acqua fredda the cold water l'acqua ghiacciata the iced water

la tavoletta pesante the heavy black-board la tavoletta leggera the light black-board

la stoffa morbida the soft cloth la stoffa dura the hard cloth

E. SENSO UDITIVO; SENSES OF HEARING; OLFATTIVO; GUSTATIVO SMELL; TASTE il rumore forte the loud noise il rumore leggero the faint noise

il suono acuto the sharp sound il suono basso the deep sound

l'acqua odorosa the fragrant water l'acqua inodora the odorless water

l'odore buono the good smell l'odore cattivo the bad smell

il sapore amaro the bitter taste il sapore dolce the sweet taste

il sapore acido the sour taste il sapore salso the salty taste

The teacher who is observing notices whether the child has taken the right objects; if so, she proceeds to the permutations.

PERMUTATIONS

At this point, the teacher should recall (in dealing with Italian) the grammatical rules for the position of adjectives, some of which (the fundamental ones) will certainly be very useful to her in executing these first permutations:--

I. In general, the adjective follows the noun. If placed before the noun, it is less conspicuous; if placed after, it assumes more importance and has a different force.

II. When the adjective is used to signify the exclusive superlative of a quality, it is not only placed after the noun, but is preceded by the article. (_Umberto il buono_, "Humbert the Good.")

Example:--The child has composed the following phrase with his cards: _il triangolo rettangolo_ "the right-angled triangle." The teacher can interchange the words thus: _il rettangolo triangolo_, "the triangle right-angled." Similarly also, for other phrases:--

il prisma rettangolare azzurro the rectangular blue prism il rettangolare azzurro prisma the prism, rectangular, blue i lapis neri the black pencils i neri lapis the pencils black il colore rosso the red color il rosso colore the color red

Both the meaning and the child's habits show him the normal position of the adjective. In some phrases, such as,

il rumore leggero the faint sound il sapore dolce the sweet taste

the placing of the adjective before the noun renders the meaning vague, figurative, emotional, or generic, whereas it would be clearly descriptive and precise were the adjective in its normal position:

il dolce sapore the taste sweet il leggero rumore the noise faint

(In English the normal position of the adjective is before the noun. The permutation develops a strong rhetorical flavor, of which the child will become conscious later in his studies on poetic inversions.--Tr.)

After the teacher has made these changes, if they have interested the child, she may say for example: "The adjective comes after its noun" (for Italian); "The adjective comes before its noun" (for English). In this way she will have given a lesson in _theoretical_ grammar.

INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES

(Exclusively for the Italian language)

Another exercise to be done at the table deals with the formation of the singular and plural of adjectives in the two genders. This exercise brings the child in contact with a great many adjectives of quality. Two series, one of twenty masculine, the other of twenty feminine adjectives (in the two numbers) and two other series, twenty singulars and twenty plurals (in the two genders), form four groups of cards, one-half of which (tied separately) serves to direct the placing of the other half. Here are the words in their groups:

_Singolare_ _Plurale_ acuto acuti sharp allegro allegri joyous attenta attente careful, attentive basso bassi low buona buone good caldo caldi hot cattiva cattive bad dolce dolci sweet duro duri hard educata educate educated, well mannered felice felici happy fredda fredde cold grande grandi large grazioso graziosi graceful, pretty gioiosa gioiose merry gentile gentili kind italiano italiani Italian rabbioso rabbiosi angry largo larghi broad lento lenti slow malata malate ill odorosa odorose fragrant arioso ariose airy prezioso preziosi precious piena piene full pesante pesanti heavy pulito puliti clean rozza rozze rough, uncouth rosso rossi red robusta robuste robust sincero sinceri sincere studioso studiosi studious stretto stretti narrow stupida stupide stupid vecchia vecchie old morbido morbide soft leggiera leggiere light (weight) lunga lunghe long grosso grossi thick colorita colorite colored

_Maschile_ _Femminile_ alti alte tall bello bella beautiful brevi brevi short, brief biondo bionda blonde chiaro chiara clear, light (of color) corto corta short coraggiosi coraggiose courageous disordinato disordinata disorderly dolce dolce sweet debole debole feeble esatto esatta accurate freddo fredda cold grazioso graziosa graceful grande grande large garbati garbate polite gentili gentili kind italiani italiane Italian inglese inglese English lento lenta slow svelto svelta lithe ottimo ottima best, excellent ordinato ordinata orderly pigri pigre lazy pallido pallida pale piccolo piccola small ruvidi ruvide rough serio seria serious, honest suo sua his, her, your sgarbato sgarbata rude tuo tua thy timido timida timid ultimo ultima last vostro vostra yours zoppi zoppe lame zitto zitta silent carino carina dear liscio liscia smooth obbediente obbediente obedient contenti contente content, happy allegro allegra joyous

Here, just as with the four noun forms (masculine, feminine, singular and plural), class games may be found useful. The plural forms may be dealt out to the class, while one child reads aloud the singulars, one after the other. The child, who, in a given case, has the proper plural, reads his card in answer. Similarly, for masculine and feminine.

LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

(For Italian Exclusively)

Another table exercise consists in arranging two groups of fifty cards, of which twenty-five are nouns (constituting the directing group), while the other twenty-five are adjectives. The nouns are put in a row and the child looks among the adjectives (which have been thoroughly shuffled) for those which are best suited to the different nouns. As he finds them he places them by the nouns with which they belong. Sometimes the nouns and adjectives placed together cause a great deal of merriment by the amusing contrasts that arise. The children try to put as many adjectives as possible with the same noun and develop in this way the most interesting combinations. Here are two groups which come prepared with the material:

_Nome_ _Aggettivo_ _Adjective_ _Noun_ contadina allegra happy peasant-girl casa bella beautiful house zia brava good aunt mamma cara dear mother professore alto tall professor meastra magra thin (lean) teacher lavandaia pulita neat washerwoman marinaio robusto strong sailor carrettiere abbronzato sunburnt wagon-driver bambino buono good child lavagnetta rettangolare square slate foglio bianco white paper (sheet of) panchetto basso low bench prisma grosso thick prism vaso largo broad vase foglia verde green leaf circolo perfetto perfect circle pizzicagnolo grosso fat butcher testa unta oily (dirty) head gomma densa hard, dense rubber fanciullo stizzito cross, angry child figlio obbediente obedient son pietra nera black rock, stone latte bianco white milk formaggio tenero soft, tender cheese carne fresca fresh meat vino rosso red wine disegno grazioso pretty drawing perla lucente shining pearl vetro trasparente transparent glass ragazzina impertinente impertinent lass asino paziente patient donkey gallina grassa fat hen topo agile quick, nimble mouse acqua limpida clear water saponetta odorosa perfumed, fragrant soap medico bravo good doctor giardiniere bizzarro surly gardener cane arrabbiato mad dog manicotto morbido soft muff gatto arruffato ruffled cat colombo viaggiatore travelling (carrier) pigeon uomo brontolone grumbling man ragno pericoloso dangerous spider serpente velenoso poisonous snake medicina amara bitter medicine nonna indulgente indulgent, kind grandmother babbo severo strict father vespa maligna cruel wasp cassetto ordinato orderly box

For a class game with these lists, the nouns may be placed on one table and the adjectives on another. Moving as during the "silence" lesson, each child selects first a noun, and then an adjective. When the selections have all been made, the pairs are read one after the other amid general enthusiasm.

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES

COMMANDS (_Individual Lessons_)

The study of the adjective may furnish occasion for giving the child a knowledge of physical properties (of substances) so far unknown to him. For example, the teacher may present a piece of transparent glass; a piece of black glass (or any opaque screen); a sheet of white paper with an oil stain. The child will see that through the _transparent_ glass objects may be seen distinctly; that through the oil stain only the light is visible; that nothing at all can be seen through the _opaque_ screen. Or she may take a small glass funnel and put into it a piece of filter paper, then a sponge, then a piece of waterproof cloth. The child observes that the water passes through the filter paper, that the sponge absorbs water, and that the water clings to the surface of the waterproof. Or take two glass graduators and fill them with water to different heights. In the case of the graduator filled to the very top, the surface of the water is _convex_; in the other, it is _concave_.

The commands are printed on little slips of paper which are folded and all held together by an elastic band with a series of brown cards containing the adjectives used in the commands. Here is the material prepared:

--Fill one graduator with water to the point of over-flowing, and another not so full. Notice the form assumed by the surface of the water in each case and apply the proper adjective: _convex_, _concave_.

--Take various objects such as filter paper, cloth, a sponge, and see whether water can pass through them, applying the adjectives: _permeable_, _impermeable_, _porous_.

--Take a piece of clear glass, a sheet of black paper, a sheet of oiled paper; look at the light through them, applying the adjectives: _transparent_, _opaque_, _translucent_.

Object lessens demonstrating comparative weights may also be given by putting successively into a glass of water, oil, alcohol colored with aniline, a piece of cork, a little leaden ball (to be dropped). Then the command would be:

--Compare the weights of water and of colored alcohol; water and oil; water and cork; and water and lead. Then tell which is _heavier_ and which is _lighter_ than the other.

As an answer the child should give a little written exercise something like the following: _Water is heavier than oil_, etc. The children actually perform these little experiments, learning to handle graduators, funnels, filters, etc., and to pour the last drops of water very carefully so as to obtain the concave and convex surfaces. They acquire a very delicate touch in pouring the colored alcohol and oil on the water. Thus they take the first step into the field of practical science.

To continue the study of adjectives of quality, there is a series of commands relating to the comparative and superlative. An example of the comparative crept into these experiments on weight. Here are additional commands where the little slip and the brown cards are kept together.

--Take the blue stairs or any other objects and put with each object the proper adjectives from the following list: _thick_, _thin_, _thickest_ (Ital. grossissimo), _thinnest_ (Ital. finissimo).

--Take the eight tablets of the color you like best, arrange them according to shades and apply the proper adjectives of quality from the following: _light_, _lightest_, _dark_, _darkest_.

--Take the series of circles in the plane insets, and pick out the circles which correspond to these adjectives: _large_, _small_, _intermediate_.

--Take the cloths or other objects adapted to these adjectives: _smooth_, _smoothest_, _rough_, _roughest_, _soft_, _softest_.

--Take the cubes of the pink tower or any other objects adapted to these adjectives: _large_, _largest_, _small_, _smallest_.

--Grade a number of objects according to weight so as to fit these adjectives to them: _heavy_, _heaviest_, _light_, _lightest_.

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY

COMMANDS (_Individual Lessons_)

Just as above, the slip is tied with the series of brown cards by an elastic band. Thus a group is formed. In our material the following three groups are available:

--Take the counters and make little piles which correspond in quantity to these adjectives: _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, _five_, _six_, etc.

--Take the beads and make little piles of them to fit these adjectives: _few_, _none_, _many_, _some_.

--Decide first of all on some definite number of beads (two) and then make other little piles to fit these adjectives: _double_, _triple_, _quadruple_, _quintuple_, _sextuple_, _tenfold_, _half_, _equal_.

ORDINALS

(_Individual Commands_)

--Build the blue stair and on each step place the proper adjective from the following: _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_, _sixth_, _seventh_, _eighth_, _ninth_, _tenth_.

--Place the following adjectives on the different drawers of the cabinet, beginning with the top drawer: _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_.

--Differentiate between the drawers of the cabinet by the following adjectives, beginning with the lowest: _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_, _fifth_.

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES

(_Class Lessons_)

As occasion may offer, the teacher may assemble a group of children and give them a few simple explanations on the meaning of certain words: _questo_, "this" (near us); _cotesto_, "that" (near you); _quello_, "that" (over there away from both of us). (Note: English lacks the demonstrative of the second person.)

Then she can distribute these commands which require collective actions of the class:--

--Gather in _that_ (codesto) corner of the room near you; then all of you come over to _this_ (questo) corner near me; then all of you run over to that (_quello_) corner over there.

--Choose one of your school-mates and tell him to put a box on _this_ (questo) table; a small plate on _that_ (quello) table over there.

--Tell one of your companions, pointing at the place, to put a green bead in _this_ (questo) vase; a blue one in _that_ (codesto) vase; a white one in _that_ (quello) vase over there.

Arrange the children in groups in three different places in the room, and then give this command:

--Let _that_ (quello) group over there take the place of _this_ (questo) group. Let _that_ (codesto) group break up, the children going back to their tables.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

(_Class Lessons_)

In like manner the teacher explains the meaning of the words _my_, _your_, _his_, _her_, etc. She may do this with a simple gesture. Here are the commands:

--Point out various objects saying: This is _my_ slate; that is _your_ slate; that (over there) is _her_ slate.

--Point at the different seats, saying: That (over there) is _his_ place, that is _your_ place, and this is _my_ place.

--Pass around the little baskets, saying: This is _my_ basket. Whose is that other basket? Is it _your_ basket? And this one? Ah, this one is _his_ basket.

--Let us take a turn around the room and then return to _our_ seats. _You_ go to _your_ seat and _they_ will go to _their_ seats. Then we will divide up our things. Let us put _our_ things here and _their_ things there. We will go to _your_ seats and you go to _their_ seats. Meanwhile they will get up and then come over here to take _our_ places.

[Signora Montessori does not differentiate between the possessive _adjective_ and the possessive _pronoun_; perhaps because there is in Italian no characteristic pronominal form. Strictly speaking the Italian predicate form _mio_ (e.g., _Questo libra è mio_) is adjectival, while the form _il mio_ (i.e., with the definite article) is pronominal (e.g., _Questo è il mio_). English has, however, the pronominal possessives: _mine_, _yours_ (thine), _his_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, used also as predicate adjectives. The above exercise should therefore he repeated later under the subject of pronouns in a slightly different form.--TR.]

VI

VERBS

When I gave the first grammar lessons to defective children I put special emphasis on nouns and verbs. The noun (= object), and the verb (= action) were distinguished with the greatest clearness, much as we distinguish matter from energy, chemistry from physics. _Condition_ and _motion_, as potential and kinetic energy, are both expressed by verbs. Whereas formerly the child took the objects in his hands and studied their name and attributes, here he must _perform_ actions. In the execution of actions he must necessarily receive some help, for he is not always capable of interpreting the word with the precise action which corresponds to it. On the contrary, the study of the verb is necessary to initiate him into a series of "object lessons" upon the different actions he must perform. The teacher therefore must give individual lessons teaching the child to interpret the verb.

ANALYSES

In the usual manner we present a box which has four compartments, for the article, the noun, the adjective, and the verb. The sections are designated by the usual title cards: tan, black, brown, and red. In the compartment at the back of the box there are six slips for each exercise, and for every written word there is a card, except for such words as are repeated in successive sentences. For example: if the following sentences are written on the cards:

Close the door! Lock the door!

on the corresponding cards will be found the words:

Lock } Close } the door.

