CHAPTER XXVII

THE COMING OF ELECTRICITY

ELECTRIC STREET CARS--SUBURBAN CARS--ELECTRIC THIRD-RAIL FROM UTICA TO SYRACUSE--SOME RAILROADS PARTIALLY ADOPT ELECTRIC POWER--THE BENEFIT OF ELECTRIC POWER IN TUNNELS--ALSO AT TERMINAL STATIONS--CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE ELECTRIC TRACTION PRACTICAL AND ECONOMICAL--HOPEFUL OUTLOOK FOR ELECTRIC TRACTION--THE MONORAIL AND THE GYROSCOPE CAR, INVENTED BY LOUIS BRENNAN--A SIMILAR INVENTION BY AUGUST SCHERL.

It is barely more than a quarter of a century since electricity first became practical for use as a motive power upon railroads. The early experiments of Thomas A. Edison at Menlo Park, N. J., and upon the now abandoned railroad up Mount McGregor, N. Y., soon gave way to real electric street railroads in Montgomery, Ala., in Richmond, Va., and from Brooklyn to Jamaica, N. Y. These, in turn, gave way to still better forms of electric traction, until the trolley has not only all but entirely driven the horse-car and the cable-car from city streets, but has performed a notable new transportation function in giving quick communication from one town to another in the well-settled portions of the country. These enterprises are quite outside of the province of this book; the cases where the electric locomotive and electric motor-car have usurped the steam locomotive upon its own rails are pertinent.

As soon as the electric railroad had begun to reach out into the country from the sharp confines of the towns, the steam railroad men began to take interest. It would have been even better for them if some of them had taken sharper interest at the beginning. But the few men who were long-sighted enough a dozen years ago to see the development possibilities of a form of traction that was comparatively inexpensive to install and to operate have been repaid for their sagacity. These men began a dozen years ago to wonder if electricity could not be brought to the service of the long-established steam railroad.

In most cases the short suburban steam roads outside of large cities, which were as apt to be operated by "dummy engines" as by standard locomotives, were the first to be electrified, and in these cases they usually became extensions of the then novel trolley lines. Folk no longer had to come in upon a poky little "dummy train" of uncertain schedule and decidedly uncertain habits, and then transfer at the edge of the crowded portion of the city to horse-cars. They could go flying from outer country to the heart of the town in half an hour, and upon frequent schedule, and the business of building and booming suburbs was born. After these roads had been developed, other steam lines began to study the situation. A little steam road that had wandered off into the hills of Columbia County from Hudson, N. Y., and had led a precarious existence, extended its rails a few more miles and became the third-rail electric line from Albany to Hudson, and a powerful competitor for passenger traffic of a large trunk-line railroad. The New York, New Haven, & Hartford found the electric third-rail of good service between two adjacent Connecticut cities, Hartford and New Britain; the overhead trolley a good substitute for the locomotive on a small branch that ran a few miles north from Stamford, Conn.

But the problems of electric traction for regular railroads were somewhat complicated, and the big steam roads rather avoided them until they were forced upon their attention. The interurban roads had spread too rapidly in many, many cases, where they were made the opportunities for such precarious financing as once distinguished the history of steam roads--and they had in most of these cases made havoc with thickly settled stretches of branch lines and main lines. In a great many cases the steam roads have had to dig deep into their pockets and buy at good stiff prices the very roads the building of which they might have anticipated with just a little forethought.

The New York Central & Hudson River took such forethought after some of its profitable branches in western New York had been paralleled by high-speed trolleys, and a very few years ago installed the electric third-rail on its West Shore property from Utica to Syracuse, 44 miles. The West Shore is one of the great tragedies in American railroading. Built in the early eighties from Weehawken (opposite New York City) to Buffalo, it had apparently no greater object than to parallel closely the New York Central and to attempt to take away from the older road some of the fine business it had held for many years. After bitter rate-war, the New York Central, with all the resources and the ability of the Vanderbilts behind it, won decisively, and bought its new rival for a song. But a property so closely paralleling its own tracks has been practically useless to it all the way from Albany to Buffalo, save as a relief line for the overflow of through freight.

So the West Shore tracks for high-class high-speed through electric service from Utica to Syracuse was a happy thought. Under steam conditions only two passenger trains were run over that somewhat moribund property in each direction daily, while the two trains of sleeping-cars passing over the tracks at night were of practically no use to the residents of those two cities. Under electric conditions, there is a fast limited service of third-rail cars or trains, leaving each terminal hourly; making but two stops and the run of over 44 miles in an hour and twenty minutes. There is also high-speed local service, and the line has become immensely popular. By laying stretches of third and fourth tracks at various points, the movement of the New York Central's overflow through freight has not been seriously incommoded. The electric passenger service is not operated by the New York Central, but by the Oneida Railways Company, in which the controlling interests of the steam road have large blocks of stock.

Similarly, the Erie Railroad disposed of a decaying branch of its system, running from North Tonawanda to Lockport, to the Buffalo street railroad system, although reserving for itself the freight traffic in and out of Lockport. The Buffalo road installed the overhead trolley system, and now operates an efficient and profitable trolley service upon that branch.

Perhaps it was because the Erie saw the application of these ideas, and decided that it was better to take its own profits from electric passenger service than to rent its branches again to an outside company; and perhaps because it also foresaw the coming electrification of its network of suburban lines around New York, and wished to test electric traction to its own satisfaction; but five years ago it changed the suburban service of its lines from the south up into Rochester from steam to electric.

It is now preparing to continue this work further. The Pennsylvania, while its great new station in New York was still a matter of engineer's blue prints, began practical experiments with electric traction in the flat southern portion of New Jersey. It owned a section of line ideally situated in every respect for such experiments, its original and rather indirect route from Canada to Atlantic City, which had since been more or less superseded by a shorter "air line" route. The third-rail was installed, and the new line became at once popular for suburban traffic in and out of Philadelphia and for the great press of local traffic between Philadelphia and Atlantic City. Of the success of that move on the part of the Pennsylvania there has never been the slightest question. Regular trains have been operated for several years over this route at 60 miles an hour, and not the slightest difficulty has been found in maintaining the schedules.

But nowhere has the substitution of electric locomotive for the steam worked greater comfort for the railroad passenger--to say nothing, of the raising of that somewhat intangible factor of safety--than in long tunnels. The Baltimore & Ohio, which was a pioneer among the steam railroads in the use of electric locomotives, began to use them in 1896 in its great tunnel that pierces the very foundations of the city of Baltimore. That system, once adopted, became permanent. What was at one time a fearful summer experience between Camden Station and Mount Royal Station in that city has become merely a pleasant novelty upon the trip.

What could be done at Baltimore has been done under the Detroit River, twice. The Grand Trunk pierced underneath that stream in 1890, by a single-track tunnel 6,000 feet in length, in which for seventeen years both freight and passenger trains were hauled by special locomotives, fitted for the burning of anthracite coal. Although these engines rendered rather satisfactory service, it was found desirable to substitute electric locomotives for them in order to remove the limitations of haulage capacity in the tunnel; for it is a known fact that electric trains can be operated much more rapidly and also more closely together than steam. The change obviated the danger and inconvenience due to locomotive gases in the tunnel. The electric locomotives first went into service in February, 1908. The tunnel is now clean, well-lighted, and safe to work in; and trains of much greater length than before can be hauled, thus relieving the congestion in the freight-yards on both sides of the river.

Similarly, electric locomotives have become the tractive power in the great new tunnel which the Michigan Central has just completed across the Detroit River at Detroit, and upon the Cascade Tunnel where the Great Northern Railroad pierces one of the great ranges of the Western Divide. The Cascade Tunnel is interesting from the fact that it is entirely built upon a heavy grade of 1.7 per cent for its length of more than three miles. The steam locomotives are cut out from the service, while on the heavy up-grade of the tunnels an electric locomotive, of tremendous pulling power, will carry even the heaviest freights through the bore at an average speed of fifteen miles an hour. These Cascade Tunnel locomotives are the only ones in the country taking alternating current at triple phase and at the tremendous voltage of 6,600 directly from an overhead trolley wire. And that will bring us in a moment to another consideration of this question of the development and the delivery of power.

The most recent of tunnel installations has just been completed in the greatest of all American mountain bores--the Hoosac Tunnel. This famous tube, four and three-quarters miles in length, gave itself very readily to the skill of the electric engineer, with the result that the Boston & Maine system, its present owner, finds the greatest impediment to the operation of its main line from Boston to the west entirely removed.