And so the child after he has composed his first sentence needs to change only one card (_lock_ for _close_) for the second sentence. This brings out the force of the verb, showing that one sentence may be changed into another by indicating an entirely different action. The child performs the action and then on his table he builds the sentences with the cards. In the series we have prepared, the verbs are either synonyms or antonyms. Here is the material:

SERIES A

--Close the door Lock the door

--Tie a knot Untie a knot

--Spread your beads Collect your beads

--Fold the paper Unfold the paper

--Open the book Shut the book

--Speak a word Whisper a word

SERIES B

--Raise your hands Lower your hands

--Toss the ball Throw the ball

--Show your right hand Hide your right hand

--Touch the velvet Feel the velvet

--Write a short word Erase a short word

--Draw a circle Fill a circle

SERIES C

--Bring a chair Drag a chair

--Lace a frame Unlace a frame

--Raise your head Bow your head

--Fill a glass Empty a glass

--Arrange the brown cards Mix the brown cards

--Roll the white handkerchief Twist the white handkerchief

SERIES D

--Embrace your nearest schoolmate Kiss your nearest schoolmate

--Gather your prisms Separate your prisms

--Borrow a black pencil Lend a black pencil

--Cover your face Uncover your face

--Lift the red counter Drop the red counter

--Smooth the white paper Crumple the white paper

SERIES E

--Clench your two hands Open your two hands

--Spread the large carpet Fold the large carpet

--Bend your left arm Straighten your left arm

--Rub the table Scratch the table

--Pour the water Spill the water

--Comb your hair Part your hair

PERMUTATIONS

The teacher should have in mind the grammatical rules for the position of the verb in the sentence, to give the child a clear idea of its normal location before the direct object: "first the verb, then the object upon which it acts."

Example:

Smooth the white paper.

The verb should, for the first permutation, be transferred to the end:

the white paper smooth.

Or, if you wish,

Arrange the brown cards. the brown cards arrange.

When the verb is taken away entirely the action vanishes:

Lift } the red counter. Drop } the red counter.

Making all possible permutations, the child sees that only one order of words is capable of bringing a meaning out of the confusion:

Roll the white handkerchief. the white handkerchief roll. white the handkerchief roll. white roll handkerchief the.

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE VERB

The children take considerable delight in our verb lessons which develop through interpretations of actions. We use packs of red cards, tied with an elastic, each pack containing ten cards. The child executes the actions indicated on each card, one after the other. He may afterward copy the cards--an exercise specially attractive to very young children.

Examples:

--walk, sing, jump, dance, bow, sit, sleep, wake, pray, sigh.

--write, erase, weep, laugh, hide, draw, read, speak, listen, run.

--arrange, clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, tie, hook, greet, brush.

--comb, wash, wipe, embrace, kiss, smile, yawn, scowl, stare, breathe.

These are fairly common words, representing actions more or less familiar to the pupils. But this exercise is only an introduction to the real verb-lessons. For these the teacher selects, as subject for a lesson, a series of synonymous verbs. Their shades of meaning are taught to the children by translating them into action, the teacher executing the action herself. She then distributes around the class commands making use of the verbs in question. There may be several copies of a given command if the pupils are very numerous. The child reads by himself the card he has received, executing the action from memory of what he has seen the teacher do. We have tested experimentally the Italian material (_i.e._, the verbs in parentheses), as follows:

Subject:

lay, throw, toss, hurl (posare, gettare, lanciare, scagliare).

Commands:--

--Take a counter and _lay_ it on the floor. Pick it up again and _throw_ it on the floor.

--Roll your handkerchief into a ball. _Toss_ it into the air. Pick it up again and _hurl_ it against the wall.

--_Lay_ your handkerchief carefully, very carefully, on the floor. Pick it up again and _throw_ it on the floor. Make a ball of it and _hurl_ it across the room. Pick it up and _toss_ it into the air.

Subject:

lie, crouch, sit, rise (sollevare, alzare, levare).

Commands:--

--Go to the sofa and _lie_ with your face to the wall. Now _rise_, go to your table and _sit_ with head erect.

--_Rise_ from your chair and _crouch_ behind the table, as though you were playing hide-and-seek. _Rise_ and go back to the sofa.

Subject:

open, close, lock, unlock (aprire, spalancare, chiudere, socchiudere, serrare, disserrare).

Commands:--

--Go to a window and _open_ it a little; wait a moment and then _close_ it again. _Open_ the window as wide as you can and _close_ it immediately.

--Go to the door and _open_ it wide. Then _close_ the door gently. If the key is in the key-hole _lock_ the door; but before you go away, _unlock_ it again, so that everything is left just as you found it.

Subject:

breathe, inhale, exhale (respirare, sospirare, inspirare, espirare).

Commands:--

--Go to the window, open it, and _inhale_ and _exhale_ the fresh air five times. Then after a moment _inhale_ once and hold your breath as long as you can. When you can hold your breath no longer, _exhale_ as slowly as you can.

--Take a hand mirror and _breathe_ upon the glass. What happens?

Subject:

hang, attach (appendere, affiggere, sospendere).

Commands:--

--_Hang_ one of your best drawings on a hook in the room.

--_Attach_ the drawing you like best with two pins to the wall near the door.

Subject:

cover, wrap, tie, undo (avvolgere, involgere, svolgere).

Commands:--

--Take a book, a string and a large piece of cloth. Lay the book on your table and _cover_ it with the cloth.

--Take the cloth and _wrap_ it around the book so that the book cannot be seen.

--_Tie_ a string around the cloth so that the book will not fall out.

--_Undo_ the bundle, and return each object to the place where you found it.

Subject:

turn, invert, revolve, whirl, reverse (volgere, capovolgere, rovesciare).

Commands:--

--_Turn_ a picture toward one of your school-mates so that he can see it clearly.

--_Invert_ the picture, so that it will be upside down.

--_Reverse_ the picture so that the back only can be seen by your school-mate.

--_Revolve_ the seat of the piano-stool as rapidly as you can.

--Stand with your back to the window and _turn_ slowly on your heel till you face the window. _Whirl_ on your heel completely around till you again face the window.

Subject:

breathe, blow, puff, pant (sbuffare, soffiare, alitare).

Commands:--

--Tear a large piece of paper into tiny bits on your table. _Blow_ steadily upon the table till the pieces of paper are all on the floor.

--Pick up the pieces of paper and place them on the table. _Puff_ three times upon them and see if they all fall to the floor. Gather up the pieces and throw them into the waste-basket.

--_Breathe_ softly upon the back of your hand. What do you feel?

--_Blow_ upon the back of your hand. What do you feel?

--_Puff_ upon the back of your band. What do you feel?

--_Pant_ noisily as though you had been running a long way.

Subject:

murmur, mutter, whisper, speak, grumble (mormorare, sussurrare, brontolare).

Commands:--

--Ask one of your school-mates to listen carefully to what you say; then _murmur_ a short sentence as though you were speaking to yourself.

--_Mutter_ the same words in a louder voice and see whether he understands.

--_Whisper_ the same words in the ear of one of two children. Then ask the other whether he has heard.

--_Grumble_ the same words and watch how the two children look at you.

--_Speak_ the same words aloud and as distinctly as you can. Do the children understand?

Subject:

touch, rub, graze (toccare, tastare, palpare, sfiorare).

Commands:--

--Go to your table and with your eyes shut _touch_ it as though to recognize it.

--_Rub_ the table with the tips of your fingers, bearing down as hard as you can. What do you feel?

--_Graze_ the table with the tips of your fingers, trying not to touch it.

Subject:

spread, sprinkle, collect, scatter (spargere, spruzzare, aspergere).

Commands:--

--Take a box full of beads and _spread_ them evenly around the center of your table. Then _collect_ them in a pile in the center of the table.

--Take a handful of the beads and _scatter_ them over the table. Return all the beads to the box.

--Take a glass of water and _sprinkle_ two or three handfuls on a plant in the room.

Subject:

walk, stagger, march (barcollare, dondolare, erigersi).

Commands:--

--_Walk_ naturally to the end of the room farthest from your table.

--_March_ back to your seat as though you were keeping time to music.

--_Stagger_ across the room as though you were very dizzy.

Subject:

take, seize, catch (acchiappare, acciuffare, afferrare).

Commands:--

--Walk to the cabinet and _take_ a box of counters in your hands.

--Run to the sofa, _seize_ the sofa-pillow, and run around the room with it, holding it in your arms.

--Roll your handkerchief into a ball, toss it into the air and try to _catch_ it before it falls to the floor.

LESSONS WITH EXPERIMENTS

The function of the verb can be still more interestingly emphasized by suggesting actions designed to increase the child's knowledge in the direction of elementary science. Here the teacher, instead of executing simple movements, performs experiments, which on the same day or on succeeding days the child can imitate guided by the directions in the commands.

Subject:

stir, mix, beat, flavor (mescolare, emulsionare, stemperare).

Commands:--

--Take a bowl half full of water and drop into it a half cup of flour; _stir_ with a spoon until the mixture is thick.

--Place a table-spoonful of vinegar and a table-spoonful of olive-oil in a clean bowl; _beat_ them together until an emulsion is formed.

--Place a tea-spoonful of chocolate and a tea-spoonful of sugar in a cup and _mix_ them thoroughly. What color was the chocolate? What color was the sugar? What color is the mixture?

--Take a little milk in a cup and taste of it; add a drop of vanilla extract. Then taste of the milk again. Do you taste the vanilla? In the same way _flavor_ a glass of water with the vanilla. _Flavor_ another glass of water with vinegar.

Subject:

dissolve, saturate, be in suspension (sciogliere, fare la sospensiona, saturare).

Commands:--

--Place a spoonful of sugar in a glass of warm water and _dissolve_ the sugar by stirring with a spoon. Is the water still clear?

--_Saturate_ the water with sugar by continuing to add sugar and stirring till you can see the sugar at the bottom of the glass. Allow the water to rest a moment. Is the water still clear?

--Mix a spoonful of starch in the water. The water becomes white, since the starch does not _dissolve_ but remains _in suspension_ in the water.

Subject:

strain, filter (decantare, filtrare).

Commands:--

--Take the glass containing the water saturated with sugar and the one with the starch in suspension, and allow the starch and sugar to settle for some time, until the water is clear. Taste the water in each glass, and then _strain_ each glass of water separately.

--_Filter_ the water saturated with sugar and the water with the suspended starch. Then taste of each.

By the time all these commands have been executed, the child will have developed a keen desire to go on, becoming so interested in the meaning of verbs as not to require further commands to stimulate his study of these words. The most frequent question now is "How many verbs are there in the language?" "Are there more in other languages?" etc. To satisfy this new curiosity of the children we have dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, and word-charts. But meantime they have been building their own dictionaries. One by one they begin to own copy books (rubrics) with illuminated letters of the alphabet. Under the proper letter the child copies his words as fast as he learns them. We are still experimenting on the question of the exact amount of information that may successfully be offered to elementary school children of various ages and stages of development, with the word material required for the notions of natural history, physics and chemistry they may be expected to acquire. We can say, at this moment, simply that each experiment involves the use of a certain number of new words (nouns, adjectives and verbs), which are copied into the word-books (rubrics) as fast as they occur.

VII

PREPOSITIONS

ANALYSES

Here also the first exercise is to compose sentences analyzed with the colored cards. This grammar box has five compartments, each with a small title card of the color corresponding to the different parts of speech, red for the verb, black for the noun, brown for the adjective, tan for the article and _violet_ for the _preposition_. In the compartment at the rear of the box are six cards with printed sentences. The colored cards do not correspond exactly to the number of words used in the sentences because the words of one sentence which are repeated in the next are not duplicated in the cards. In this case it is the change in preposition only which alters the meaning of the sentence. Here are the series of sentences, some of which the teacher may have used already in previous lessons (commands).

SERIES A

(Prepositions of space relations)

--Take the box _with_ the colored beads. (con, senza, insieme con). Take the box _without_ the colored beads. Take the box _together_ with the colored beads.

--Place the prism _under_ the cylinder. (sotto a, sopra a). Place the prism _upon_ the cylinder.

--Lay the pen _in front of_ the ink-well. (avanti a, dietro a, a lato di). Lay the pen _behind_ the ink-well. Lay the pen _beside_ the ink-well.

--Put the green bead _into_ the box. (in, dentro). Put the green bead _inside_ the box.

--Arrange a few beads _between_ the red counters. (in mezzo a, tra). Arrange a few beads _among_ the red counters.

--Set one chair _opposite_ another chair. (dirimpetto a, accanto a). Set one chair _next_ to another chair.

SERIES B

(Space relations continued)

--Lay the counter _inside_ the box. (dentro, fuori, di). Lay the counter _outside_ the box.

--Place a chair _on this side of_ the door. (di là da, di qua da, oltre). Place a chair _on that side of_ the door. Place a chair _beyond_ the door.

--Stand _in front of_ the blackboard. (di fronte a, di fianco a). Stand _to one side of_ the blackboard. Stand _to the other side of_ the blackboard.

--Arrange the chairs _along_ the wall. (lungo, contro). Arrange the chairs _against_ the wall.

--Place the blue cone _near_ the pink cube. (vicino a, accosto a). Place the blue cone _against_ the pink cube.

SERIES C

(Possession, material, use, purpose)

[NOTE:--Such relationships are expressed in English preferably by adjectives: _cloth of cotton_ = _cotton cloth_; or by the possessive inflection with _-s_: _the drawing of George = George's drawing_. In Italian they are expressed by the prepositions _di_, _per_, _da_, etc.: _stoffa di cotone_ "cotton cloth," _piattino di vetro_ "glass saucer." For Signora Montessori's simple exercise we suggest for English the following definitions (TR.)].

--Cotton cloth is cloth _of_ cotton. Woollen cloth is cloth _of_ wool. Silk cloth is cloth _of_ silk.

--The iron triangle is a triangle _of_ iron. The wooden triangle is a triangle _of_ wood.

--The glass saucer is a saucer _of_ glass. The china saucer is a saucer _of_ china.

--A shoe-brush is a brush _for_ shoes. A clothes-brush is a brush _for_ clothes.

--George's hat is the hat _of_ George; George's hat belongs _to_ George. Mary's hat is the hat _of_ Mary; Mary's hat belongs _to_ Mary.

--A drinking-cup is a cup _for_ drinking. A copy-book is a book _for_ copying.

SERIES D

(Direction and source of motion)

--Turn _from_ the right _to_ the left. (da ... a, a ... da) Turn _from_ the left _to_ the right.

--Draw a line _from_ the bottom of the paper _to_ the top. Draw a line _from_ the top of the paper _to_ the bottom.

--Go _from_ your seat _to_ the cabinet. Go _from_ the cabinet _to_ your seat.

--Change the pen _from_ your right hand _to_ your left hand. Change the pen _from_ your left hand _to_ your right hand.

PERMUTATIONS

The child has built the first sentences on each of the slips with his cards, and he has reproduced the others by changing simply the preposition cards. In this way he has seen how the position of objects relative to each other is determined wholly and only by the use of the preposition. The preposition, therefore, determines the _relation of words_, the relation of a _noun_ to some other word, here to another _noun_ or to a _verb_. In the phrase,

Set one chair opposite another chair,

if we take away the preposition, leaving,

Set one chair another chair,

the relation that formerly existed between the words _chair_ and _another chair_ is lost. The teacher must not forget the rules for the position of the preposition. The preposition must always precede its object and no other word can come between it and the word or words it controls.

Here are some examples of sentences in the above exercises from which the preposition has been taken away by the teacher:

Go from your seat the cabinet.

Place a chair the door.

Lay the counter the box.

Place the prism the cylinder.

The china saucer is made china.

To give the child an idea of the normal position of prepositions a series of permutations may be made leaving the preposition and its object in their normal positions. In this case some meaning is still left to the sentence:

Stretch a string from the door to the window.

From the door to the window stretch a string.

Stretch from the door a string to the window.

From the door to the window a string stretch.

From the door stretch to the window a string.

But the child will recognize that the right sentence is the simplest and the clearest:

Stretch a string from the door to the window.

On the other hand if we separate the preposition from its object or invert their normal position, the meaning is entirely lost:

Stretch a string the door from the window to.

Stretch a string from the door window to the.

String from the stretch door to the a window.

And likewise with these other sentences:

Run from the wash-stand to the table.

Run wash-stand table (_definition of motion lacking_).

Run wash-stand from the table to the.

From the run wash-stand to the table.

Wash-stand from the to the run table.

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON PREPOSITIONS

The teacher may also take groups of children and give them short lessons on the preposition to explain the meaning, selecting if possible two or three synonyms or antonyms each time. The lessons should always he practical and full of action. The child should come to understand in this case the relationship established by this or that preposition between the object (noun) and the action (verb) to be performed. As soon as this has been made clear by the teacher the commands are distributed to the children who put them into execution. Here is the material that we use:

Subject:

Of (di).

Command:--

--Go and get a boxful _of_ counters. Go and get a glass _of_ water. Bring me a piece _of_ cloth.

Subject:

near (to), next (to), beside, far away from (vicino, accosto, lontano).

Command:--

--One of you boys stand in the middle of the room. Now you others go and stand _near_ him. One of you stand _next_ to him on the right, another _beside_ him on the left. Now all go _far away from_ him.

Subject:

in, into, inside, out of (in, dentro, fuori).

Command:--

--Rise from your chairs and go _into_ the next room. Stay _in_ that room a moment and then come back _into_ this one. Go back on tip-toe and lock yourselves _inside_ the next room. Come _out of_ the next room _into_ this one.

Subject:

On this side of, on that side of, beyond (di là da, di qua da, oltre).

Command:--

--Leave your places and form a circle _on that side of_ the door; form a circle then _on this side of_ the door. All of you go and stand somewhere _beyond_ the door.

Subject:

except, save (tranne, eccetto).

Command:--

--All the children, _except_ George and Mary, walk on tip-toe around the room.

--All the children, _save_ George and Mary, walk on tip-toe around the room.

Subject:

side by side with, opposite, in front of, along (di fianco, di fronte, avanti).

Command:--

--Form a line _side by side_ with each other.

--Form a line _along_ the wall _opposite_ the door.

--Form two lines _in front of_ the piano.

Subject:

before, behind (dirimpetto, dietro).

Command:--

--Two of you come and stand _before_ me.

--The rest of you go and stand _behind_ me.

Subject:

on, about, along (su, secondo, lungo).

Command:--

--Each of you place one counter on the table. Now arrange the same counters _along_ the far edge of the table. Now scatter the same counters _about_ the center of the table.

Subject:

between, among (fra, in mezzo a).

Command:--

--One of you go and stand _between_ the door and the piano.

--Place ten white counters on the table. Now go and scatter two or three red counters _among_ the white ones.

Subject:

from, to, as far as (da, a, fino a).

Command:--

--Rise and walk _from_ your places _to_ the piano; wait a moment and then continue _as far as_ the door of the next room.

Subject:

around, about (attorno, intorno).

Command:--

--Walk in couples, arm in arm, _around_ the room twice; when you reach the piano on the second round, form a circle _about_ the piano.

Subject:

toward, against (verso, contro).

Command:--

--Take your chairs and move them three steps _toward_ the wall in front of you. Next, arrange your chairs in a row with their backs _against_ the wall behind you.

Subject:

across, through (attraverso, per).

Command:--

--Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _across_ the room.

--Pick them up as they lie and try to throw them _through_ the door into the hall.

Subject:

With, without (con, senza).

Command:--

--Walk around the room _with_ your chairs in your hands.

--Walk around the room _without_ your chairs.

Subject:

to, in order to, so as to (per).

Command:--

--Wash your hands _in order_ not _to_ soil the cloth. Then close your eyes and feel this cloth _so as to_ recognize it.

VIII

ADVERBS

ANALYSES

Again the exercise consists of sentences analyzed by means of colored cards and commands. The grammar box contains six compartments having, like the others, the names of the different parts of speech on title cards of proper color. The card for the adverb is pink. In the rear compartment are six slips for each exercise, and in the sections the usual number of corresponding colored cards for the necessary words.

GROUP A

(Adverbs of Manner)

--Walk _slowly_ to the window. Walk _rapidly_ to the window.

--Rise _silently_ from your seat. Rise _noisily_ from your seat.

--Speak _softly_ into the ear of your nearest comrade. Speak _loudly_ into the ear of your nearest comrade.

--Take five steps toward the door; turn _abruptly_ to the left. Take five steps toward the door; turn _gradually_ to the left.

--Take your nearest comrade _lightly_ by the arm. Take your nearest comrade _roughly_ by the arm.

--Look _smilingly_ into the mirror. Look _scowlingly_ into the mirror.

GROUP B

(Adverbs of place and time)

--Place your pencil _there_. Place your pencil _here_.

--Lay your book _somewhere_ on the table. Lay your book _elsewhere_ on the table.

--Walk to the window _constantly_ clapping your hands. Walk to the window _occasionally_ clapping your hands.

--Drink the water in the glass _now_. Drink the water in the glass _by and by_.

--Carry the pink tower _upstairs_. Carry the pink tower _downstairs_.

--Write a word on the blackboard _immediately_. Write a word on the blackboard _soon_.

GROUP C

(Adverbs of quantity, comparison)

--Walk along the hall swinging your arms _somewhat_. Walk along the hall swinging your arms _a great deal_.

--Bend your head a _little_. Bend your head _much_.

--Walk _slowly_ to the window. Walk _less slowly_ to the window. Walk _more slowly_ to the window.

--Place on the table your _most_ beautiful drawing. --Place on the table your beautiful drawing.

--Make a broad mark on the blackboard. Make a _very_ broad mark on the blackboard.

GROUP D

(Adverbs of comparison, correlative adverbs)

--Look for a piece of cloth softer _than_ velvet. --Look for a piece of cloth _as_ soft as velvet.

--Find among your colors a shade _as_ black _as_ the blackboard. --Find a piece of cloth _not so_ shiny _as_ satin. --Find among the plane insets a rectangle _as_ broad _as_ half the square. --Bring a rod longer _than_ your copy-book. --Bring a rod _as_ long _as_ your copy-book. --Bring a rod _not so_ long _as_ your copy-book. --Find a piece of cloth _less_ rough _than_ the canvas.

PERMUTATIONS

The sentences to be analyzed are reproduced as usual by building the first sentence on each slip; and then, by changing the adverb, the child gets the second or third sentence. One of the first permutations is to remove the adverb from those sentences where it performs the function of an _adjective to the verb_, thereby causing one action to be changed into another. For example take the two sentences:

Walk slowly to the window. Walk rapidly to the window.

Taking away the adverb we have:

Walk to the window.

The child can perform the action which, now, is a simple one. The adverb, however, changes, _modifies_, the action. If the teacher in play puts the two adverbs together in the same sentence the child has the problem of interpreting two contrary movements. That is, he is to go to the window _slowly_ and _rapidly_ at the same time. Taking away the adverb cards the sentence left is _Go to the window_. This action the child can perform. But how shall he perform it, in what way? With the help of adverbs! Similarly in the following sentences:

Bend your head _a little_. Bend your head _much_.

Written without the adverb they indicate one action. What slight changes in the position of the head can be brought about by these adverbs! It is the _adverb_ which really shows fine differentiations in movement!

In other sentences also where the adverb is, so to speak, an _adjective_ to an _adjective_ and therefore really affects the object (noun), similar permutations may be made.

Make a broad mark on the blackboard. Make a _very_ broad mark on the blackboard.

Here by the use of an adverb two different _objects_ (nouns) are distinguished which, though they have the same quality (breadth) differ in degree (broad, very broad). Take, for instance, two objects belonging to the same series:

Place on your table the prism which is most thick. Place on your table the prism which is least thick.

If the adverbs are taken away the factor determining the degree of quality (thickness) disappears and we have sentences which are far less precise in their meaning:

Place on your table the prism which is thick.

As the teacher proceeds to make permutations in the different sentences she should remember (for Italian) that the normal position of the adverb is after the verb (in the compound tenses it comes between the auxiliary and the participle).

(Note: In English the position of the adverb is much freer than in Italian; it often stands at the end of the sentence and even between subject and verb,--something quite foreign to normal Italian usage. We retain the text entire.)

In the sentences analyzed by the child it is sufficient to recall that the adverb modifies the verb and follows the verb it modifies. Take the sentence:

Bend your head a little as you write.

If the adverb is placed after the second verb the meaning changes:

Bend your head as you write a little.

The same is true in the following:

Walk along the hall swinging your arms somewhat. Walk somewhat along the hall swinging your arms.

General shifting of position would give results as follows:

Bend a little your head as you write. A little bend your head as you write, etc., etc. Somewhat walk along the hall swinging your arms. Walk along somewhat the hall swinging your arms, etc., etc.

The child is quick to recognize by ear the accurate, the normal position of the adverb.

On the other hand, adverbs of quantity and comparison precede the adjective:

Make a very broad mark on the blackboard. Place on your table the prism that is least thick.

Permutation gives the following results:

Make a broad very mark on the blackboard. Place on your table the prism which thick least is, etc., etc.

Adverbs of time and place often ring like trumpet calls to attention at the beginning of the sentence:

Drink the water in the glass now. Now drink the water in the glass.

(Note: In English the adverb of time, placed at the end of the sentence, gains quite as much emphasis. So for adverbs of place.)

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON ADVERBS

Subject:

straight, zig-zag (diritto, a zig-zag).

Command:--

--Run _straight_ into the other room; return to your place walking _zig-zag_.

Subject:

lightly, heavily, sedately (leggermente, gravemente, pesantemente).

Command:--

--Walk _lightly_ into the other room; return to your place walking _sedately_ as though you were a very important person; walk across the room and back again resting _heavily_ on each step as though it were hurting you to walk.

Subject:

suddenly, gradually (ad un tratto, gradatamente).

Command:--

--Form in line and walk forward beginning _suddenly_ to stamp with your left foot. Return to your places letting the stamping _gradually_ cease.

Subject:

meanwhile, frequently, occasionally (sempre, spesso, raramente).

Command:--

--Form in line and march slowly into the next room, stopping _frequently_. Return to your places stopping _occasionally_. --Walk into the next room and back again, _meanwhile_ keeping your eyes closed.

Subject:

back, forward, to and fro (avanti, indietro, su e giù).

Command:--

--Form in line and walk _forward_ to the other side of the room; then come _back_ to your places. --Walk _to and fro_ across the room with your heads lowered and your hands behind your back.

Subject:

forwards, backwards.

Command:--

--Stand in the middle of the room; then walk _backwards_ to the window, being careful to walk in a straight line. Return to your places walking _forwards_.

Subject:

slowly, abruptly (lentamente, bruscamente).

Command:--

--Rise _slowly_ from your seats. --Rise _abruptly_ from your seats.

Subject:

politely, cordially (gentilmente, garbatamente).

Command:--

--Offer your chair _politely_ to your nearest neighbor. --Shake hands _cordially_ with your nearest neighbor.

Subject:

alternately, in succession, simultaneously (successivamente, alternativamente, simultaneamente).

Command:--

--Raise your two hands _alternately_ above your heads. --Raise your two hands _simultaneously_ above your heads. --One of you children walk around the room bowing to each pupil _in succession_.

Subject:

Well, badly, fairly, best, worst (bene, male, meglio, peggio, così così, benino, maluccio, benissimo, malissimo).

Command:--

--One of you call the children to the end of the room, carefully observing how they walk; judge their carriage without speaking and distribute the following cards where they belong: _well_, _badly_, _fairly_, _best_, _worst_.

Subject:

away, back (via).

Command:--

--One of you stand in the center of the room; the others gather round him. Suddenly all of you run _away_ from him. Then come _back_ to him again.

Subject:

here, there, somewhere, elsewhere (qui, qua, costì, costà, lì, là, altrove).

Command:--

--Form in line and the first four children come to me _here_; the rest go and stand _there_ by the window. Now go and stand _somewhere_ in the other room. Remain where you are a moment, then go and stand _elsewhere_. Finally all come back _here_ to me.

Subject:

thus, likewise (così).

Command:--

--One of you walk around the room holding his arms in a certain position. The rest of you do _likewise_. --All of you hold your hands _thus_, as I am doing.

Subject:

up, down, upward, downward.

Command:--

--Roll your handkerchiefs into balls and throw them _up_ to the ceiling. --Pick them up and throw them _down_ again to the floor. --Look _upward_ to the ceiling. Now look _downward_ to the floor.

Subject:

crosswise, lengthwise.

Command:--

--Lay two rods _crosswise_ on the table. Then lay them _lengthwise_ on the table.

Subject:

sharply, sullenly, gently, kindly.

Command:--

--_Sharply_ order your nearest neighbor to rise from his seat. --Ask him _gently_ to sit down again. --Sit _sullenly_ in your chair with your eyes lowered. --Smile _kindly_ at your nearest neighbor.

A BURST OF ACTIVITY:

THE FUTURE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE IN POPULAR EDUCATION

In our own private experiments when we reached the adverb there occurred among the children a veritable explosion into a new kind of activity. They insisted on making up commands themselves. They invented them and then read them aloud to their companions or had their companions interpret the slips which they had written. All were most enthusiastic in performing these commands and they were rigorously scrupulous in acting them out down to the minutest detail. The executions came to be a literal, intensely real dramatisation: if a word was inexact or incorrect, the interpretation of the command threw the error into noisy relief, and the child who has written it saw before him an action quite different from what he had in mind. Then he realized that he had expressed his thought wrongly or inadequately and immediately set to work to correct his mistake. The revelation seemed to redouble his energy. He would hunt among his numerous words for the one necessary to translate his idea into a living scene before his eyes. Suppose a child had written the following sentence involving the use of the adverb _sempre_ "always":

Walk about the room (sempre) _always_ on tip-toe.

meaning that the child should _all the while_ go on tip-toe; if the child began to walk on tip-toe and continued to do so for a long time, trying to express _sempre_ (always--forever) he would find himself facing a serious problem. Hence the spontaneous query: "What must I do to express myself correctly?"