The earlier installations were all what is known as direct current; that is, the power is brought directly from the dynamos in the power-houses and by means of third-rail or overhead trolley it is delivered to the motors of the locomotives of the cars. But some years ago the larger of the distinctively electric railroads found that for great current demands over a large distributing district, this system was expensive and impracticable; that, for the chief thing, it required copper cables for carrying long-distance current so large as to be of very great cost. So some of these, with the aid of the electrical manufacturers, experimented and developed the alternating current of high voltage and low amperage, which is capable of being carried to distant transforming or sub-stations and there reduced to low voltage and high amperage. This alternating current system, because of its great operating economies, is rapidly becoming the standard for the city railroad systems of metropolitan communities, as well as for the great trunk-line interurban electric roads that are beginning to gridiron the country. The New Haven Railroad, when it first began to electrify its extensive suburban service into New York City, was the first to bring it to the service of a standard steam road, and by a clever adaptation of its locomotives was able to bring a single-phase alternating-current directly to them at the enormously high voltage of 11,000, without the use of transforming stations or direct-current transmission. After some fearfully disappointing experiments at the outset, the New Haven system has finally proved the worth of its alternating-current, and the road is now engaged in erecting its overhead transmission construction all the way from Stamford (the present terminal of the electrical service) to New Haven, 72 miles distant from New York. Within ten years its heavy New York and Boston traffic will probably be entirely handled by electricity, and the run of 232 miles will be made without difficulty in four hours or even less.

At present the steam locomotives of these trains and the other trains that serve almost all of New England are detached from the inbound movement at Stamford, and the remaining 33 miles of the run into the Grand Central Station is made behind a powerful electric locomotive. The process is, of course, reversed on outbound trains. For the 12 miles from Woodlawn into the Grand Central the run is made over the tracks of the Harlem division of the New York Central Railroad which uses direct current at a voltage of 650, and third-rail instead of overhead transmission. The wonderful adaptability of the alternating current is shown, not in the fact that a change must be made from overhead trolley to third-rail alone, for that is merely a slight mechanical problem, but in the fact that a locomotive hauling a heavy train can, without a great slacking of speed, change from receiving an alternating current of 11,000 volts to a direct current of 650 volts. Outbound, it reverses the process.

The necessity of clearing out the smoke-filled Park Avenue Tunnel approach to the Grand Central Station brought both the New York Central, its owner, and the New Haven, its tenant, to electric traction for terminal and suburban service at New York. The New York Central's system, as has already been stated, is direct-current and it is supplied from two great power-houses in the suburban district. Through trains are hauled in and out of the station by electric locomotives, while suburban trains, which make their round-trip runs entirely within the 25 or 30 miles of electric zone, are run without locomotives, the steel suburban coaches having motors set within their trucks, after the ordinary fashion of electric cars across the land. The change from steam to electricity at the Grand Central Station did more, however, than merely clear the long-approach tunnel of smoke and foul gases, so that nowadays a man can ride on the observation-platform over its entire length. The traffic in that wonderfully busy station has for many years had sharp limitations because of the four tracks in that tunnel, two tracks being used for the train movement in each direction. The limited station-yard capacity at the terminal has necessitated many trains being stored at Mott Haven yards; and the drilling of these empty trains in and out of the station, combined with the normally heavy movement of regular and special trains, has only added to the great congestion. The minimum three-minute headway between trains operated by steam through the tunnel, and its four-tracked viaduct approach, fixed the maximum traffic at 40 trains an hour in each direction. The capacity of the terminal with this limitation of service was taxed to its utmost, and some relief for the constantly increasing traffic was imperative. Now, owing to the improved conditions of electric operation, trains may be run on a two-minute headway, or less--this one measure thus increasing the station capacity by 50 per cent at the least.

The New Haven road has also adopted the practice of running some of its suburban trains without locomotives, but by means of motors underneath each coach--the multiple-unit system, as electrical engineers have come to know it. This is the system, with some slight variations, upon which the elevated and subway lines of New York, Brooklyn, Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago are operated; and it is quickly applicable, as we have just seen, to some phases of terminal operation for the standard steam railroads. But the steam locomotive is to hold its own for many years, in many, many phases of railroad operation; electric traction is practical and economical only when there are fairly congested traffic conditions. The coaches that are standard for it, and which it must haul for many miles across the land, must be handled in the electrically equipped terminals by electric locomotives of one type or another. These locomotives are generally equipped with coal-heaters for maintaining the steam in the heating-pipes of the through equipment; and in these days, when the electric lighting of through trains is all but universal, they may supply current for this purpose also.

Electric locomotives have been completely successful where they have been used, both alone and in connection with multiple-unit suburban trains, in the Grand Central Station and the Pennsylvania Station in New York City as the first complete installations. But what has been so successfully done in New York will soon be repeated in other big cities in the land; Boston is already insisting that the network of suburban lines that spreads over her environs be electrified; Philadelphia is preparing for the electrification of the Pennsylvania's fan-work of lines into Broad Street Station; Baltimore is demanding that what has been done in one great tunnel underneath her foundation hills be repeated in two others. Chicago will see great installations of this service within the next few years.

Nor is the use of electricity upon the standard steam railroad to stop bluntly with these terminal changes and improvements; many and many a decaying branch is yet to be fanned into new life, new strength, new activity, through a skilful transformation of its tractive powers. What has been done at the Detroit River and the Cascade tunnels is to be done elsewhere across the land--through the dozens of points where railroads pierce the mountains and go under the rivers by tunnels. Electric tunnels are yet to bring the Pennsylvania at lower grade at Gallitzin and the Southern Pacific through the high crest of the Sierras. Electric traction for the big steam roads is still in its infancy. Only 1,000 miles out of a total of 220,000 miles of steam railroad in the land are as yet operated by electricity. The other day a big traffic-man sat in his Chicago office and said:

"The first railroad that electrifies for the thousand or less miles between this town and New York is going to get all the rich passenger business. Not a big portion of it, mind you, but every single blessed bit of it!"

* * * * *

Consider for a final moment, in passing, the mono-rail, the gyroscope. If you are a practical railroader you may laugh and say: "A toy." Perhaps it is a toy to-day. But just remember history and you will recall that the toy of to-day becomes the tool of to-morrow, and then give the mono-rail a moment of sober thought. Less than 2,000 feet of this construction formed a most interesting exhibit at the Jamestown Exposition of 1907. A railroad man who rode on that experimental track said:

"If you had built more than 300 feet of track you could have given a better demonstration of your system." To this the inventor smilingly replied:

"You have gone over 1,800 feet."

The investigator had ridden faster than 45 miles an hour and had not realized the speed. You never do in the mono-rail car. It rides more gently over the roughest bit of track than the finest Limited moves over heavy rail and stone ballast, the best track that men can maintain.

An actual railroad of the mono-rail type has been built and is being developed in the suburbs of New York City. It supersedes a railroad of the oldest type--horse-cars--from Bartow to City Island, in the Bronx. Balance is kept for its cars by means of a light overhead metal construction, hardly more conspicuous than that of the overhead trolley-work used in city streets. This overhead work, like the trolley-wire, supplies electric power to the cars; only in emergencies will it come into play to hold the one-legged car erect. On this stretch of line speed and balance tests will be made when passenger traffic is at low-tide. Upon the result of these tests will be drawn the construction plans for a four-track rapid transit railroad from New York to Newark, ten miles. This last plan has already been financed by New York men who have made transportation their chief problem for many years. It may be developed upon the rails of a double-track railroad, more than doubling its capacity, without increasing the width of the right-of-way.

All of these mono-rail roads will become applicable to the gyroscope when that wondrous man-toy becomes a man-tool. And the gyroscope demands no overhead construction of any sort. It simply asks a single rail upon which to find a path and offers no objections either to the steepest of grades or to the sharpest of curves. The first model of gyroscope car showed its ability to navigate easily the full length of a piece of crooked gas-pipe, laid in rough semblance of a track.