A little girl once wrote "Walk around the tables," meaning that the children should form a line and walk in and out around each table. Instead she saw her companions form a line and walk round the entire group of tables. Red in the face and out of breath she kept calling: "Stop, stop. That isn't the way," just as if this difference between the thought she actually had in mind and the way it was being executed were hurting her intolerably.

This is only a passing suggestion of something which, I think, will merit much further development later on, after more thorough experiment. It will suffice, however, to bring to the teacher a notion of a most fertile field for the development of the written language in its most rigorous purity. It is evident that the experiment shows the possibility not only of having spontaneous compositions without grammatical errors (just as the mechanical writing was spontaneous and without errors), but of developing a love for clearness and purity of speech which will be a potent factor in improving the literary appreciation of the masses, and popular culture generally.

When the children are seized with this passion for accurate expression of their thoughts in writing, when, spontaneously, clearness becomes the goal of their efforts, they follow the hunt for words with the keenest enthusiasm. They feel that there are never too many words to build with exactness the delicate edifice of thought. Problems of language come to them as a revelation. "How many words are there?" they ask. "How many nouns, how many verbs, how many adjectives? Is there any way for us to learn them all?" They are no longer content with their little copy-books of words. They ask for a wealth of word material which they now enjoy with all the delight of attractive and orderly interpretation. They never get tired of it.

These developments in our work suggested to us the idea of giving the children a large vocabulary comprising a sufficient number of nouns, verbs, and adjectives and containing _all_ the words of the other parts of speech. The difference in bulk between the real content of language (substance and modification, that is, nouns with their adjectives, and verbs with their adverbs) and the other words which serve to establish relations and consolidate this content, is something very impressive to children of eight. It is for them that we tried to prepare our word charts and the dictionaries of synonyms for nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Here, meanwhile, are some of the commands which the children wrote themselves--things which they improvised all of a sudden, by an explosion of energy, as it were, developed as the result of inner maturity. Compare the aridity and uniformity of the commands we invented ourselves with the variety and richness of ideas appearing in the children's commands! We very evidently show the weariness the preparation of the material caused us. They, on the contrary, reveal an ardent, vivacious spirit, a life full of exuberance.

COMMANDS IMPROVISED BY THE CHILDREN

--Build the pink tower very _badly_.

--Make _accurately_ a pose for each of the pictures in the room.

--Pretend you were two old men: speak _softly_ as if you were very sad; and one of you say this: "Too bad poor Pancrazio is dead!" And the other say: "Shall we have to wear our black clothes to-morrow?" Then walk along _silently_.

--Walk along limping _heavily_; then _suddenly_ fall _prostrate_ on your faces as though you were exhausted. Return tripping _lightly_ to your places, without falling and without limping.

--Walk _slowly_ with lowered heads as though you were very sad; return then _joyfully_ and walking _lightly_.

--Take a flower and run _eagerly_ and give it to the lady.

--Go half way round the room limping; the rest of the way _on all fours_.

--Silence _immediately_; _silently_ act out poses for the pictures in the room.

--Go from your seats to the door _on all fours_; _then_ rise and limp _lightly_ half way round the room; do the other half back to the door _on all fours_; _there_ rise and run _lightly back_ to your seats.

--Walk _silently_ into the next room; walk three times around the big table and _then_ return to your places.

--Go into the next room running _quite fast_; come back _gradually_ reducing speed until you reach your places.

--Go to the cabinet _immediately_; take a letter-chart, and walk twice around the room with the chart on your head, trying _never_ to let it fall; go back to your places _in the same way_.

--Walk around the large hall, walking _wearily_; sit down, as though you were tired, and fall asleep; wake up _shortly after_ and go back to your places.

--Form in line and march forward till you reach a clear space; _there_ form a circle; _next_ a rhombus; _then_ a square; _finally_ a trapezium. Go into the big hall conversing _softly_; _suddenly_ fall to the floor _lightly_ and go to sleep; then wake up and look around, saying, "Where are we?" Then go back to your seats.

IX

PRONOUNS

ANALYSES

Material:--The box has seven compartments marked with the colored title slips; tan for the article, black for the noun, brown for the adjective, red for the verb, violet for the preposition, pink for the adverb, and _green_ for the _pronoun_. In the rear space are the slips for the sentences to be analyzed. There are, as usual, fewer cards than words. The exercise is to substitute the pronouns for nouns.

GROUP A

(Personal Pronouns)

--George's sister was weeping. George soothed his sister with a kiss. George's sister was weeping. _He_ soothed _her_ with a kiss.

--The book fell to the floor. Emma replaced the book on the table. The book fell to the floor. _She_ replaced _it_ on the table.

--The children gave their mother a surprise. The children wrote a letter to their mother. The children gave their mother a surprise. _They_ wrote _her_ a letter.

--The teacher said: The drawing is beautiful! Will _you_ give the drawing to the teacher? The teacher said: _It_ is beautiful! Will _you_ give _it_ to _me_?

--Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find Charles? Charles has gone into the other room. Can you find _him_?

GROUP B

(Demonstratives (questo, cotesto, quello) "this, that, these, those, this one, that one)

(As already noted for the adjective English lacks the demonstrative of the second person: that _near you_.)

--Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ prism is thicker than _that_ prism; _that_ prism is thinner than _these_ prisms. Show a child the prisms of the brown stair; _this_ is thicker than _that_; _that_ is thinner than _these_.

--Let us look at the children: _this_ child is taller than _that_ child; _that_ child is shorter than _this_ child. Let us look at the children: _this one_ is taller than _that one_; _that one_ is shorter than _this one_.

--Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put the cylinder on top of the cone. Here is a cone on top of a cylinder: try to put _this_ on top of _that_.

--Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this_ cube is the largest; _those_ cubes are the smallest of the series. Let us show the cubes of the pink tower to a little girl: _this one_ is the largest; _those_ are the smallest of the series.

GROUP C

(Relatives and Interrogatives: (che, il quale, cui, chi? quale?) who, whom, whose, which, that, who? whose? whom? what? which? where, when?)

Note: The situation with the relatives is different in English: _who_ refers to persons; _which_ to things; _that_ to either persons or things; whereas _che_ and _il quale_ are interchangeable referring to both persons and things, _il quale_ having special rhetorical advantages over _che_, in addition to showing gender and number. _Cui_ is used after prepositions; and, for the possessive Italian has _il cui_, _la cui_, etc., "whose".

--Ask the children: Which child wants to see my drawing? Ask the children: _Who_ wants to see my drawing?

--Ask Charles for the pencil; Charles put the pencil into the drawer. Ask Charles for the pencil _which_ Charles put into the drawer. Ask Charles for the pencil _that_ he put into the drawer.

--Thank Charles. Charles gave you the pencil. Thank Charles _who_ gave you the pencil.

--Look at the children. You hear the children in the next room. Look at the children _whom_ you hear in the next room.

--Yesterday you put the flowers into a vase: change the water in the vase. Change the water in the vase into _which_ you put the flowers yesterday. Change the water in the vase _where_ you put the flowers yesterday. Change the water in the vase _that_ you put the flowers into yesterday.

--Choose among the pieces of cloth the cloth most like your dress. Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one which_ is most like your dress. Choose among the pieces of cloth _the one that_ is most like your dress.

--Here is the little girl. We found her pocketbook. Here is the little girl _whose_ pocketbook we found.

--Here is the boy. We saw him yesterday. Here is the boy _whom_ we saw yesterday.

--Select an inset from the insets used for drawing. Select an inset from _those which_ are used for drawing. Select an inset from _those that_ are used for drawing.

GROUP D

(Possessives: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs)

--This book is my book This book is _mine_

--This book is your book This book is _yours_

--Those pencils are his pencils Those pencils are _his_

--Those pencils are her pencils Those pencils are _hers_

--That house is our house That house is _ours_

--This money is your money This money is _yours_

--Those seats are their seats Those seats are _theirs_

--This place is its place This place is _its_

PERMUTATIONS

The function of the pronoun as a substitute for a noun has been made clear in the analysis of the above sentences. After the children themselves have composed the first sentence with the colored cards they form the second sentence by taking away the noun card and substituting the corresponding pronoun. In the work done by the teacher to give the child an idea of the normal position of the pronoun, let her remember that in Italian personal pronouns precede the verb except in interrogation (where the subject may follow) and in cases where the subject is specially emphasized and where the pronouns appear as a suffix (infinitive, participle and imperative).

He soothed her with a kiss. He her soothed with a kiss, etc., etc.

[It will become apparent that in English the personal pronoun takes the position of the noun, whereas for Italian the pronoun shifts to a position in front of the verb. Considerable variety develops in English when the noun is replaced by a relative pronoun. However, the different problems arising in connection with pronouns generally are so complex that we return to this subject, especially to the question of subject and object forms, in dealing with sentence-analysis later.]

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE PRONOUN

Subject:

Subjective Personal Pronouns: I, you, he, she, we, you, they (io, tu, egli, essa, noi, voi, loro, etc.).

Explain these pronouns as briefly and practically as possible from the point of view of speaker and listener, etc., one child commanding the others while they _execute_ the command along with him. Example: The teacher, named for instance Anna Fedeli, explains in this way: "I don't say _Anna Fedeli_; I say _I_." "To Carlino here I don't say Carlino; I say, _you_." "Of Gigino, over there, I don't say Gigino; I say _he_," etc., etc.

Command:--

The command is given by a child; but he himself executes the first personal form along with the other children:

--_I_ walk around the table --_You_ walk around the table --_She_ walks around the table --_He_ walks around the table --_We_ walk around the table --_You_ walk around the table --_They_ walk around the table

--_I_ raise my arms --_You_ raise your arms --_She_ raises her arms --_He_ raises his arms --_We_ raise our arms --_You_ raise your arms --_They_ raise their arms

--_I_ lift the chair --_You_ lift the chair --_He_ lifts the chair, etc., etc.

--_I_ take the ink-stand --_You_ take the ink-stand --_He_ takes the ink-stand, etc., etc.

--_I_ wave my handkerchief --_You_ wave your handkerchief, etc., etc.

From these exercises the notion gradually develops that:

the _first person_ is the one who _speaks_; the _second person_ is the one who _listens_; the _third person_ is the one spoken of.

Other commands may be dramatized by small groups as follows:

--The first person must put a question the second must answer, and the third from a distance must try to hear both of them.

--Let the first one write, the second one watch, and the third one say "That is not right."

The following commands may be read aloud by the child:

--_I_ ask you a question very softly. _You_ answer _me_; and _he_, over there, must try to hear both of us.

--_I_ shall write; _you_ must act as if you were trying to read what I am writing; and then _he_, over there, will call out: "That is not right."

Subject:

Direct Objective Personal Pronouns: me, you, him, her, us, you, them (mi, ti, si, lo, la, ci, vi, si, li, le).

Reflexives and reciprocals: myself, yourself, etc., each other.

Command:--

(Here too one child commands executing the first personal forms, while the others act out the second and third):

--I touch the oil-cloth on the table; I touch _myself_; I touch _you_; you touch _yourself_; I touch _him_; you touch _her_; let us touch _each other_; you touch _me_.

--Charles, take the whisk-broom and brush the table; Charles, brush _me_; Charles, brush _him_; Charles, brush _her_; Charles, brush _yourself_.

--Mary and I bow to the teacher; now we bow to _you_; now we bow to _him_; now we bow to _her_; now we bow to _each other_.

--I lead George by the hand to the window; I lead _you_ by the hand to the window; I lead _him_ by the hand to the window; he leads _us_ by the hand to the window; we lead _her_ by the hand to the window.

Subject:

Indirect object personal pronouns: me, te, se, mi, ti, si, le, gli, lui, lei, noi, voi, ci, vi, loro (the disjunctive pronouns, used after prepositions, etc., do not differ in English from the simple direct object forms).

(The commands are still executed as above):

Commands:--

--I am going to distribute these pencils: one to _you_, one to _him_, one to _her_; one to _myself_.

--Louis, give _me_ a command; give _him_ a command; give _her_ a command; give _yourself_ a command.

--Attention! Charles, give _her_ a blue bead! Mary, give _him_ a red bead!

--Alfred, give a white bead to _me_; give _me_ also a yellow bead!

Subject:

Demonstratives for persons (questi, costui, colui; the second person, "that one near you," is lacking in English, which also fails to distinguish between persons and things and between genders).

When the distinctions in space represented by these pronouns have been taught as above the children read and execute as follows:

Commands:--

Distribute the pronouns to different children in the class; _questi_, "this one (near me)," _costei_ (feminine); _costui_, "that one (near you)," _costei_ (fem.); _colui_, "that one (over there)," _colei_ (fem.); when the children are in their proper places, give to each child a different command.

--Call to you a boy and a girl, and then command: _that one_ (_costui_) go and get a case; _that one_ (_costei_) go and get a counter; _those_ (_costoro_) keep far away and preserve complete silence.

--Point to two children, one standing near you and one far away; then command: _that one_ (_colui_) go and fetch an armchair for _that one_ (fem. _costei_) and a chair for _this one_ (_questo_); then have him return to his place. Then have all the children execute the commands which _those_ (_costoro_) will now give.

In case the class is made up entirely of girls or entirely of boys, the children find considerable amusement in trying to imitate the manners of whichever opposite sex is missing.

Subject:

Demonstratives of things (questo, cotesto, quello, ciò, ne); here also English has no pronoun of the second person (_that near you_), nor does it possess the general indefinite _ciò_ (referring to a general idea: _that_ (ciò) _is true_).

When the meaning of these words, in terms of space location, has been taught, the children execute as follows:

Commands:--

--You children divide into three groups; then go and occupy three different places; change places as follows: you leave _that_ (_cotesto_) and occupy _that_ over there; the others leave _that_ (_quello_) and occupy this (_questo_).

Subject:

Possessives: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.

Commands:--

--Point out various objects, saying: This is my slate; that one is _yours_, that is _hers_, and this one is _his_.

--Point at the different seats, saying: Here are our places, that is _mine_ and this is _yours_. Those over there are _theirs_.

--Pass around little baskets, saying: This is my basket. Whose is that? Is that _yours_? Is this _hers_? Are these _ours_? Is this one _his_?

We dealt with the relatives only incidentally in the analyses (Group C above); we do not treat them here, postponing the study of them in detail to the chapter on sentence-analysis.

PARADYMS

In teaching the declension of the pronouns we use the method employed by us in teaching all inflections: bundles of cards, of which one group is tied separately and serves as a guide. The child arranges the cards on the table, working first on the guiding group and putting the pronouns in order of persons: first, second, third.