For there is a gyroscope car already--in fact, several of them. On May 8, 1907, Louis Brennan, a brilliant Irish inventor, living in England, exhibited the first model of the gyroscope car, and the news was flashed in detail all the way around the world. The little car he then showed was enough to interest the keenest of scientists. It traversed every sort of mono-rail track that could be devised, at varying rates of speed, it stood still at the inventor's command and retained its balance perfectly. When a man's hand was pushed against it as if to throw the car off its seemingly slight balance, it pushed back, stanchly held that balance, and Brennan laughingly said that there was something that compared with the velocity of the wind. When he spoiled the even trim of his ship (it did look like a boat as it sped around the lawn upon its narrow, guiding thread) and placed the weights upon one side of the car, that side rose up to receive them. The car still held its balance perfectly, and Brennan said that his act represented forty or fifty persons moving suddenly across a full-sized passenger coach. Finally, he placed his little daughter in the car and sent it out over a deep gully where a single stout steel cable served as a suspension bridge. The inventor's assistant swung that bridge like a hammock but the car laughed at the old-fashioned domineering laws of gravity, and the little girl waved her hand at her daddy.

Well might she wave her hand at him. His achievement was a real triumph. From a top revolving in a frame at any angle he had evolved the gyroscope car, the one thing required for the successful development of the mono-rail. From that car he has been steadily developing better ones. On the tenth of November, 1909, he built a full-sized car upon which twenty men and boys rode in glee. On that self-same day, by strange coincidence, a German inventor, August Scherl, exhibited in a large hall in Dresden, a mono-rail car, held at perfect equilibrium by a gyroscope which he had quietly built and perfected. The car was 18 feet long and 4 feet wide, and mounted on two trucks. The net weight was 2-1/2 tons, while the gyroscope itself, turning in a vacuum at the fearful rate of 8,000 revolutions a minute, weighed but 5-1/2 per cent of the total weight of the car. It carried eight persons, and when first shown in Berlin it caused a tremendous sensation, 60,000 persons witnessing the trial during a period of five days. Even royalty took its turn at riding in the novel conveyance.

* * * * *

The first question that the average man asks when he sees a gyroscope is:

"Well, this thing may be all right when it is in motion, but how the deuce is it going to support itself when it is standing still?"

But it does support itself. The gyroscope wheels continue to revolve at something close to 8,000 revolutions a minute, and they hold the car, so that the fluctuation in the weight it carries, due to loading or unloading, does not affect it, even in slight degree. The average man remains unconvinced.

"Suppose the electric power that spins the gyroscope goes back on you?" he demands. The inventor tells him that that is easy enough. The gyroscope, revolving in a vacuum, will keep on turning at sufficient speed to balance the car for nearly an hour. Long before that the side-stays, that make the car a three-pronged structure while out of service, can be dropped.

When To-morrow finally comes and the gyroscope car is in its own, provision will be made on all through mono-rail routes against just such an emergency. At various points sidings will be constructed with low walls, just high enough to receive the cars when their gyroscope equilibrium ceases. These will be just as much a part of the equipment of the mono-rail trunk line as wharves are a part of steamship service. It will be a part that will receive less and less attention as folk begin to realize how little dependent the gyroscope car is upon the old laws of gravity.

"We will have billiard cars in our fastest trains," says Brennan. "A man will be able to play that delicate game on a railroad train all the way from New York to San Francisco, if he chooses."

Contemplate that, you railroaders and travelled folk of to-day. Those cars will make the cars of to-day seem like pygmies. Each will be 200 feet in length and 30 feet in width. No wonder that people can talk of billiard tables. A train of six of these cars will be longer than the longest of our transcontinental expresses of to-day. They will be fastened together with vestibule connections, and the forward end of the first car will have a sharp beak. The blunt front of an ordinary train begins to be a speed obstacle at more than 50 miles an hour.

Speed? Do you think that 50 miles an hour is speed? Our locomotives do far better than that every day in the United States. A train on a standard railroad and hauled by steam as a motive power has gone faster than the rate of 135 miles an hour. With the mono-rail and the gyroscope, with the countless mountain brooks and rivers harnessed and grinding out electricity, the inventors say calmly that they will begin at 200 miles an hour.

Do you realize what 200 miles an hour means? It means that your grandson or your grandson's son can leave New York in the morning, do half a dozen errands in Cincinnati, and be back in his home in West Four Hundred and Thirty-eighth Street in time for a late supper. It means that he can lunch in Chicago, span half a dozen mighty States, threading the mountains, through the towns and over the cities, skimming the broad expanses of fat farms, and dine in New York the same night. It means that he can go from one ocean across the continent to the other in twenty-four hours.

But To-morrow is not yet here. Yesterday was just here. In Yesterday men were boasting of their ability to go from New York to Philadelphia by coach in two nights and two days and were asking:

"What next?"

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

EFFICIENCY THROUGH ORGANIZATION

In a local freight-house in an inland manufacturing city of thirty thousand inhabitants between forty and fifty freight-handlers had been employed for a term running from twelve to fifteen years. The freight-house boss was of the old school. When he thought that he needed more help, he made a fearful noise, scared headquarters, and more help was given him. The strong-armed gang reported at seven o'clock in the morning and then held a two-hour _conversazione_, while the book-keeping force in the dingy office at the end of the freight-shed arranged the way-bills and the bills-of-lading for the day's work. Before ten o'clock, if all went well, the freight-house gang was generally at work pushing its way through a seeming chaos of less-than-carload freight.

After a time the old freight-agent died and a new one came in his place. The new man was on his job less then three months before he arranged a new schedule in that freight-house--and dropped twenty-five men from its pay-roll. First he summoned the bookkeeping force together, and announced that it would report at five o'clock in the morning, instead of seven; of course, leaving two hours earlier each afternoon. The bookkeeping force demurred. It was not pleasant getting up before daybreak in the winter darkness of a chill northern town, and such a scheme interfered with the social plans of one or two of the bookkeepers. But the new boss only smiled and said, "Try it."

And after they had tried it, the way-bills and the bills-of-lading were ready at seven o'clock when the handlers reported for work, and the freight-house got to work upon the shriek of the roundhouse whistle. After that, the pay-list was cut--you may be sure that a house-boss who could scheme out such a plan could weed out the shirkers and the idlers among his staff--and, better still, the consignees began to get their freight sooner than ever before in the history of that town.

Eventually--and a wonderfully short "eventually" it really was--the freight-agent climbed the ladder to the superintendent of that division and under his bailiwick came a railroad which had recently become attached to the parent system through the process of benevolent assimilation. The ordinary less-than-carload business was moved out of the freight-house of the smaller road and it was given over entirely to carriage and automobile shipments--the inland city makes a specialty of manufacturing vehicles of every sort. The division superintendent went over to the carriage freight-house and saw that it took a dozen men to man it, although it was not more than a six-car stand. Carriage bodies and automobile bodies crated are both heavy and awkward, and the boss of that house was asking for more help.

The superintendent went straight from that freight-house to a local foundry, sat there for fifteen minutes with its draughtsman and then and there evolved an overhead trolley-arrangement, very much the same as the big packing-houses use for handling heavy carcasses. A requisition for the thing went through a-flying, and now the carriage-house in that city is handled with two trained men. The scheme is fast becoming standard in the newer freight-houses and in St. Louis, the M. K. & T. has just adopted it for its splendid new terminal, whole fleets of platforms hung close to the floor and suspended from an overhead "trolley arrangement" entirely supersede the brigades of hand trucks formerly in use.

That is the point of it. There must be dozens of other cities of thirty thousand population, of sixty thousand, of ninety, of one or two or three, of five hundred thousand, where a little such method would produce similar results. In that first house, a saving of about $350 a week was made, when the young freight-agent brought some system into the dusty place. A dozen such savings or even greater, would be quite a help on the railroad's balance sheet. At least that is the gospel which Louis Brandeis, of Boston, preached, and which attracted world-wide attention when he made the exact statement that he could save the railroads of the country a million dollars a day in the operation of their lines.

The railroads made a perfectly good legal case before the Interstate Commerce Commission--or let us assume that, at any rate, in the present instance. But one such clarifying statement as that of Brandeis' produced more effect both upon the land and the Commissioners than all the legal briefs that together were filed in advocacy of the raises in the freight tariffs. At no time did the railroads successfully controvert Brandeis' sweeping statement, and so they lost their fight.

And yet the railroads are accomplishing some remarkable improvements in their internal affairs--for which they are being given not an iota of credit. And one of the most interesting of these is the promotion of efficiency through organization, or better yet, through reorganization.