GROUP A

(Personal Pronouns)

_Masculine_ _Feminine_ I we io noi io noi you, thou you tu voi tu voi he they egli loro ella loro she they esso essi essa esse it they lo li la le me us lui lei you, thee you gli le him them her them it them

GROUP B

(Demonstratives of Person)

_Masculine_ _Feminine_ this these questi costei that those costui costei this one these colui colei that one those costoro costoro coloro coloro

GROUP C

(Demonstratives of Things)

_Masculine_ _Feminine_ this these questo questi questa queste that those cotesto cotesti cotesta coteste this one these quel(lo) quegli, quei quella quelle that one those ciò ciò ne ne

GROUP D

(Relatives)

_Persons_ _Persons and Things_ _Masculine_ _Feminine_ who il quale i quali la quale le quali whose che che whom chi chi that cui cui

_Things_ which chi (compound = "he who") that

what (compound = that which)

GROUP E

(Possessives)

mine its yours (thine) ours his yours hers theirs

GROUP F

(Interrogatives)

_Persons_ _Persons_ who? chi? whose? whom? quale?

which?

_Things_ _Things_

che? what? cosa? che cosa?

which? quale?

AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND VERB

The cards given to the child for this work are green for the personal pronoun subjects, and red for the verb forms of the three simple tenses, present, past, and future. There are, for Italian, three groups corresponding to the three conjugations: _amare_, _temere_, _sentire_. The child's work is to place the pronouns in the proper order of person (first, second, third, singular and plural) and to put after each pronoun the corresponding verb form. Each child corrects his work by his own sense of the language; however, the teacher looks it over to verify it. The resulting exercises when correctly performed are as follows:

GROUP A

io amo ("I love" Io amavo ("I was io amerò ("I shall etc.) loving") love") tu ami tu amavi tu amerai egli ama egli amava egli amerà noi amiamo noi amavamo noi ameremo voi amate voi amavate voi amerete essi amano essi amavano essi ameranno

GROUP B

io temo ("I fear") io temevo ("I was io temerò ("I shall fearing") fear") tu temi tu temevi tu temerai egli teme egli temeva egli temerà noi temiamo noi temevamo noi temeremo voi temete voi temevate voi temerete essi temono essi temevano essi temeranno

GROUP C

io sento ("I hear") io sentivo ("I was io sentirò ("I shall hearing") hear") tu senti tu sentivi tu sentirai egli sente egli sentiva egli sentirà noi sentiamo noi sentivamo noi sentiremo voi sentite voi sentivate voi sentirete essi sentono essi sentivano essi sentiranno

FOR ENGLISH

GROUP A

(Simple Tenses)

I love I loved I shall love you love you loved you will love he loves he loved he will love we love we loved we shall love you love you loved you will love they love they loved they will love

GROUP B

(Progressive Forms)

I am loving I was loving I shall be loving you are loving you were loving you will be loving he is loving he was loving he will be loving we are loving we were loving we shall be loving you are loving you were loving you will be loving they are loving they were loving they will be loving

GROUP C

(Interrogative Forms)

do I love? did I love? will I love? do you love? did you love? shall you love? does he love? did he love? will he love? do we love? did we love? will we love? do you love? did you love? shall you love? do they love? did they love? will they love?

GROUP D

(Intensive and Negative Forms)

I do (not) love I did (not) love I shall (not) love etc. etc. etc.

The child can shuffle his cards in various ways, mixing the verb forms of the three different Italian verbs, or the four tense forms of the English verb; passing then to a reconstruction of the different tenses according to the pronouns, the order of which has by this time become familiar to him.

The next step is to conjugate properly.

CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS

MATERIAL

In our material we offer (for Italian) the conjugation of the two auxiliary verbs (_essere_ "to be," _avere_ "to have") and the model verbs of the first, second and third conjugations. The colors used for the five verbs are all different, yellow for _essere_ "to be," black for _avere_ "to have," pink for _amare_ "to love," green for _temere_ "to fear," light blue for _sentire_ "to hear." Each card has both pronoun and verb form. This is not only to simplify and expedite the exercise but also to make sure of auto-exercise, since the pronoun guides the order of the forms in each tense. These verb forms of a given verb preceded by the pronouns are, accordingly, made into a little package. Here, however, the groups are not so simple as in other cases. For the verb, the cards are kept in a sort of red envelope tied with a ribbon. The infinitive of the verb is written on the outside of the envelope, which, though very simple, is most attractive. When the whole verb is wrapped in its package and tied with the ribbon, it forms a small red prism of the following dimensions: cmm. 35 X 4 X 5.5. On untying the ribbon and opening the envelope the child finds inside ten little "volumes" with red covers. These volumes represent the _moods_ of the verb and they have the following titles inscribed on the first page:

Indicative Mood Conditional Mood (for Italian) Subjunctive Mood Imperative Mood Verbals

To facilitate replacing these materials in an orderly way and to be sure that this order is recognized, the child finds in the corner of each envelope a Roman numeral (I, II, III, IV, V); and besides that, an Arabic numeral indicating the number of tenses in the given mood. On opening the little volume and taking off the cover we find many other tiny volumes with red covers. These are the tenses. In the middle of each cover is written the name and, to one side, the number indicating the relative position of the tenses in the following manner: the _simple_ tense is marked with the letter _S_ and the _compound_ tense with the letter _C_. The titles, then, of the eight booklets contained in the little volume for a given mood are:

Present Tense 1s Past Tense 2s Future Tense 3s Perfect Tense 1c Pluperfect Tense 2c Future Perfect Tense 3c

(For Italian the tenses are: Present, 1s, Imperfect 2s, Remote Past 3s, Future 4s, Perfect 1c, Pluperfect 2c, Past Anterior 3c, Future Perfect 4c.)

Finally, on opening each of these little booklets (which, by the way, are 3.5 X 4 cmm. and only a bare millimeter thick) we have the cards with the verb forms preceded by the corresponding pronoun.

This rather resembles the famous egg in which a number of smaller and smaller eggs were enclosed. For this beautiful package forming as a whole the entire conjugation of the verb contains the booklets of the different moods, which in their turn contain the smaller booklets of the tenses. The orderly enumeration of the moods and tenses, together with the pronouns which serve to show the order of the verb forms, allows the child to conjugate the entire verb by himself and to study the classification of the different forms that make it up. In fact the children need no help in this exercise. Once they have this attractive, complicated, and mysterious little red package, they evolve on their little tables in an orderly way the entire conjugation of the verb. Having learned the verb forms little by little they shuffle the cards of the different tenses in various ways and then try to put them in their regular order. At length they are able to shuffle all the cards in the entire verb as the children in the "Children's House" did with the sixty-four colors; and to reconstruct correctly the whole conjugation by tense and by mood. They themselves finally ask to write the verb and they prepare of their own accord new booklets writing out the new verbs as they meet them.

For this purpose we have included in our materials many booklets likewise covered in red and filled with _blank_ cards of a variety of colors. The children themselves fill out these cards in conjugating their new verbs.

The exercises both of working out the conjugation of the verb and of writing out new verbs may be performed at home.

X

CONJUNCTIONS

ANALYSES

Material: This box has eight compartments for the title cards, which are tan (article), black (noun), brown (adjective), red (verb), violet (preposition), pink (adverb), green (pronoun), and _yellow_ (_conjunction_). It also has the usual place for the sentences that are to be analyzed. These again are given in groups.

GROUP A

Coordinate Conjunctions

(Copulative, Disjunctive, Illative, Adversative)

--Put away the pen _and_ the ink-stand. Put away the pen _or_ the ink-stand. Put away _neither_ the pen _nor_ the ink-stand, _but_ the paper.

--The table, therefore, is bare _and_ in order. _For_ all your things are in their places.

--Do not leave the objects you use here and there about the room, _but_ put them all back in their places.

--Speak to your nearest school-mate not aloud _but_ in a whisper.

--Move your table forward a little, _but_ only a little _and_ without making any noise.

GROUP B

Subordinate Conjunctions

(Time, condition, cause, purpose)

--You can push down a key of the piano without making any sound _if_ you push it down slowly.

--You could write with your left hand _if_ you "touched" the letters with that hand.

--You will get silence from the children _as soon as_ you write "silence" on the blackboard.

--That child is happy: he always sings _while_ he works.

--Always shut the door _when_ you go from one room to another.

--Everybody must be orderly _in order that_ the "Children's House" may look neat.

GROUP C

Subordinate conjunctions, _continued_

(Cause, concession, alternative)

--The "Children's House" is attractive _because_ it is pretty and _because_ it is so easy to keep busy all the time.

--I shall give it to you _since_ you have asked me for it very politely.

--We shall go to walk in the park rather _than_ in the crowded streets.

--I shall give you that toy _although_ I should have preferred to let you have a beautiful book.

--You may promise to go and visit him to-morrow _provided_ you keep your promise.

PERMUTATIONS

The removal of the conjunction destroys the relationship between the words, and this brings out its function in the sentence:

Put away the pen and the ink-stand. Put away the pen the ink-stand.

Put away the pen or the ink-stand. Put away the pen the ink-stand.

You could write with your left hand if you touched the letters with that hand. You could write with your left hand you touched the letters with that hand.

The conjunction must be placed between the words it connects: otherwise the meaning is changed or destroyed:

Put away the pen and the ink-stand. Put and away the pen the ink-stand.

The "Children's House" is attractive because it is pretty. The "Children's House" is attractive it is pretty.

LESSONS AND COMMANDS ON THE CONJUNCTIONS

Subject:

Coordinate conjunctions: and, or, neither, nor (e, o, nè).

Commands:--

--Come to "silence" where you are _and_ move only at my call.

--Come to "silence" where you are _or else_ move silently among the chairs.

--Walk on tip-toe about the room, being careful _neither_ to meet _nor_ to follow one another.

Subject:

Declarative: that (che).

Command:--

--Tell two of your schoolmates _that_ you know a conjunction.

Subject:

Adversatives: but, however, instead (ma, invece).

Command:--

--Form two lines; now one line face about turning from left to right; the other line, _instead_, turn in opposite direction.

--Form in one long line and advance; when you reach the end of the room, do not stop, _but_ turn to the left.

Subject:

Condition: if (se).

Command:--

--You will be able to hear this drop of water fall, _if_ you remain for a moment in absolute silence.

Subject:

Time: while, when, as soon as (mentre, quando, appena).

Command:--

--A few of you walk about among the tables; then stop in the center of the room, _while_ the others gather round you and try to cover your eyes with their hands.

--One of you start to leave the room. _When_ you are about to cross the threshold, the others will block the way compelling you to stop.

--All of you ready! _As soon as_ I say "Go!" run to the other end of the room.

Subject:

Purpose: so that, in order that (affinchè, perchè).

Command:--

--One of you stand in the middle of the room; the others try to pass near him quickly _so that_ he cannot touch you.

--I am going to whisper a command: listen in perfect silence _in order that_ you may hear what I command.

Subject:

Alternative: rather than (piuttostochè, anzichè).

Command:--

--Those children who would _rather_ work _than_ go out of doors rise from their places.

Subject:

Cause: because, since (perchè, poichè).

Command:--

--Before beginning to work let us become entirely quiet, _because_ then we can think about what we are going to do.

Subject:

Exception: except, save (fuorchè, salvochè).

Command:--

--Get the counters and place one on every table in the room _except_ on this one. Gather up all the counters _save_ the red ones. Return all the counters to their box.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

SERIES A

--Of these two long rods, this one is the _longer_. Of these three rods, which is the _longest_?

--This rod is _longer_ than that. That rod in the _longest_ of the three. Which is the _longest_ of the series?

--This cloth is _smoother_ than that. This cloth is _smoothest_ of all.

--Of these two shades of red which is the _darker_? Of all these shades of red which is the _darkest_?

--Of these two prisms which is the _thicker_? This prism is _thicker_ than that. Of these three prisms, which is _thickest_?

--Which of these two children is the _taller_? Which is the _tallest_ child in the room?

SERIES B

--Which of these two pictures is the _more_ beautiful? This picture is _more_ beautiful than that.

--Which of these three pictures is _most_ beautiful? Which is the _most_ beautiful picture in the room?

--Which of these two games is the _more_ amusing? This game is _more_ amusing than that. This game is _most_ amusing of all.

--This drawing is good. That drawing is _better_. That drawing is _best_.

--There are some beads on this table. There are _more_ beads on that table. There are _most_ beads on that table.

--There is a little water in this glass. There is _less_ water in that glass. There is _least_ water in that glass.

--Of these two children John is the _elder_. Of these three children Mary is the _eldest_. Mary is _older_ than John. John is _older_ than Laura.

A set of exercises may be arranged to bring out the paradymns of comparison by means of suffixes (_-er_, _-est_) and of adverbs (_more_, _most_). Here the series of cards for the positive adjectival forms are, as usual, brown, the phonograms for _-er_ and _-est_ in lighter and darker shades of brown respectively. The cards for _more_ and _most_ as adverbs are colored pink. When properly arranged, the cards appear as follows:

long tall thick smooth long _er_ tall _er_ thick _er_ smooth _er_ long _est_ tall _est_ thick _est_ smooth _est_

short dark light rough short _er_ dark _er_ light _er_ rough _er_ short _est_ dark _est_ light _est_ rough _est_

beautiful amusing interesting _more_ beautiful _more_ amusing _more_ interesting _most_ beautiful _most_ amusing _most_ interesting

A second exercise contains cards for each of the forms for these same words. There are three colors: brown, light brown and dark brown (superlative). There are in addition similar cards for the adjectives of irregular comparisons, and three title cards: _Positive_, _Comparative_, _Superlative_. The exercise results as follows:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ long longer longest tall taller tallest thick thicker thickest smooth smoother smoothest short shorter shortest dark darker darkest light lighter lightest rough rougher roughest beautiful more beautiful most beautiful amusing more amusing most amusing interesting more interesting most interesting old elder eldest many more most good better best bad worse worst little less least

XI

INTERJECTIONS

Since this is the last part of speech to be studied the children are now able to recognize _all_ the different parts of speech and it is no longer necessary to make sentences containing only parts of speech which the children know. Therefore in our Italian lessons we choose henceforth sentences from the classic authors (mostly from Manzoni). Since the interjection is really a thought expressed in an abbreviated form it lends itself readily to dramatic interpretation. With the same sentence the children accordingly can now perform the two-fold exercise of general analysis and "interpretative reading." They now recite sentences which they have picked out and studied instead of the commands. At this time also they are given a chart containing the complete classification of interjections. The children read them, interpreting each as they go along by voice and gesture. This is the first table of classification to be presented. Later on all the parts of speech will be given on charts with their definitions and classification.

ANALYSES

Material: The grammar box is complete. It now has nine separate compartments for the colored cards, article (tan), noun (black), adjective (brown), verb (red), preposition (violet), adverb (pink), pronoun (green), conjunction (yellow), and _interjection_ (_blue_). In the compartment for the sentence slips are groups of cards which correspond exactly to the number of the words contained in the sentences.

GROUP A

(Per amor del cielo! oibò! addio! ehm! misericordia! ah!)

_Please!_ Don't make so much noise!

_Shame on you!_ exclaimed Henry, much shocked at those words.

_Good-by!_ We shall see you to-morrow.

_Look out!_ If you drop that vase, you will break it.

_Mercy on us!_ What is the matter with the poor man?

_Aha!_ now I understand!

GROUP B

(Eh via! bravo! bene! ehi! poh! per carità! oh!)

_Come, come!_ Do you think I am going to believe all that nonsense?

_Goodness!_ I hope the child is not going to fall.

_Thanks!_ It was kind of you to help me put my objects away.

_Cockadoodledoo!_ sang the rooster in the yard!

_Ding-dong, ding-dong!_ The engines were passing by. There was a fire!

_Cheer up!_ There is no harm done!

GROUP C

(Ohè! ih! toh! poveretto! ahi! ohi! eh! animo! uh! ton!)

_Farewell!_ The ship gradually drew away from the shore! The houses faded from view one by one. The hills formed a low line on the horizon. _Farewell!_ It would be months, years perhaps, before George would see the old familiar town again. _Farewell!_

_Help! Help!_ came a voice through the fog! A man was drowning.

_Hush!_ Do you hear that bird singing in the distance?

_Alas!_ It was too late! When the doctor came, the poor man was dead!

_Hurrah! Hurrah!_ The soldiers were now almost at the top of the hill. _Hurrah! hurrah!_ The red-white-and-blue was waving at last where the enemy had held out so long!

_Bang!_ In the still night the sound of a gun roused the sleeping inhabitants.

CHART OF CLASSIFIED INTERJECTIONS

(For interpretative reading)

ITALIAN INTERJECTIONS:

_Pain_: ahi! ohi! ohimè! ahimè! ah! oh! poveretto!

_Prayer_: deh! mercè! aiuto! per carità! per amor di Dio!

_Surprise_, _wonder_: Oh! ih! nientedimeno! poh! toh! eh! corbezzoli! bazzecole! caspita! cospetto! uh! oooh! misericordia! diavolo! bubbole!

_Threat_: ehm! guai!

_Disgust_, _horror_: puh! puah! brr!

_Anger_: oibò! vergogna!

_Doubt_: uhm!

_Weariness_: auf! auff!

_Calls_, _silence_: ehi! ohè! olà! alto là! pss! st! psst!

_Demonstratives_: ecco! riecco! eccomi! eccoci!

_Encouragement_: orsù! via! suvvia! animo! coraggio! arri là! hop hop!

_Greeting_: salve! vale! addio! arrivederci! ave! ciao!

_Applause_: bene! bravo! viva! evviva! gloria! osanna! alleluja!

_Onomatapoetic_: crac! patatrac! piff paff! din don! ton ton! zum zum! bum bum!

_Animal sounds_: gnau! chicchirichì! coccodè! cra cra cra! uè uè uè! glu glu glu! pi pi pi! cri cri! fron fron! bu bu!

_Curses_: accidenti! accidempoli! perbacco! canchero! malanaggia!

ENGLISH INTERJECTIONS:

_Pain_: oh! alas! ah! ouch! my!

_Joy_: oh! ah! oh my! good! splendid!

_Surprise_: ha! aha! oh! really! you don't say! indeed! well, well! upon my word!

_Contempt_: fudge! pshaw! fie! nonsense! bother!

_Hesitation_: hum!

_Resolution_: by Jove!

_Silence_: hush! hist! listen! shh!

_To animals_: whoa! gee! haw! geddap! kitty-kitty! puss-puss!

_Onomatapoetic_: ding-dong! bang! whiz! bing! crack! snap! etc., etc.

(In general the use of interjections, especially of capricious character, is much more characteristic of the best Italian writing and speech than it is of English.)

XII

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

I

SIMPLE SENTENCES

The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls of fairly stiff paper, on which are printed simple, compound and complex sentences, in carefully prepared series.

There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rectangular spaces, with the name of one sentence element printed in each space. The sentence read on the roll can be torn off part by part, and each of these parts is placed in one of the rectangles, according to the name printed on it. This is another application of the compartment box method used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds which go to make up the word, finally the words as parts of speech. Here, the compartments are reduced to a simple design.

The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and are artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of four different kinds as regards ornament and color, for such details exert a considerable influence upon the work of the children. On the following page is a sample of the charts with its "sections."

CHART A

+--------------------------+----------------------------+ | VERB | Who is it that? | | | What is it that? | | (The verbal or nominal | | | predicate.) | SUBJECT | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | Who? What? | To whom? To what? | | (Direct object.) | (Indirect object.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | By Whom? By What? | Of whom? Of what? | | (Agent.) | (Possessive, material.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | When? | Where? | | (Time.) | (Place.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | Whence? | How? | | (Source.) | (Manner.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | Why? | What for? | | (Cause.) | (Purpose.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | By means of whom? | With whom? | | By means of what? | With what? | | (Instrument.) | (Accompaniment.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+ | (Attributive (phrases).) | (Vocative.) | +--------------------------+----------------------------+

The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are somewhat larger and are more conspicuously decorated than the other rectangles below. The words _subject_ and _verb_ are printed entirely in large capitals. The other spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the principal from the secondary elements in the sentences. The names of the parts of speech, and the questions which bring out the meaning of these names, are in different colors: for instance, the names may be black and the questions red, or the names may be in red and the questions in green. And the letters of the questions are larger than the letters of the names, except in the two upper spaces, where the words _subject_ and _verb_ are in the largest type.

The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he begins to _concentrate_ on this particular question. How many times he has read sentences, pronounced sentences, composed sentences! But now he is examining them in detail, _studying_ them. The simple sentence is a short proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an action or a situation, organizing its different parts around a _verb_.

The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a task not very difficult after the preceding exercises on the parts of speech have been performed. When he has found the verb, it becomes essential for him to find the subject. The subject may be found by asking the question: _Who is it that_--? For example:

The child reads.

The word _reads_ is the verb. The section of the roll where the word _reads_ appears is torn off and placed in the space marked _Verb_. Then ask: "_Who is it that_ reads?" The answer is, "_The child_ reads." The section containing the word _the child_ is torn off and placed in the space marked _Subject_.

Another sentence: on the roll the child finds written:

_The glass is broken._

The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by itself, has no special meaning. _Is_ means nothing! "_Is?_ Is _what_?" Some attribute must be added: "Is _broken_!" Here we get a _nominal predicate_. When the verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action, for instance _reads_, we get a _verbal predicate_. The section of the roll containing _is broken_ is torn off, accordingly, and placed in the space of the verb. But _what_ is broken? _The glass!_ The section containing the words _the glass_ is placed in the space of the subject. All of this can be copied off by the child by hand, as follows:

Simple sentence: The child reads. The child: Subject. Reads: Predicate (verbal).

SERIES I

(Simple Sentences)

The first roll contains the following simple sentences without modifiers of any kind:

--The child reads. --The glass is broken. --Charles is tall. --The trees are blossoming. --The blackboard is clean. --Who has come? --The pencil is broken. --The sky is blue. --I am reading. --I am studying. --The children are playing. --Time flies. --The teacher sings.

SERIES II

(Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers)

The roll contains the following sentences, written one after another:

--The mother loves her child dearly. --Johnny brought his teacher a rose. --You may keep the book for some days, Louis. --Mary, give the poor man a penny. --Where have you been, Mary? --I will do it, mother. --Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole blackboard. --Who drew the pretty picture? --Last night I showed the letter to father. --In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving. --Did you go to the theater last night? --The rain was beating against the window panes. --The dog is barking at the cat. --The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands.

Example of application: The section containing the first sentence,

The mother loves her child dearly.

is first torn off from the roll. Then the section containing the word _loves_ is placed in the space marked _verb_. _Who_ loves?--_the mother_. The section containing the words _the mother_ is placed in the space marked _subject_. The mother loved _whom_? _Her child._ The section containing _her child_ is torn off and placed in the space marked _direct object_. By thus reading the names printed in the spaces of the chart the child learns to classify the various kinds of modifiers. _How_ does the mother love her child? _In what manner?_ _Dearly._ The section containing the word _dearly_ is placed in the space marked _Manner_ and the sentence is completed.

Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately or make others, as he thinks best. The copy may be as follows:

The mother loves her child dearly. The mother: Subject. Loves: Predicate (verbal). Her child: Direct object. Dearly: Adverb, manner.

In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little help from the teacher may be required. Example:

You may keep the book for some days, Louis.

The word _Louis_ can be dramatized somewhat into a kind of invocation, as--_O Louis, you may keep the book_ and so on. Vocatives can almost always be identified by trying the exclamatory _O_ before them.

In the sentence,

Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole blackboard.

_only three years old_ is an attributive of Harry. It should be torn off and placed in the space marked _Attributive_.

SERIES III

(Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same kind)

The roll contains the following sentences in sections which may be read and torn off one after the other as the child unrolls the strip:

--The child sleeps and dreams. --Everybody likes fruit and flowers. --He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends. --Charles opened and closed the book. --The doctor and the father left the sick child's room. --The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence. --In the beginning God created heaven and earth. --He will always have money and friends. --In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women.

SERIES IV

(Elliptical sentences with subject understood)

[This situation does not however arise in English, which, save in the imperative, always requires at least a pronominal subject for the verb.]

Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it and finding the element that is lacking.

--La ringrazio (_I_ thank you). --Verrete? (Will _you_ come?) --Sono stanco (_I_ am tired). --Non mi sento bene oggi (_I_ don't feel well to-day). --Com'è andata? (How did _it_ turn out?) --Dico la verità (_I_ will tell you all about it). --Siamo contentissimi (_We_ are delighted). --Vi saluto (_I_ bid you good-by). --Vado a casa (_I_ am going home). --Lampeggia (_It_ is lightening). --M'impose silenzio (_He_ told me to say nothing). --Ascolto (_I_ am listening).

SERIES V

(Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood)

--Silence! --Why all this noise? --After me, the deluge! --The sooner the better! --Good luck to you, sir! --What nasty weather! --What an attractive school! --O for a calm, a thankful heart! --A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse! --Away with him! --Fire! Fire! --Here, here, quick! --Honor to the brave!

SERIES VI

(Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood: _incomplete predication_)

--They drove away. --He spends like a millionaire. --He drinks like a fish. --The farmer's boy had just milked. --Do you understand? --The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed. --Did you see? --The child did not hear.

SERIES VII

(Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased difficulty)

--The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and with a black and blue lump on his forehead. --Ethel hurried home as fast as possible. --We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement. --And so through the night went his cry of alarm To every Middlesex village and farm. --The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the lawn. --And yet through the gloom and the night The fate of a nation was riding that night. --The woman walked along in front of me with the child in her arms. --The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others. --To-morrow I shall come to town on foot. --He spent the summer every year with his parents in their old home on the mountain side. --That evening the old house was more lonely than ever. --They are very busy this morning. --I never did such a thing in my life! --Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed the street. --The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear. --Just then some one knocked at the door. --Here I am back again at my work. --Mary had a little lamb With fleece as white as snow.

THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS IN THE SENTENCE: PERMUTATIONS

Rules:

The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the direct order in prose, inversion being very rare.

In poetry, inversion is very common.

The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject, then the predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect; then the modifiers follow according to the importance they derive from the meaning of the sentence.

These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the child rarely has any difficulty in understanding them. Nevertheless, it is much easier to give the child a vivid impression of them by the permutation of parts than by explanation. This permutation is made very convenient by the sentences being printed in sections which may be moved about and combined at will. Just as the sequence of the various parts of speech was made clear by transposing the parts, here the same result can be accomplished by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example:

We heard the clatter of the horse's hoofs (subject) (predicate) (direct object) (attribute)

on the pavement. (place: adverb)

The following combinations are possible results of permutation:

We--heard--the clatter--of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement.

We--the clatter--heard--on the pavement--of the horse's hoofs.

We--of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--the clatter--heard.

Of the horse's hoofs--on the pavement--heard--the clatter--we, etc., etc.

SERIES VIII

(The inverted order)

The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown in every sentence. But it is better to try examples of inversion from poetic language. In this series, all the sentences show inversion of one type or another:

--Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride, Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere.

--Upon the roof we sat that night! The noise of bells went sweeping by; Awesome bells they were to me.

--Still sits the school-house by the road.

--Before them under the garden-wall Forward and back Went drearily singing the chore-girl small.

--And day by day more holy grew Each spot of the sacred ground.

--There thronged the citizens with terror dumb.

Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements can lead to practise in the identification and use of grammatical forms as parts of speech, which the study of single words would not at first permit; as for instance, forms of the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as subject and object), the difference between personal pronouns used as direct or indirect objects, and so on.

SERIES IX

(The forms of the verb)

The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and passive, in sections. The analysis is conducted on the chart for the simple sentence:

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE REFLEXIVE

(Action performed by (Action performed by (_Middle Voice_) subject) agent) (Subject is direct object)

Mary dresses the little The little girl is The little girl girl. dressed by Mary. dresses herself.

The teacher praised Charles was praised Charles praised Charles for the by the teacher for himself for the drawing. the drawing. drawing.

The little girl excused George was excused George excuses George for his for his roughness by himself for his roughness. the little girl. roughness.

The janitor accused The boy was accused The boy accused the boy. by the janitor. himself.

The old man liked Albert Albert was very much Albert liked himself very much. liked by the old man. very much.

The nurse tucked the The child was tucked The child tucked child into the warm into the warm bed himself into the bed. by the nurse. warm bed.

The girl rocked her The little friend was Her little friend little friend to sleep rocked to sleep in rocked herself to in the rocking-chair. the rocking-chair by sleep in the the little girl. rocking-chair.

The teacher saw Henry Henry was seen in the Henry saw himself in in the large mirror. large mirror by the the large mirror. teacher.

The angry boy hurt Louis was hurt by the Louis hurt himself. Louis. angry boy.

SERIES X

(Use of the personal pronoun)

The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching the personal pronouns can be used over again at this point for analysis on the sentence-chart.

--The children wrote a letter to their mother The children wrote her a letter They wrote it to her

--They gave their mother a surprise They gave her a surprise

--I told father all about it I told him all about it

--Charles soothed his sister with a kiss He soothed her with a kiss

--Will you give your drawing to the teacher? Will you give her your drawing? Will you give it to her?

--Don't think badly of your schoolmates Don't think badly of them

--Show those dirty hands to the teacher Show her those dirty hands Show them to her

--Tell the story to the children in the other room Tell it to the children in the other room Tell it to them there

The exercise in permutation brings out the relative positions of the direct and indirect objects; as also the conditions under which the preposition _to_ is required before the indirect object.

II

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

Here we are dealing with a number of propositions (clauses) which combine into one complete meaning. The clauses fit together in the sentences just as did the various elements in the simple sentence. The material for the analysis is therefore analogous to that used in the analysis of the simple sentence: strips of paper in rolls on which are written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with spaces where the detached pieces may be placed, according to the designation of these spaces.

The principal space on the chart is reserved for the main clause, around which the other clauses are arranged, as coordinate or subordinate.

Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sentence is sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the child to various forms of study, the material contains in addition to the rolls and the chart, a number of test-cards where the analysis is completed and logically demonstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy of the work done by the children, and as actual charts for analytical study. Of course, when the child is doing his exercise with the strips of paper and the chart, he does not have these test-cards before him. He should, however, always have free access to them. His interest in the game is to succeed by himself in placing the different propositions where they belong.