* * * * *

Along in the fifties, Herman Haupt, who was afterwards a brigadier-general of the United States army and brevetted major-general, devised the wonderful organization scheme of the Pennsylvania system, which is still in use to-day on that well-managed property. The scheme has been adopted since then by practically all the large railroads in the country. Before General Haupt evolved it, there was no real organization among the great railroads. Like Topsy, they "just growed" from the little individual horse and steam lines from which they were formed and they were even more like Topsy in some other details. But Haupt's plan brought dignity to a great business that needed dignity--and system. For fifty years it has been accomplishing something more than merely serving its purpose. But railroad terminals and railroad equipment of fifty years ago are long since obsolete, and so within recent years the larger railroads have found their organization schemes not up with the times. The growing complexity of their work, the intricacy of their relations with the various city, state, and national governing boards, the constant tendency to enlarge and to consolidate these, have all proved fearful taxes upon the Haupt plan. Great masses of correspondence have accumulated, the whole business of conducting the railroad has been enmeshed in whole miles of red-tape--and men like Brandeis, of Boston, have been permitted to make their challenges and stand uncorrected.

Go back into the sixties for this last time, and pause for a moment at the fighting of the American Rebellion. Men in the North were beginning to hear that the Confederate army had something different, something better, in its organization than the Union army. It was an intangible something, but it seemed to make for efficiency, and, after all, that was the main thing. So after the war was history, there were far-sighted Northerners who said that it would be well to bring that intangible something into the United States army. At such a time that thing was, however, tacitly impossible, and it was dropped for more than thirty years.

But Von Moltke picked up the idea, and incorporated it in the intensely modern army of modern Germany. It helped to win the great Franco-Prussian War, and when the other nations of Europe began to examine it it had a name; it was beginning to be a tangible something. Military men called it the "staff idea," and when you asked them to explain it they told you that officers who handled men were known as "line officers," and those who handled things as "staff officers." In other words, men could be lifted--as it were, in an aëroplane of scientific organization--away from their commands and their narrow environments, up to a point where they could have perspective, where they could handle men, regiments, small arms, heavy ordnance on a large scale. The staff officers work in things in the abstract, just as the line officers mould men in the concrete.

There then is the rough theory of staff organization which was picked up and adapted to its use by the United States army at about the time of the Spanish-American War. Of its value there can be no doubt; of its efficiency no question.

* * * * *

A young man--Major Charles Hine--who had seen the operation of modern staff in the regular army, decided that it was a good thing for the great railroad systems of the country. Hine knew railroads. In order that he might know them thoroughly, he one day packed his uniforms and his saddle away in his trunk and went quietly out and got a job as brakeman on a freight train. He did not stay on the car roofs very long; he has served in about every conceivable post in railroad divisional organization, and he has had a good chance to study the weaknesses of those very organizations.

"We have got to eliminate government by chief clerks," said Major Hine at the very beginning. "We are growing too rapidly for the men higher up. We are forced to delegate official authority to clerks and foremen, and then we build up an autocracy around some person of official rank. It is pernicious feudalism, this permitting the chief clerk, and a good many times some other clerks, to sign the name of the officer whom they attempt to represent."

A railroad is really so spread out that its officers live a double official life; a part of the time they are at their desks, and another part out upon the line. Yet the average railroad officer, be he of high or low degree, flatters himself that by some subtle method of personal superiority, he is enabled to act intelligently in two places at the same time.

Major Hine saw how that worked at the very beginning of a special service with the Southern Pacific Railroad. He was down in the Yaqui River country in Mexico, where heavy construction work was under way. In company with the division engineer, he was riding the line mule-back. The division engineer had several parties under him, each in charge of a resident engineer, and all engaged in laying out and checking the contractor's work. The headquarters of the division engineer were presided over by a ninety-dollar-a-month chief clerk, who was dealing in the absence of his superior with one hundred and twenty-five dollar resident engineers. The division engineer assured his guest that the telephone permitted close personal contact with headquarters, that every hour questions were referred to him. The vice-president of the company, desiring to change the assembling point for luncheon, sought for two hours from engineering headquarters to locate the division engineer, who was on the grade all the time.

The condition mentioned necessitates the chief clerk's signing the name of his superior to heads of departments lower down, which heads are receiving lower salaries, and are presumably of wider experience than the chief clerk who essays to be their monitor. This is done in the name of routine business. Unfortunately no two men often agree upon what constitutes routine business. Almost every railroad officer will tell you that "my chief clerk handles only routine business and never assumes too much authority." When closely questioned, the same officer will reveal in the utmost confidence the fact that the same condition does not obtain with the chief clerk of the officer who is over the informant. Strangely enough, if the complaining witness is promoted to his boss's job, the same condition still exists, showing that the system is at fault, rather than its individual members. Worst of all, the chief clerk has to break in all the new bosses and thus has only limited promotion himself.

Major Hine has said that the bigness of things on the Harriman lines, the breadth of the policies of Napoleon Harriman and Von Moltke Julius Kruttschnitt, the vice-president in the change of the operation of that far-reaching group of railroads, strengthened his nerve to advocate radical departure from preconceived notions of railway organization. Hine, at his home in Virginia, had once acted as receiver of a suburban trolley system, where he had introduced a simplified organization. He found, at that time, that the underlying principle of that organization would apply to a thousand times as many men on the great Harriman lines. Incidentally, after the receivership was lifted, the new owners of the property discontinued the organization which Major Hine had created, for they took the ground that no other electric road had such a system, and that therefore there could be nothing in it.

Kruttschnitt decided to let Major Hine begin on the Harriman lines with the reorganization of the divisions. He declined to order any changes, but placed the burden of missionary work and conversions among his subordinates on the shoulders of his special representative. There are not a dozen letters bearing on this subject in Kruttschnitt's office. The work was done by personal contact, which in two years involved over one hundred thousand miles of travel by Hine. Major Hine states that, notwithstanding the splendid spirit of the officers of the Harriman lines, little would have been accomplished without the tactful support of Kruttschnitt, the man whose supremacy and whose brilliant abilities are unquestioned in the railway world. On the other hand, Kruttschnitt has been heard to say that the credit lies with the enthusiastic younger man whom he attached to his staff.

Most of the divisions of the Harriman lines had an assistant superintendent, engaged mainly in outside duties, with an office near the superintendent's, presided over by a chief clerk. Both the superintendent and the assistant superintendent had his own chief clerk, who consumed reams of paper annually in intercommunications over their respective superior's signatures. The new system provides, as a first step, that if the division has no assistant superintendent, one shall be appointed. The next step is to order the assistant superintendent to remain at headquarters in charge of the office, in effect, but not in name, the chief-of-staff idea, so successfully applied by the Germans through Von Moltke. When necessary, an additional trainmaster is appointed for the previous outside duties of the assistant superintendent. The old chief clerk is placed in line of promotion by appointing him, when possible, to a position with outside duties on the road.

Next, the division shop is raided, the division master mechanic and the travelling engineer (road foreman of engines) are moved bodily to the same building with the division superintendent, where are usually already located, the division engineer, the trainmaster, and the chief despatcher. The old theory has been that the master mechanic should be at his shop to supervise the shop force. The new conception is that the master mechanic has passed the stage of a shop foreman; that, located at one shop, he unconsciously comes to underestimate the importance of roundhouses and car repair plants at outlying points on the division. He is brought to division headquarters to get the atmosphere of transportation, to be in touch with the train sheet, and to realize that motive power is one of the component elements of transportation; that the shop is incident to the railroad, not the railroad to the shop.

The official family, now being gathered under the parental roof of the superintendent, are politely requested to deposit the official shooting-iron, the typewriter, in one official arsenal, from which all shooting will be done in the future. The office files are consolidated in one office of record. This idea is borrowed from the courts of justice, where one clerk of the court, with as many deputies as necessary, records all transactions regardless of the number of judges and other officers.

You must have worked in a railroad office to appreciate the fearful condition of official files in this year of grace, nineteen hundred eleven. You ask for the file on that culvert at Jones' farm on the Martinsburgh branch, and an anæmic office-boy staggers toward you with enough manuscript to be the making of a novel. There are the contract arrangements and the correspondence with the J. B. & G. concerning the union station privileges that are enjoyed with it at Blissville; why, there was a whole chapter given over to that episode of July, three summers ago, when the leaders had to be renewed on that magnificent structure, and its roof re-shingled. Here is the contract for handling milk on a single side-line division--and the accompanying symposium of thought from chief clerks and minor officers in the form of miscellaneous--and entirely useless--correspondence. This is the agreement with the bridge-builders' union--four inches thick. No wonder the shelves of the record room sag, and that the clerks are hollow-eyed. Tons of unprotected paper have been scrawled upon, perfect rivers of helpless black ink have done the work--and all for that!