CHART B

+-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | INCIDENTAL CLAUSES (Parenthetical clauses) | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SUBORDINATE ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE (Adjective or Relative clauses) | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | who is it that...? | whom...? what...? | | | | | subordinate _subject_ clause | subordinate _object_ clause | | (subject clause) | (object clause) | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | when...? | where...? | | | | | subordinate clause of _time_ | subordinate clause of _place_ | | (temporal clause) | (locative clause) | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | for what purpose...? | why...? for what cause? | | | | | subordinate clause of _purpose_| subordinate clause of _cause_ | | (purpose clause) | (causal clause) | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | how...? than what? | on what condition...? | | | | | subordinate clause of _manner_ | subordinate clause of _condition_| | or comparison | (conditional clause) | | (modal clauses) | | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | in spite of what...? | with what result...? | | subordinate clause of | | | _concession_ | subordinate clause of _result_ | | (concessive clause) | (result clause) | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

SERIES I

(Compound Sentences)

The clauses are independent of each other. Each contains a complete meaning, and each therefore could stand alone. It is a question of simple sentences _coordinated_ with each other.

--I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it. --She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the strong sun. --The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat purring at her side. --She dropped her sewing and went to the door. --The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept. --They looked into each other's faces: each of them had a question to ask and neither dared to speak. --I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight. --They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him and waited for his next word to attack him. --Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish. --Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around the room. --He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed his hair and went out to greet his two friends. --She went to the window and looked out over the stormy sea.

The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing each separately. Then, placing one under the other, he is impressed by the fact that each has a complete meaning and can stand by itself; save that in English the subject of the first clause is often carried over to the second:

I hunted carefully everywhere. And at last I found it.

I am a lowly peasant. And you are a gallant knight.

Louis clapped his hands for joy. began to dance around the room.

He looked into the mirror. straightened his tie. smoothed his hair. _and_ went out to meet his two friends.

The bees hummed in the warm sunshine. And the cat sat purring at her side.

Then he began to weep. And he tore his hair in anguish.

The girl covered her face with her hands. _and_ wept.

They looked at the speaker. crowded around him. _and_ waited for his next word to attack him.

SERIES II

(The Complex Sentence)

Here only the main clause has a complete meaning. The other clauses make sense only when they are united with the main clause. On this roll, the subordinate clauses are attributes of one of the elements of the main clause (relative clauses).

--The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs belongs to my mother. --The man who brought me to school this morning was my uncle. --He was educated by his sister who taught him many beautiful things. --The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very good. --A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing eyes at a plate of sandwiches. --The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very dull. --Bees don't care about the snow! I can tell you why it's so: Once I caught a little bee Who was much too warm for me.--(F. D. SHERMAN) --We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw. --Here are the pennies my mother gave me. --The children I play with did not come to school to-day. --The house we live in is beautiful and airy. --Stars are the little daisies white That dot the meadow of the night.--(SHERMAN)

TEST CARDS

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE ATTRIBUTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE (The words modified by the relative (Relative or Adjective Clauses) clause are in _italics_). (The clause has no meaning until united with some noun in the main clause).

The gold _ring_ belongs to which you found on the stairs mother yesterday

The _man_ was my uncle who brought me to school this morning

He was educated by his _sister_ who taught him many beautiful things

The _colors_ are very good which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas

A little _girl_ sat looking with who was at a party longing eyes at a plate of sandwiches

Once I caught a little _bee_ who was much too warm for me

Stars are the little _daisies_ that dot the meadow of the white night

RELATIVE OMITTED

_What word is omitted?_

Here are the _pennies_ --my mother gave me

The _children_ did not come to with--I play school to-day

The _house_ is beautiful and in--we live airy

SERIES III

In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed the meaning and constituted an attribute of _one word_ of the principal clause. Here, however, the subordinate clauses refer to the whole content of the main clause and complete _the whole thought_ of the main clause. They have, therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause. The child will be guided in finding the place of the different subordinate clauses and in classifying them according to the designations of the spaces by the questions which appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that he can readily identify the main clause itself.

The following sentences come one after the other on the rolled strip of paper:

--Do not forget that your objects are not in their places. --Will you play with me when you have finished your work? --When the sun is low our shadows are longer. --I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you arrive in Europe. --The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the queen as the procession went by. --Brer Rabbit thought it was the worst time he had had in all his life. --All is well that ends well, says the proverb. --The people mourned when the good President died. --It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy. --As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in through the window. --They could not play in the yard because the ground was too wet. --Remember that you must thank the lady who gave you the book.

TEST CARD

PRINCIPAL AND INCIDENTAL QUESTION SUBORDINATE AND ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES CLAUSES

Do not forget what? that your objects are not in their places.

Will you play with me when? when you have finished your work?

Our shadows are longer when? when the sun is low.

I hope what? that you will write me a long letter.

when? as soon as you arrive in Europe.

The little girl stood on tip-toe why? so that she could see the queen

when? as the procession went by.

Brer Rabbit thought what? (that) it was the worst _time_ he had had in all his life (_attributive, relative pronoun omitted_)

All is well that ends well says the proverb (incidental (_attributive_). clause)

The people mourned when? the good President died.

It is not right what? that the big boys should have all the candy.

A beautiful red bird flew when? as she sat there in through the window reading.

They could not play in the why? because the ground was yard too wet.

Remember what? that you must thank the _lady_ who gave you the book (_attributive_).

SERIES IV

Here we have sentences both compound and complex, containing both coordinate and subordinate clauses.

--As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room. --The two friends shook hands and said they would always be faithful to each other. --When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him and laughed. --When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man appeared and asked what he might do for her. --The children walked along in the forest and became very hungry because they had had nothing to eat since morning. --The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that the deceitful general be put to death. --Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the children to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them to their state-rooms. --The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into the streets as the uproar of the combat increased. --Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful house and a fine road led up to it. --He had left the village and mounted the steep, And under the alders that skirt its edge, Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge, Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides.

TEST CARD

SUBORDINATE AND PRINCIPAL CLAUSE COORDINATE CLAUSE QUESTION ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES

He rose from his and left the when? as he said this chair room

The two friends and said what? that they would shook hands always be faithful to each other

Brer Rabbit threw and laughed when? when the wolf came the stone on him out

A smiling old man and asked what? what he might do for appeared her

when? when the lady knocked on the door

The children walked and became very why? because they had had along in the hungry nothing to eat forest since morning

The king's face grew and he angrily what? that the deceitful very red ordered general be put to death

The captain told the and a sailor why? because the wind was children to keep carried them blowing hard off the deck to their state-rooms

The dogs began to and the people when? as the uproar of the bark all ran into combat increased the streets

There was once a and a fine road where? where that tree now beautiful house led up to it stands

He had left the and mounted the village steep

under the that skirt its edge _alders_ now (attributive). soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge, is heard the tramp of his steed when? as he rides

SERIES V

(Correlative Sentences)

The clauses are here dependent upon each other:

--The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all. --That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work done. --She sings much better than she plays. --The more one studies, the more one learns. --Either you return your objects to their places or some one else must do it. --Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished the little boy.

TEST CARD

PRINCIPAL CLAUSE QUESTION SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

The flowers were so with what result? that we picked them all. beautiful

That day he was so with what result? that he did not get his lazy work done.

She sings much than what? than she plays. better

The more one with what result? the more one learns. studies

Either you return with what result? or some one else must do your objects to it. their places

Not only was the man with what result? but he actually punished very cross the little boy.

SERIES VI

(The Order of Clauses in Sentences: Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse)

Our material makes it very easy for the children to understand the mutual dependence of the subordinate clauses. We take the commonest cases within easy reach of the children. There are clauses of the first degree of subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause. There are others of the second degree of subordination which depend on a subordinate clause (clause subordinate to a subordinate). We have the same situation in coordinates. We have the first degree of coordination when the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the second degree when the clause is parallel with a subordinate clause.

Since the slips have as many sections as there are clauses, the clauses may be arranged on the table in the order of their subordination, keeping, for example, the principal clause to the left, and arranging the subordinate clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for instance, the sentence:

--The old man liked to tell stories; and he would laugh heartily when the women were frightened at the terrible things that he had to relate.

As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a chart marked into sections by vertically placed arrows: the principal clause to the right of the first arrow; the first subordinate clause to the right of the second; the subordinate to the subordinate to the right of the third, and so on. The above sentence results as follows:

Principal and Coordinate 1st subordinate subordinate to subordinate

The old man liked to tell stories and he would laugh heartily

when the women were frightened at the terrible things

that he had to tell.

CHART C

/|\ Principal and 1st subordinate subordinate to | coordinate and its coordinates subordinate | (incidental) | | I shall feel | better /|\ if you will let me sit | | next to the window | | /|\ where there is more | | | air.

Here is another example:

--I often sit and wish that I Could be a kite up in the sky, And ride upon the breeze, and go Whatever way it chanced to blow.

/|\ Principal and 1st subordinate and subordinate to | Coordinates coordinate subordinate | | I often sit | and wish | /|\ that I could be a kite | | up in the sky | | and ride upon the | | breeze | | and go whatever way | | /|\ it chanced to blow. | | |

Here, finally, is another:

-- I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to me, unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had done, or was accused of doing.

/|\ I was a bad boy | I admit (incidental) | but no one ever paid | any attention to me | /|\ unless I was to be | | blamed | | for something wrong | | /|\ that I had done, | | | or was accused of | | | doing. | | | (coordinate of second | | | subordinate)

In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips using the analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives him the classification of the clauses. The strips are then to be placed on the dependence chart (Chart C) according to the indications of the arrows. This brings out the mutual relation of the clauses.

PERMUTATIONS

The preceding exercises have created in the child a notion of sentence construction and of the position of the clauses which make it up. Our material permits, of course, as an exercise supplementary to the analyses, dislocations and translocations of parts just as was true with the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this possibility, the teacher should have in mind the general rules for location of clauses:

Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow, and most often directly, the noun they modify.

Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or after the principal clause. If the subject clause follows, it is usually anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it (just as a following noun subject is anticipated by _there_).

(In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main clause, it is usually repeated before the noun by a conjunctive object personal pronoun.)

The position of the other clauses depends on considerations of emphasis.

The direct order for complex sentences is in general similar to that for simple sentences:

subject clause principal clause object clause adverbial clauses.

Coordination is possible with subordinate as well as with principal clauses.

The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude with some practise in turning simple inversions as found in poetry into direct sentence order.

SERIES VII

The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise should be conducted with reference to the sentence charts.

1

--Just where the tide of battle Old John Burns stood, erect and turns, lonely just where the tide of Erect and lonely stood old battle turns.... John Burns ... A bright blue coat, with a rolling And buttoned over his manly collar, was buttoned over his breast manly breast. Was a bright blue coat with a rolling collar.

2

--It was terrible: on the right It was terrible: the deadly Raged for hours the deadly fight raged for hours on the fight, right; the battery's double bass Thundered the battery's double thundered,--difficult music for bass, men to face; while round shot Difficult music for men to face; ploughed the upland glades on While on the left, where now the left, where now the graves the graves undulate like the living waves Undulate like the living waves that swept unceasing all that That all that day unceasing day up to the pits the rebels swept kept. Up to the pits the rebels kept, Round shot ploughed the upland glades. BRET HARTE.--_John Burns of Gettysburg._

3

--Merrily rang the bridle reins, The bridle reins rang merrily and scarf and plume steamed and scarf and plume streamed gay, gay, as the riders, held their As fast beside her father's way fast by her father's gate. gate the riders held their way ...

"Now break your shield asunder Now break your shield asunder and shatter your sign and shatter across your knightly and boss, knee your sign and boss unmeet Unmeet for peasant-wedded for peasant-wedded arms. warms, your knightly knee across. WHITTIER.--_King Volmer._

4

The breaking waves dashed high The breaking waves dashed On a stern and rock bound coast; high on a stern and rock-bound And the woods against a stormy coast; and the woods tossed their sky giant branches against a stormy Their giant branches tossed. sky. And the heavy night hung dark The heavy night hung dark The hills and waters o'er, over (o'er) the hills and waters, When a band of Pilgrims moored when a band of Pilgrims moored their bark their bark on the wild New England On the wild New England shore. shore.

Not as the conqueror comes They, the true hearted, came They the true hearted came, not as the conqueror comes, not Not with the roll of the stirring with the roll of the stirring drums drums and the trumpet that And the trumpet that sings of sings of fame. fame. MRS. HEMANS.

5

My golden spurs now bring to me Bring to me now my golden And bring to me my richest mail, spurs and bring to me my richest For tomorrow I go over land and mail; for I go in search of the sea Holy Grail tomorrow over land In search of the Holy Grail. and sea; a bed shall never be Shall never a bed for me be spread for me, nor shall a pillow spread. be under my head till I begin to Nor shall a pillow be under my keep my vow; I will sleep here head, on the rushes, and perchance a Till I begin my vow to keep; true vision will come _before_ (ere) Here on the rushes will I sleep. day creates the world anew. And perchance there may come a vision true Ere day create the world anew. LOWELL.

6

Glad tidings of great joy I bring I bring to you and all mankind To you and all mankind: glad tidings of great joy. The To you, in David's town this day Saviour, who is Christ the Lord, Is born of David's line is born to you this day in David's The Saviour, who is Christ the town, of David's line; and this Lord, shall be the sign: you shall find And this shall be the sign: the heavenly Babe there displayed The heavenly Babe you there to human view, all meanly wrapt shall find in swaddling clothes and laid in To human view displayed, a manger. All meanly wrapt in swaddling bands And in a manger laid. TATE.--_While Shepherds Watched._

7

The harp that once through The harp, that once shed the Tara's halls soul of music through Tara's The soul of music shed, halls, now hangs on Tara's walls, Now hangs on Tara's walls as though that soul were fled. As if that soul were fled. So the pride of former days So sleeps the pride of former sleeps, so glory's thrill is over, days, and hearts that once beat high So glory's thrill is o'er, for praise now feel that pulse no And hearts that once beat high more. The harp of Tara swells for praise no more to chiefs and bright ladies: Now feel that pulse no more. the chord alone, that breaks at night, tells its tale of ruin. No more to chiefs and ladies Thus Freedom now wakes so seldom bright (that) the only throb she The harp of Tara swells; gives is when some indignant The chord alone that breaks at heart breaks to show that she night still lives. Its tale of ruin tells. Thus Freedom now so seldom wakes, The only throb she gives, Is when some heart indignant breaks To show that still she lives. THOMAS MOORE.

8

Childhood is the bough where Childhood is the bough where slumbered many numbered birds and blossoms Birds and blossoms many numbered; slumbered; Age encumbered Age that bough with snow encumbered. that bough with snow. LONGFELLOW.

TEST CARDS

1

Just where the tide of battle subordinate of place (locative) turns Erect and lonely stood old John principal Burns And, buttoned over his manly (verbal attributive phrase) breast, Was a bright blue coat with a coordinate of principal rolling collar

2

It was terrible principal on the right raged for hours the deadly fight coordinate of principal

thundered the battery's double coordinate of principal bass Difficult music for men to face (verbal attributive phrase in apposition) While on the left (round shot subordinate of time (temporal) ploughed, etc.) begun where now (_While_ may be considered as the graves adversative coordinate) Undulate like the living waves subordinate to subordinate (locative) 2d degree That all that day unceasing swept attributive subordinate (relative up to the pits adjectival clause modifying _waves_) of 3d degree the rebels kept attributive subordinate (relative pronoun omitted) of 4th degree Round shot ploughed the upland subordinate of time (concluded). glades

3

Merrily rang the bridle reins principal

and scarf and plume coordinate streamed gay

As fast beside her father's gate the riders held their way subordinate of time

Now break your shield asunder principal

and shatter your sign and boss coordinate Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms your knightly knee across

4

The breaking waves dashed high On a stern and rock-bound coast principal

And the woods against a stormy sky Their giant branches tossed coordinate

And the heavy night hung dark The hills and waters o'er principal (coordinated in paragraph) When a band of pilgrims moored their bark On a wild New England shore subordinate temporal

Not principal begun as the conqueror comes subordinate of manner (modal) They the true hearted came principal concluded Not with the roll of the stirring drums and the trumpet coordinate (elipsis of verb _they_ _came_ continued from principal) that sings of fame attributive (relative) subordinate to coordinate.

5

My golden spurs now bring to me principal

And bring to me my richest mail coordinate

For tomorrow I go over land and subordinate of cause (causal): sea may be considered coordinate In search of the Holy Grail of _reason_

Shall never a bed for me be spread principal

Nor shall a pillow be under my head coordinate

Till I begin my vow to keep subordinate of time (temporal)

Here on the rushes will I sleep principal

And perchance there may come a vision true coordinate

Ere day create the world anew subordinate temporal.

6

Great tidings of great joy I bring To you and all mankind principal

To you in David's town this day Is born of David's line The Saviour principal

who is Christ the Lord attributive (relative) subordinate

And this shall be the sign coordinate

The heavenly Babe you there shall find To human view displayed All meanly wrapped in swaddling bands And in a manger laid. simple sentence with three coordinate verbal phrases.

7

The harp principal begun that once through Tara's hall The soul of music shed attributive subordinate (relative)

Now hangs on Tara's walls principal concluded

As if that soul were fled subordinate of manner (modal)

So sleeps the pride of former days principal

So glory's thrill is o'er coordinate

And hearts coordinate begun that once beat high attributive relative subordinate for praise

Now feel that pulse no more coordinate concluded.

No more to chiefs and ladies bright The harp of Tara swells principal

The chord alone coordinate begun

that breaks at night attributive relative subordinate

Its tale of ruin tells coordinate concluded.

Thus freedom now so seldom wakes principal

The only throb subordinate result begun (conjunction _that_ omitted)

she gives subordinate to subordinate (2d degree; relative omitted)

Is when some heart indignant breaks To show subordinate result concluded

that still she lives subordinate object (noun) clause of 2d degree.

8

Childhood is the bough principal where slumbered Birds and blossoms many-numbered subordinate locative (of place)

Age that bow with snows encumbered coordinate.

(Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of inversion than does Italian. Such exercises as the above could be profitably applied to the analysis of the different kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.). It should be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate clauses.--TR.)

COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a more precise comprehension of the values of certain parts of speech as, notably, the conjunction. We have found, in fact, that little difficulty is experienced in realizing the distinction between the terms _coordinating_ and _subordinating_ as applied to conjunctions which _unite_ clauses but in different ways. The following charts serve to cover the vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We may add that at this point it may be found useful to have the child analyze the complex sentences which appeared in the commands and readings already familiar to him (see below under _Reading_).

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

_Copulatives_: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, nor.

_Disjunctives_: or else, otherwise, rather.

_Adversatives_: but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet, still, while, only, instead.

_Declaratives_: namely, in other words, that is.

_Asseverative_: in fact, assuredly, really.

_Illative_: hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so.

PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH ONE OF THESE CONJUNCTIONS

CHART D

THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

+--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Incidental (parenthetical) clause | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Adjective (relative, attributive) clause | | who, which, that, whose, whom | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Subordinate subject clause | Subordinate object clause | | that | that | +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Subordinate clause of time | Subordinate clause of place | | (temporal) | (locative) | | when, while, as soon as, | where, whence, wherever, whither | | before, after, till, until | | +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Subordinate clause of purpose | Subordinate clause of cause | | (final, purpose clause) | (casual clause) | | that, in order that, so that | as, because, for, since, | | | in as much as | +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of condition | | manner and comparison | | | (modal clause) | (conditional clause) | | as (manner), than (comparison) | if, unless, provided, | | | provided that | +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Subordinate clause of | Subordinate clause of | | concession | result and correlatives | | (concessive clause) | that, so that (result) | | though, although, even if, | so ... as, so ... that | | however, notwithstanding that | (correlative, degree) | +--------------------------------+-----------------------------------+

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

A special series of exercises on the relations of the subordinate to the principal clause brings out the changes in tense made necessary in the subordinate clause as the tense of the principal clause varies.

SERIES VIII

Sequence of Tenses

GROUP A

(Causal Clauses)

--I am writing to you because I have some important news. " wrote " " " " had " " "

--I shall not go because I must attend to my work. " did " " " " had to " " " "

--I am glad that you have done so well. " was " " " had " " "

--I will give it to you since you insist on having it. " gave " " " " " insisted " " "

--He does not answer because your letter is insulting. " did " " " " " was "

GROUP B

(Miscellaneous Clauses)

--I shall be proud of you if you become a fine scholar. " should " " " " " " became " " "

--I believe that only the rich can be happy. " believed " " " " could " "

--I am waiting here till my father returns from town. " waited " " " " returned " "

--They expect that something will happen before long. " expected " " would " " "

--He is doing that for you, in order that you may go to school. " did " " " " " " " might " " "

--He will let you know where he has been. " let " " " " had "

GROUP C

(Object Clauses)

--They are telling me what they have been doing. " were " " " " had " "

--I promise you that I will do everything punctually. " promised " " " would " " "

--I think he will not be back before Wednesday. " thought " would " " " " "

--Do you know that your friend has gone away? Did " " " " " had " "

--I assure you that I will take good care of it. " assured " " " would " " " " "

--I repeat that you ought to be ashamed of yourself. " repeated " " " " have been " " "

GROUP D

(Conditional Sentences)

--I would read this book too, if I could. " " have read " " " " " had been able.

--If I see him, I shall tell him what you say. " " saw " " should " " " " said.

--I will finish this work, if you can wait. " would " " " " " could "

--I shall come sooner if I can. " should " " " " could.

--He would give it to you if you asked him for it. " " have given " " " " " had asked " " "

--He would give it to you if you should ask him for it.

--I shall go there if I have time. " should " " " " had " " shall " " " " should have " " should have gone " " " had had "

XIII

PUNCTUATION

The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials give empirical evidence of the pauses and accordingly of the functions of the orthographical signs of suspense in the sentence. These signs are included also in our alphabets. All the exercises hitherto given require more or less spontaneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illustration of the principal rules for the use of punctuation points. Almost all of our Italian sentences are taken from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy for his care in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are taken from the _Book of Knowledge_, by special permission of the publishers.)

SERIES I

The comma may separate coordinate elements.

--The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her children's faces, the grace and strength of their bodies, their reckless daring and unflinching courage.

--The little star fell plump into the middle of a big puddle, and there it lay sad and shaken and quaking with fright.

--It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face, and could give no more light.

--A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see whether it was going to rain, and whether it would be safe to cross the fields.

--The mouse started running again, and ran until it was tired out and had to sit down.

--The little star poured a flood of bright light over the poor woman, and made her bright and cheerful and strong again, and then the little girl became very happy.

SERIES II

A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses.

--"Cæsar, let your men go forward," said the guide.

--Why do you want to find your father, Mora?

--"No," said he, "I shall be very well presently."

--"Boys," said our host, "I know whose hand it is."

--That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to speak to a friend.

--"Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he cried.

SERIES III

A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness, when the elements of one clause might seem to apply equally well to another clause, and when one clause is interpolated between the essential elements of another.

--Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated times, wherever they are.

--George, who was only five years old, could not go with his father to fight.

--The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided to march away.

--He went that evening, as he had planned, to the doctor's house.

--The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he was born, to regions farther and farther north.

--The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little fan, stood over his father all night fanning him.

SERIES IV

A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some word or idea (in such cases longer suspense can be indicated by a colon or a semi-colon).

--Very well, what of it?

--Good-by, all you nice people!

--Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries with real cream!

--Please, mother, just a little more, a very little more!

--Silence, obedience, and everybody at work!

--Enough said; I know exactly what the matter is!

SERIES V

A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses. In some special cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quotations.

--The knight mounted a superb steed; the old huntsman did the same.

--Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver sitting perched high above the door; others had the driver's seat at the side, and in all sorts of queer positions.

--The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses; though many people can remember when London street-cars were drawn by mules--two big ones or three little ones for each car.

--The letter began: "I hope you will let me know if this letter does not reach you."

--Patrick Henry said: "Give me liberty, or give me death!"

--The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not of sadness for--

Singing he was and fluting all the day: He was as fresh as in the month of May.

--The king will ask you three questions: "How old are you?" "How long have you been in his service?" "Are you satisfied with your food and lodgings?"

--How happy they were: all kinds of toys to play with; all sorts of good things to eat; and a kind old father to satisfy their every want!

--Slowly one of the dialects of English--the language of London--came to be regarded as standard English.

--Washington is called "the Father of his Country."

--When he got home, he said to his wife: "See, I have brought you a present."

--He shouted gleefully: "I am a lion--a terrible lion."

SERIES VI

(Other Punctuation Points)

The period, the question mark, exclamation point and other signs of punctuation:

In this series should be given dialogues, interesting stories, passages which express emotional states of mind vividly portrayed. Such selections, as is true also of our shorter passages, ought to be taken from the best writers, distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of their style and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At this point we make use of the selections used for our "interpretations," since the question of punctuation coincides with the problems of text interpretation itself.

XIV

WORD CLASSIFICATION

THE KINDS OF WORDS

In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be used for these exercises in word grouping.

This new step is preparatory to a _theoretical study_ of language to be developed in later courses in the second period of their education.

WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION

Root } Derived[3] } words Compound[4] }

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION

There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable:

/ / | preposition | They may be simple or INVARIABLES: < conjunction < compound, made up, | interjection | that is, of one word or more. \ \

/ / may be of masculine, | \ | feminine, neuter or | in gender | | common gender. | and number > nouns < form their plurals by | | | adding -s or by | / | changing the root | \ vowel (umlaut) | | \ / have special | | | words for | in gender, number > pronouns < each form: e.g. he, | person and case | | him, who, whom, I, | / \ me, etc. | | } adjectives { -er for comparative | in degree } adverbs { -est for superlative | | / show third person | | singular by adding -s, VARIABLES < | and old second person | | singular by adding | | -st | | show moods by adding | | -ing, -ed or by vowel | in person, number,} verbs < change for participles: | tense and mood } | or by special | | forms (I be, he be, | | etc.) for subjunctive. | | show tense by suffix | | -ed, -t: or by vowel | | change (I go, I | | went). | \ show irregular forms. | | / _the_ has two | \ definite | pronunciations | for | article < according to | phonetic reasons > | the following word. | | \ | | { _a_ becomes _an_ before \ / indefinite { a vowel.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE

(Parts of Speech)

Article Verb Pronoun Noun Adverb Conjunction Adjective Preposition Interjection

NOTE: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own functions, but also the functions of other parts of speech, for instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, etc.

THE NOUN

Proper Common Concrete Abstract Collective Individual

THE ARTICLE

Definite--the Indefinite--a, an

THE ADJECTIVE

Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings.

/ _cardinal_: one, two, three, four, etc. | _ordinal_: first, second, third, / Definite | fourth, last, etc. | (numeral) < _multiple_: single, double, triple, | | quadruple, etc. | \ _fractional_: half, third, etc. Quantitative: < | / many, all, some, much, enough, no, | | more, most, other, little, few, \ Indefinite <| whatever, each, every, certain, | several, somewhat, etc. \

Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same.

Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.

Interrogative: what? which?

VERB

The verb indicates:

existence: _to be_. state or condition: _nominal predicate_ (copular): e.g., She _is_ beautiful. action: _verbal predicate_: e.g., I _run_.

/ lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise, | lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover, Transitive (action upon | undo, invert, rub, spread, collect, an object different < scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix, from subject) | dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust, | sweep, button, lace, hook, \ brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc.

/ grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger, Intransitive | march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance, (action remains < shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom, in subject) | remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh, \ hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc.

Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive and intransitive (incomplete predication).

Impersonals (the / subject is _it_ | rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder, without reference to a < etc. specific object): | \

ADVERBS

/ slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly, | loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill, of Manner: < better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so, | lightly, heavily, etc., etc. \

of Place: { here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward, { backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc.

/ | always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday, of Time: < tomorrow, today, now, occasionally, before, | afterwards, soon, etc., etc. \

of Quantity: { much, little, enough, nothing, more, less, { least, most, about, only, too, very, etc.

of Comparison: more, less, than, etc.

of Affirmation: { yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely, { assuredly, truly, even, etc.

of Negation: no, never, not, at all, etc.

of Doubt: perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc.

PREPOSITION

/ | of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above, Simple: < through, under, around, beside, behind, save, | except, near, next, like, during, off, etc. \

Compound { in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board, (preposition { with regard to, etc. phrases):

PRONOUN

/ | subject: { I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they | Personal < { me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, | object: { them \

/ | definite: { this, this one, that, that one, | { these, those Demonstrative < | / | | one, ones, some, somebody, | indefinite: < everyone, each, each one, no one, \ | nobody, none, nothing, etc. \

/ | / | | subject: who, that | of person: < possessive: whose | | object: whom, that | \ | | of thing: which, that Relative < | indefinite: whoever, which ever | | compound (antecedent understood): what (that | which), whereof, wherewith, etc. \

/ | who / | whose | of person < whom | | which | \ Interrogative < | | of thing { what \ { which

Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

CONJUNCTION

Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather.

Copulative: { and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, { furthermore, nor, etc.

Adversative: { but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still, { while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc.

Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc.

Relative: that.

Illative: { hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so, { with the result that, etc.

Temporal: { while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till, { hardly, etc.

Concessive: though, although, even if.

Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc.

Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc.

Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc.

Result: that, so that, etc.

Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc.

Degree and Comparison: as, than.

INTERJECTION

See list already given on pp. 122-123.

FOOTNOTES:

[3] Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some suffixes change one part of speech into another: _love_ (verb), _lovable_ (adj.), etc.; others, such as _diminutives_, _peggioratives_, _augmentatives_, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: _-er_, _-est_).

[4] Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two words or by prefixes.