The heaviest file in the office of the Harriman system to-day is half an inch in thickness, and there is no one to deny that the property is being run at a high stage of efficiency--particularly in comparison with some other railroad systems of the land. As the result of a single record system at any division headquarters, the astounding saving has been to that group of railroads, of five hundred thousand letters a year, and it now goes without saying that they were unnecessary letters. In a year or two, that figure will cross the million mark--and you must take second breath to imagine the time and thought that goes into the making of a million letters in a twelvemonth. The material saving in stationery is considerable--although trifling in the operation of a system that spends about $225,000,000 a year, but the logical claim is made that the five hundred thousand letters eliminated retarded rather than helped administration, that they produced more harm than good. Deeper than all this is the dwarfing effect upon the individual initiative of the man below, for whom the letter attempts to think.

Elimination of red tape is not the sole object of the new system. Mr. Kruttschnitt regards this as incidental. What has appealed to him is the final step in the organization which is to confer the uniform title of "assistant superintendent" upon the former division engineer, master mechanic, trainmaster, travelling engineer, roadmaster, and chief despatcher. These officers retain their former duties and responsibilities, but they broaden authority to meet emergencies on the spot. This means increased supervision of employees, more scientific management of men. The officials of the Harriman lines faced here a ticklish problem. The attitude of organized labor was in doubt. Would the men object to too many bosses? Would confusion result from several men issuing orders that might possibly conflict? The results have been a splendid vindication of the intelligence of the men who are close to things. The men were often quicker to catch the idea than were the officers. What appealed to them most of all was the dictum that no man could sign another man's name or initials.

"We old men do our work, no matter how many bosses there are; we realize that younger men need more instruction than supervision," said a veteran conductor on the Union Pacific, when the matter was brought to his attention. "We used to make one report to the master mechanic and another to the superintendent. Now one report addressed simply 'assistant superintendent' is enough. It means less red tape. But what we like best of all is that some smart Aleck of a clerk can no longer jack us up."

That veteran ticket-puncher recalled that in older days conductors had been dismissed for allowing operators to sign their names to telegraphic train orders; perhaps the letter of dismissal was signed by the superintendent's chief clerk. There was railroad system for you!

After a year and a half of what the local officers called trial--for Mr. Kruttschnitt and Major Hine have always regarded that period as demonstration rather than as experiment--the system was broadened. It was applied to some of the higher units. For nearly a year, the U. P. general officers at Omaha have had five assistant general managers. In other days there were a general superintendent, a superintendent of motive power, a chief engineer, a superintendent of transportation, and an assistant to the general manager. The new million dollar general office building of the U. P. at Omaha will have its office space arranged according to the new conception. Until it is completed, the consolidation of office records will not be practicable, because the various general offices are now scattered over town. But a start has been made, and plans laid for full development.

What is good at the east end of a railroad is generally as good at the west end, and so the plan, working handily in general offices at Omaha, has been transplanted to the general offices of another Harriman road--the newly combined Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Company at Portland, Ore., and at Seattle, Wash. Other general headquarters of the Harriman roads are only awaiting the construction of new and modern office buildings, before they will be asked to fall in line with the plan. Kruttschnitt does not order these things. He is far too wise a railroader for that. He directs by suggestion and the family circle talks of Major Hine. And yet twenty-three out of the thirty-three divisions of the Harriman railroad group have fallen into the new groove within two short years.

"Consider for an instant the overwhelming importance of a title to some railroaders," says a high officer of one of that group as he sits at his desk. He is one of the men to whom a title is as hollow as a brass cylinder. "I have known a man to almost froth at the mouth because some stupid underling wrote a letter and addressed him as 'assistant to the general manager' instead of 'assistant general manager.' We have gone title crazy on some of our railroads. Take that overworked word 'superintendent.' We have more superintendents on this system to-day than there used to be track hands on a good sized road, and we have what is even worse, a superintendent of motive power, and a superintendent of transportation ranking the division superintendent who is the head of an important subordinate unit, and entitled to respect among the rank and file of our men as such. Under the new plan, the superintendent of transportation together with the superintendent of motive power, as you have already seen, become assistant general managers.

"Right there is an impersonality that is delightful--and efficient; it has proved most efficient in division organization. Out on our ---- division we had several washouts simultaneously last year. We sent at once an assistant superintendent to each point of interruption and so we had at each vital place, a man with sufficient brains and authority to use the forces on the ground to the best advantage. Isn't that good railroading?"

* * * * *

It is good railroading all along the line. It is good railroading to handle as big a question as the reorganization of a system employing a quarter of a million men and women, without writing a whole library of rules and regulations for its enforcement. Ask Major Hine, himself, how he handles that problem.

"Easily enough," will be his reply to you. "We have a constitution--also unwritten like that splendid old bulwark of English liberties--and any superintendent, any general manager, can make his own rules for his division or his stretch of railroad as long as they will stand the tests of that constitution. And the railroad's bulwark consists of but three very simple principles:

"The first of these is that no man may sign the name or the initial of another. That is rank feudalism, and out of place in the twentieth century sort of railroading. Our second clause is that there must be at all times an assistant superintendent in charge of the office. Normally, this assistant, in effect chief-of-staff, is the senior or No. 1 on the list. Here again, elasticity is introduced. The unwritten law provides that whatever assistant may be assigned to the office is the senior of the others for the time being. The chief-of-staff reviews the incoming and outgoing correspondence and reduces it to its lowest terms. Each assistant superintendent signs his own communications, but they pass through the focus of the administrative hour-glass on the desk of the watchful chief-of-staff.

"In the third place, correspondence must be addressed impersonally; from below, 'assistant superintendent,' from above, 'superintendent.' This requirement is based upon the idea that authority, as in the courts, is abstract and impersonal, that the exercise of authority is highly concrete and personal. The court exists if the judge is dead; the court is silent until the judge speaks."

Already there is noted a greater willingness to take responsibility. More and more is heard about "this division" and "the company" and less and less about "my department." The mathematical axiom that "the whole is greater than any of its parts" is sometimes violated in corporate administration, because there is no chief-of-staff to balance the specialization of some department head.

This system of playing trumps in the new science of railroads incidentally, but not essentially, provides for rotation in the position of senior assistant or chief-of-staff. Some conservative divisions have not availed themselves of this feature. On one division the superintendent in the first year of the new organization had four of his five assistant superintendents, each occupy the senior chair at headquarters for three months each. Finally, it came the turn of the old master mechanic.

"I am sweating blood," he said, "but I never knew before how much there is about a railroad."

When that master mechanic returned to his shop interests, his vision had been broadened, and he was more alert to protect the company's interests when riding over the road. The sponsors for the new system deny that this may lead to the neglect of an official's own special responsibility. They point to the superintendent as a balance wheel to maintain proper equilibrium. Over two years' experience has led the high officials of the Harriman lines to lay some stress upon urging the assistant superintendents forward rather than holding them back. The tendency has been to settle back in former grooves. As long as no harm is done, those who avail themselves of their new opportunities are becoming more valuable assets both for themselves and for the company.

When a division is reorganized, the persons concerned are assembled to listen to a lecture by Major Hine. To their great astonishment, he usually leaves town the same evening. He takes the position that the system which depends for its success upon the presence of any individual is a system which the company has no business to adopt. He says, "We have pushed you off the bank. Now swim ashore." They all do. On the next visit of his grand rounds, the instructor often finds his pupils beating him at his own game. Dropping in one day at the headquarters of a large division on the coast, he found the senior assistant superintendent and the old master mechanic in frequent conference. The senior assistant tossed a letter over the desk, and asked, "Did Jim here need to write this letter?" "It looks good to me," said the instructor; "what is the matter with it?" "You told us," said the interlocutor, "that one record in this office is enough. I handled a letter this morning from the mechanical assistant telling the foreman to repair this outfit car. Now I get another letter this afternoon about the same thing." "You are dead right," said the major; "you fellows will soon have me worked out of a job."

The old master mechanic caught the spirit of the occasion and said: "Yes, Jack, you caught that one, but there were two just like it this morning that you didn't catch. Next time I won't have to dictate them."

* * * * *

There then is efficiency through organization--the playing of trumps in the developing science of railroading. Other railroads have been watching the reorganization plan upon the Harriman system with critical eyes, and can find nothing but success in its workings. It is paving its own way, and shouldering itself abreast of a railroad generation that figures not in lines of from five hundred to a thousand miles each, but giant systems of grouped lines that may easily stretch their steel cobwebs for fifteen thousand miles--over whole sovereign States, from ocean to ocean--properties whose management calls for a degree of skill not yet demanded in the very greatest of our industrial or manufacturing corporations.

The old order changeth and giveth way to the new.

INDEX

Acworth, the English economist, 330, 331.

Adams, Alvin, 371, 372.

Adams, Maude, 293, 294.

Adams Express Company, 371-373.

Adams & Company, 372.

Ade, George, 303.

Advertising, railroad, 276; bill for newspaper, 288; open territory, 356.

Agricultural schools maintained by the railroads, 360, 361, 363.

Air-brake, 42, 125, 134, 249, 250.

Albany, bridge at, 14.

Albany & Syracuse Railroad, 371.

Algomah Central, 417.

_Algomah_, ferry, 415.

Alleghany Portage Railroad, 11, 12, 48, 149.

Allen, Horatio, 5, 6, 7, 8, 119.

Altoona shops of Pennsylvania Railroad, 12, 61, 154, 394, 395-398.

American bridge-builders do work of world, 74.

American Express Company, 372, 373.

American Locomotive Company, 126, 127.

"American Notes," Dickens, quoted, 11.

Anchor Line, the, _see_ Erie & Western Transportation Company.

Ann Arbor railway, 416.

_Arabian_, locomotive, 120.

Armstrong, Col. G. B., 377.

Ashtabula, Ohio, bridge disaster, 61.

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad, 2, 32, 126, 127, 358, 386, 429.

Atlantic City, 367, 368.

Atlantic City Railroad, 127.

Atlantic Coast Line, 127.

Atlantic type of locomotive, 127.

Baggage, handling of, 93; duties of baggagemen, 251, 252; use of baggage-car, 322, 323.

Baldwin, Matthias, 122, 123.

Baltimore, railroad connections of, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19; tunnels in, 49; stations in, 96, 436.

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 2, 9, 15-23, 41, 49, 58-60, 64, 65, 77, 96, 120, 126, 132, 139, 144, 376, 377, 394, 421, 427, 436.

Baltimore & Potomac R. R., 20.

Bangs, Col. George S., 377, 378.

"Bends," cause and treatment of, 68, 70.

Bergen Tunnel, 318.

Bessemer, Sir Henry, 61.

_Best Friend of Charleston_, locomotive, 8, 120.

Big Muddy River, Illinois Central's bridge over, 78.

Big Four, 27, 418.

Binghampton, N. Y., 81.

Black Diamond Express (Lehigh Valley Railroad), 286.

Black River Road, 217.

Blair, Postmaster General Montgomery, 377.

Blizzards, fighting of, 268-275.

Boards of directors of railroads, 156-158.

Bollman, --, designer of bridges, 61, 63.

Bonds, railroad, 36, 37.

Boston Elevated Railway, 428.

Boston, in 1831, 9; railroad connections of, 10; Josiah Perham's excursions to, 29; stations in, 88, 95-99, 313, 319, 320, 384; suburban traffic of, 98, 99, 319.

"Boston Special" (New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad), 384.

Boston & Albany Railroad, 60, 77, 98, 106, 136, 370.

Boston & Lowell Railroad, 9, 10, 96, 98.

Boston & Maine Railroad, 1, 98, 319, 320, 333, 384, 437.

Boston & Providence Railroad, 95, 370.

Boston & Worcester line, 10, 124, 370.

Brakeman, duties of, 248-250.

Brandeis, Louis, 451, 452.

Brandywine Viaduct, 77.

Brennan, Louis, 442, 443.

Bridge-builders, personality and nationality of, 72-74.

Bridges-- at Albany, across Hudson, 14. first across Mississippi, 28. building of, 42, 56-79. at Trenton, across Delaware, 57, 77. at Springfield, across Connecticut River, 57. of timber, 57-60, 62-64. at Waterford, across Hudson River, 57. Permanent Bridge, across Schuylkill River, 58. of stone, 58, 59, 76, 77. Starucca Viaduct, 58. Thomas Viaduct, 58, 59, 76. of iron, 60, 61. of Rider design, 60. B. & O. Monongahela River, 60. Ashtabula, 61. of steel, 61, 62, 76, 77. at Portage, over Genesee River, 62. forms of, 62-64. through span, 64. deck span, 64. over Susquehanna River, between Havre-de-Grace and Aiken, 64, 65. at Cincinnati, over Ohio River, 65. suspension, 65. cantilever, 65, 66. over Kentucky River, 66. Minnehaha, at St. Paul, 66. over Niagara River, 66. over Frazer River, 66. at Poughkeepsie, 66. personality of builders of, 72-74. over Pend Oreille River, 73. on line of Rio Grande & Western, 74. replacing of, 75, 76. Roebling's, at Niagara Falls, 75. at Steubenville, Ohio, 75, 76. over Hackensack River, 76, 206, 207. of concrete, 76-79. Brandywine Viaduct, 77. Pennsylvania, over Susquehanna River, 77. New Brunswick, over Raritan River, 77. over Florida Keys, 78. at Slateford, Pa., 78. over Big Muddy River, 78. at Washington, D. C., 78. Moodna Valley, steel trestle over, 143. at Towanda, Pa., 144. first steel bridge in America, 144. across the Delaware, 367.

Brilliant cut-off (Pennsylvania Railroad), 148, 149.

Britton, H. M., 269.

Broad Street Station, Philadelphia, 88, 96, 97, 154, 320, 440.

Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company, its care for employees, 427, 428.

Brooks plant, Dunkirk, 127.

Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 423.

Brown, George, 16.

Brown, W. C., 167, 168, 362.

"Brown system," _see_ Demerit plan.

Bryant, Gridley, 6, 132.

Buffalo & Attica Railroad, 27.

Buffet sleepers, 307, 309.

Burlington, _see_ Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R.

Burr, Theodore, 57, 63.

Burwick, J. M., 420.

Cab, use of, 123.

Caissons, their use in tunnel-construction, 52. in bridge-building, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 77.

Calvert Station, Baltimore, 96.

Camden Station, Baltimore, 96, 436.

Camden & Amboy Railroad, 10, 121.

Campbell, Henry R., 122.

Canadian Pacific Railway, 2, 32, 141, 142, 406, 414, 417.

Canals, 4, 5, 9, 13, 34, 35.

Car-ferries, 416, 417.

Car-inspectors, duties of, 402, 403.

Cars, storage of, 89; cleaning of, 90; construction of, 132; platforms and vestibules of, 134, 135, 308; use of steel for, 135; "foreign cars," 389.

Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton, 17.

Carter, C. F., quoted, 24.

Cascade Tunnel, 436, 437, 441.

Cassatt, A. J., 160, 166.

Cathedral Mountain, the spiral tunnel under, 142.

Cattle, shipping of, on railroads, 328, 329.

Central Pacific Railroad, 30, 31, 32, 45, 357.

Central Railroad of New Jersey, 2, 313, 412.

Central Vermont, 333.

Charleston & Hamburg Railroad, 8, 123.

Cheney, Benjamin F., 372.

Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, 2, 10, 16, 18.

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, 2, 127.

Chicago City Railway Company, 177.

Chicago Fast Mail, 189.

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad, 3, 32, 300, 313, 356, 358.

Chicago-Montreal flyer, 414.

Chicago, railroad connections of, 27; Northwestern station at, 88, 101, 106, 321; La Salle Station at, 101.

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad, 3, 28, 364, 386.

Chicago & Alton Railroad, 144, 300-304.

Chicago & Northwestern Railway, 3, 27, 28, 313, 356, 386.

Chicago & St. Louis Express (West Shore Railroad), 265-267.

Chief clerk, duties of, 220.

Civil War, railroad building during period of, 19, 20; might have been averted by railroad development, 35.

Claim-agents, 174-179.

Cleveland stations in, 96, 418, 419.

Cleveland & Pittsburgh Railroad, 418.

Coal, handling of, 13; as a freight business, 108, 109, 126, 339, 342; substituted for wood as a fuel, 124; mining of, 340.

Collinwood, Ohio, the Lake Shore's plant at, 394.

Columbia & Philadelphia Railroad, 12, 122, 401.

Commuter, the, 311; his use of rapid transit, 313-324, 327, 384.

Competition among railroads, 355.

Complaints of public in regard to railroad service, 290, 291.

Conductor, duties of, 250, 251.

_Consolidation_, locomotive, 124, 125.

Construction work of railroads, 454.

Cooper, Peter, 17-19, 120.

Coöperation of railroads, 328.

Cornell University, agricultural school at, 360.

"Corridor trains," 134.

Cowan, John F., 22.

Crede, the English railroad town, 393.

_Crédit mobilier_, 31.

_Crescent City_, the, 299.

Crocker brothers, 30.

Crossings, railroad, 42.

Cumberland, on the National Highway, 16, 19, 394.

Cumberland Valley Railroad, 299.

Daly, C. F., 284.

Daniels, George H., 277.

Davis, Phineas, 120-122.

Davis, W. A., 377.

Davis & Gartner Co., 120.

_Decapod_, locomotive, 126.

Dee, River, bridge, 60.

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, 2, 44, 78, 88, 102, 145, 313, 315, 317, 385, 412.

Delaware & Hudson Railroad, 1, 5, 119, 126.

_Delmonico_, the, 304, 305.

Demerit plan, 211, 212.

Depew (New York), shops of the New York Central at, 394.

Detroit River tunnel, 54, 55, 413, 436, 441.

Devereux, John H., 418.

_De Witt Clinton_, locomotive, 13, 120.

Dexter, Judge, 29.

Dickens's "American Notes," quoted, 11.

Dining-cars, conveniences of, 134, 304-307.

Division superintendent, duties of, 187-189, 202-219, 272-275.

Dorsey, John M., 314.

Dresden, Germany, train-sheds in, 103.

Duluth & Iron Range Railroad, 420.

Eagle Pass, 40.

Edison, Thomas A., 432.

Efficiency in railroad service, 449-464.

Eighteen-hour trains, between New York and Chicago, 298.

Electricity, its use in tunnel-construction, 51, 52. in bridge-building, 70. substituted for steam, 104, 105, 137, 432-441. used for lighting, 303, 315-321.

Elevated and subway lines, 440.

_El Gobernador_, locomotive, 126.

Elkhart, Indiana, railroad shops of the Lake Shore Railroad at, 394.

Embankment, construction of, 44; largest, 45.

Emigration bureaus, 356, 358.

Empire State Express (New York Central), 285, 286.

Employees, protection of, 176-179, 422, 423.

"Engine sheds," 390.

Engine wheels, first turning of, in America, 7.

Engineer, duties of, 90, 247, 248.

Engines in yards and roundhouses, 89, 90.

English roundhouse principle, 89.

Enterprise line, the, 405.

Erie Canal, New York State, 4, 13, 14, 15.

Erie, Pa., transfer of passengers at, 14.

Erie Railroad, 22-25, 59, 60, 124, 126, 142, 143, 164, 299, 313-315, 317, 361, 392-394, 412, 417, 429, 430, 435.

Erie & Western Transportation Company, 417.

_Evening Star_, the, 299.

Excursions, use of, 358.

Express business, 369.

Express messenger, duties of, 251, 252.

Fargo, William G., 371, 372.

"Farmers' special," 360, 361, 363.

Felton, S. M., 124.

Ferry fleets, 412-415.

Fillmore, President, his trip on the Erie, 23.

Finances of railroad, 179-186.

Fireman, duties of, 90, 246, 391, 392.

Fish, shipping of, 345, 346.

Fisk, Jim, 299.

Fitchburg, Railroad, 96, 98.

Florida East Coast Railroad, 77, 78.

Florida Keys, 78.

Folders, bill for printing of, 288.

Food, shipping of, to the city, 343, 344.

Forbes, James M., 27.

Forney, M. N., 125.

Fort Wayne subsidiary, the, 147, 148.

France, railroad in, 35.

Frankfort, Germany, train-sheds in, 103.

Franklin, Benjamin, 375.

Frazer River bridge, 66.

Freehold & Jamesburg Agricultural Railroad (Pennsylvania Railroad), 359.

Freight claims, 183.

Freight, railroads once prohibited from carrying, 9; Erie's profits from, 25; handling of, 34, 88, 107-118, 194; traffic, 318, 325-354; rate system for, 329-331; threefold classification of, 330-332; "back haul," 334; Australian system of, 334-336; "demurrage," 338; fast trains for, 343.

Freight terminals, 107-115, 408.

Freight traffic-manager, duties of, 326, 327.

Fruit, shipping of California, 344, 345.

Fullerton, H. B., 362.

Galena & Chicago Union Railroad, 27.

Gallitzin Tunnel, 12, 50, 149, 441.

Garrett, John W., 20, 21.

Garrett, Robert, 21, 22.

Gasolene engine, use of, 137.

Gauge, standard, 46.

General attorney of the railroad, duties of, 170-174.

General counsel of the railroad, duties of, 170-174.

General manager, duties of, 187-201.

General passenger agent, duties of, 276-291, 366.

General superintendent, duties of, 190.

Genesee Valley Road, 143.

Geneva, N. Y., agricultural experimental school, 360.

_George Washington_, locomotive, 122.

Gould roads, 2, 3, 32.

Government regulation of railroads, 329.

_Governor Paine_, locomotive, 123.

Grades, railroad, 40, 41, 48, 139-151.

Grand Central Railroad, 316, 317, 420.

Grand Canal (Erie), 4.

Grand Central Station, New York, 88, 95, 96, 104, 315, 321, 384, 419, 421, 438, 439, 440.

Grand Rapids & Indiana Railroad, 416.

Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, 3, 32, 42, 304, 333, 414, 416, 417, 436.

"Grangers," 3.

Grant, General, 302, 303.

_Grasshopper_, locomotive, 120.

Great Lakes, highway up the, 414.

Great Northern Express Company, 373.

Great Northern Railroad, 2, 32, 126, 147, 300, 358, 417, 437.

Great Western Railway, _see_ Grand Trunk.

Greenville, freight station at, 109, 110.

Gyroscope, _see_ Mono-rail.

Hackensack River Bridge, 76, 206, 207.

Hadley, President, of Yale, 17.

Hand-brakes, use of, 250.

Hanson, Inga, 177.

Harbor fleet, a, 406, 407, 408.

Harlem River Branch (New Haven), 316, 317, 438.

Harnden, William F., 370, 371, 372.

Harriman, E. H., 139-141, 159, 166, 167, 358.

Harriman lines, 2, 297, 358, 406, 455-458, 460-463.

Harsemus Cove, 109, 110.

_Harvard_, the, 405, 406.

Haupt, Herman, 451, 452.

Hazard, Ebenezer, 374.

Headlight, first use of, 124.

"Head-room," 42.

Hill, J. J., his roads, 2, 147, 159, 166, 167, 358, 373, 406.

Hinckley, --, a locomotive builder, 122.

Hine, Charles, 453-455, 459-461, 463.

Hoboken, Lackawanna Terminal at, 88, 102, 109.

Honesdale, Pa., switchback at, 41.

Hoosac Tunnel, 49, 437.

Hopkins, Mark, 30.

Hornellsville, Erie shops at, 392-394.

Horse Shoe Curve, 12.

Hotel-cars, _see_ Dining-cars.

Howe, --, designer of bridges, 63.

Hudson, Commodore, bronze statue of, 354.

Hudson River Tunnel, 102, 412.

Huntington, Collis P., 30, 32.

Ice-floes, obstructions to the railroad marine, 416.

Idaho & Washington Northern Railroad, 73.

Illinois Central Railroad, 1, 28, 78, 313, 320, 321, 385, 429.

Imperial Limited (Canadian Pacific Railway), 141.

Inland Water Ways, 404-417.

Insurance, for railroad employees, 423.

Interstate Commerce Commission, 13, 329, 333, 335, 355, 374, 451.

Interstate Commerce Law, 210.

Interurban electric service, 432-434.

Ithaca, N. Y., switchback at, 41.

Jamaica, station at (Long Island), 318, 319.

Jamestown Exposition of 1907, 441.

_Jay Gould_, the, 299.

Jersey City, 109.

Jersey Heights Tunnel, 102.

Jervis, John B., 121.

Jewell, Postmaster General, 378.

_John Bull_, locomotive, 121.

Joy line, the, 405.

Judah, Theodore D., 29, 30, 31.

Kansas, boom in, 357.

Kentucky River bridge, 66.

Kicking Horse River, tunnel near, 142.

Kingwood Tunnel, 41, 49, 122.

Kirkwood, James P., 59, 77.

Kruttschnitt, Julius, 298, 455, 456, 458-460.

Lackawanna cut-off, 145.

Lackawanna Railroad, _see_ Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad.

Lake Michigan, an obstruction to land traffic, 415.

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railroad, 14, 27, 205, 378, 385, 394, 418, 419, 421.

Lane cut-off (Union Pacific), 44, 140.

Lard, shipping of, 342.

La Salle Street Station, Chicago, 101.

Latrobe, B. H., 19, 41, 49, 58, 60, 63, 122.

Lehigh Valley Railroad, 2, 144, 286, 361, 385.

Leiper, Thomas, 6.

Lewis, Isaac, Erie engineer, 25.

Lickey plane, 122.

Lights, code of, 86.

Lincoln, Abraham, 300, 302.

Link device, use of, 124.

Liquor, prohibition of use of, 421.

Livingston & Company, 372.

Locomotives, 5, 7, 8, 18, 26, 119-131.

Long Island commuters, 102, 103.

Long Island Express Company, 373.

Long Island Railroad, 1, 109, 313, 318, 320, 362, 412.

Long Key Viaduct, 78.

Loree, L. F., 22.

Lowell, Mass., in 1831, 9.

Lucin cut-off, The (Southern Pacific), 139, 140.

M. K. & T., 450.

McAdoo Tunnel, 317.

McCrea, James, 167, 194, 195.

McCrea, the engineer, 420, 421.

McGraham, James, 331.

McPherson, Logan G., quoted, 20.

Mad River & Lake Erie Railroad, 26, 124.

Magazines, railroad employees', 429.

Mail clerks, duties of, 251, 252, 377-383.

Mail-service, railway, 369-387.

Maintenance Way Department, 388.

Mallet articulated compound, 126, 127.

Manchester & Liverpool line, 9.

Mann, Col. W. D., 135.

Manunka Chunk, tunnel at, 145.

Marine, the railroad, 404-417.

Market Street Station, Philadelphia, 88, 97.

Martin, T. E., 363.

_Maryland_, the, 413.

Mason, a locomotive builder, 122.

Master Car Builders, organization of, 136, 137, 390, 401.

Master mechanic, duties of, 389, 400, 401.

_Mastodon_, locomotive, 125, 126.

Mauch Chunk, colliery railroad at, 9, 41, 136.

Metropolitan Line, the, 405.

Metropolitan Street Railway Company, New York City, 172.

Meyers, George, 418, 419.

Michigan Central Railroad, 27, 28, 54, 302, 385, 413, 414, 436.

Michigan Southern Railroad, 27, 28.

_Michigan_, the transport, 414.

Middlesex Canal, traffic on, in 1829, 9.

Milholland, James, 124.

Military Academy at West Point, parade-ground of, 265.

Milk, carrying of, to city, 347-351.

Mills, James C., quoted, 415, 416.

Minnehaha Bridge, at St. Paul, 66.

Minot, Charles, 25.

Missouri Pacific Railroad, 29.

Missouri, steel bridge across the, 144.

Moguls, locomotives, 124.

Mohawk & Hudson Railroad, 13, 41, 121.

Mono-rail, 441-445.

Monon Railroad, 385.

Monongahela River Bridge, 60.

Moodna Valley, steel trestle over, 143.

Morgan, J. P., 296, 328.

_Morning Star_, the, 299.

Morris Run, the, 133.

Morse, William, 265-267.

Mott Haven yards, 439.

Mount Clare yards, Baltimore, 120, 132.

Mount Royal station, Buffalo, 436.

Murray, Oscar G., 22.

National Express Company, 373.

Naugatuck Railroad, 135.

New Brunswick bridge, over Raritan River, 77.

New England Navigation Company, 405.

New Haven Railroad, 1, 109, 147, 300, 313, 315, 316, 413, 419, 438-440.

New York Central, 2, 14, 22, 27, 41, 104, 126, 147, 151, 154, 155, 167, 205, 268, 284, 285, 297, 298, 313, 315-317, 320, 361-363, 370, 384, 394, 407-410, 419-421, 435, 438.

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, 14, 104, 353, 378, 417, 434.

New York Connecting Railroad, 109.

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, 98, 104, 315, 320, 404-406, 412, 433.

New York, railroad connections of, 10, 21; tunnels in, 49; stations at, 88, 95, 96, 102-104, 159-162, 315, 318, 319, 321, 412, 419, 421, 438-440; harbor and commerce of, 409-412; ferries in, 413-415.

New York & Harlem Railroad, 14, 60.

New York & New England Railroad, 98.

Newspapers, rapid delivery of, 382.

Niagara River bridge, 66.

Norfolk & Western Railroad, 144, 421.

Norris, William, 122.

North Station, Boston, 88, 97, 98, 313, 319, 320, 324, 384.

Northern Central Railroad, 11, 96.

Northern Cross Railroad, 26.

Northern Pacific Railroad, 2, 29, 32, 50, 51.

Northern Steamship Company, 417.

Northwestern station, Chicago, 88, 101, 106, 321.

Norwich, Conn., 10.

Observation cars, 308, 309.

Officials of railroads, 170-219.

Ohio & Mississippi Railroad, 19.

Old Colony Railroad, 98, 405.

_Olympic_, the, 407.

Oneida Railways Company, 435.

Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Company, 460.

Organization, as a means to secure efficiency, 449-464.

Osgood, Samuel, 375.

"Our Inland Seas," quotation from, 416.

Oxford Furnace, tunnel at, 145.

Pacific coast, railroad connections of, 28-32.

Pacific type of locomotive, 127.

Paderewski at Vassar, 294, 295.

Palmer, Timothy, 58.

Panhandle subsidiary, The, 147, 148.

Panic, of '37, 13; of '07, 162, 359, 360.

Pape, Edward, 176, 177.

Park Avenue Tunnel, 439.

Park Square Station, Boston, 95, 96, 98.

Parkersburg, W. Va., railroad connections of, 19; grade at, 41.

Parsons, Superintendent, 430.

Passenger coaches, 132-134, 398-400.

Passenger service, first road to have regular, 8.

Paterson works, 121, 122, 124.

Pay-car, gradual disappearance of the, 180.

Pend Oreille River bridge, 73.

Pennsylvania Railroad, 2, 12, 49, 50, 61, 76, 77, 96, 109, 110, 123, 135, 145, 146, 154, 159, 167, 170, 194, 297, 298, 300, 313, 317, 320, 359, 379, 385, 386, 394, 401, 406, 412, 413, 417, 421, 423-427, 435, 441, 451.

Pennsylvania Station, New York, 88, 102-104, 159-162, 318, 319, 412, 440.

Pensions, granted to employees, 425, 426.

People's line, 12.

People's Pacific Railroad, 29.

Pere Marquette Railway, 416, 429.

Perham, Josiah, 29, 30.

Permanent Bridge, across Schuylkill River at Philadelphia, 58.

Philadelphia, Germantown, and Norristown Railroad, 123.

Philadelphia, railroad connections of, 10, 11, 15, 21; stations at, 88, 96, 97, 154, 320, 440.

Philadelphia, Wilmington & Baltimore Railroad, 20.

Philadelphia & Columbia Railroad, 12.

Philadelphia & Reading Railroad, 2, 97, 124.

"Piano-box" system of switches, 84, 85, 86.

Pig iron, handling of, 341, 342.

_Pioneer_, locomotive, 27.

_Pioneer_, sleeping-car, 301, 302, 303.

Pittsburgh, railroad connections of, 11, 12, 15, 18, 19; suburban traffic of, 147, 148; Union Station at, 148.

Planes, inclined, disuse of, 11, 12.

Plumbe, John, 29.

Pomeroy, George, 371.

Pooling, objections to, 328, 331.

Portage, N. Y., bridge at, 62.

Portage Railroad, _see_ Alleghany Portage Railroad.

Post-office Department, United States, 372-387.

Poughkeepsie Bridge, 66.

Prairie, type of locomotive, 127.

Pratt, --, designer of bridges, 61.

_President_, the, 304.

President of the railroad, the, 152-169.

Prince Rupert, on Grand Trunk Pacific Railroad, 32.

Private car lines, 13, 293-298.

Promotion in railroad service, 245, 255.

Providence, R. I., railroad connections of, 10.

"Public service stations," 287.

Pullman, George M., 134, 299, 393.

Pullman and its railroad shops, 393, 394.

Pullman cars, construction of, 303.

Pullman Palace Car Company, 303.

_Queen City_, the, 299.

Quincy Granite Railroad, 132.

Railroad, The. history of, in United States, 3-33. English, 5, 7. first American, 6. horse-power, 6, 12, 17. communal nature of early, 12. paper of, 23. treatment of bankrupt, 23. telegraph first used by, 23. development and building of, 34-48. grants for, 35, 36. cost of, 36. financing of, 36, 37, 179-186. keeping open for winter traffic, 38, 268-275. water for use of, 41. crossings on, 42. tunnels, 48-55, 145-150, 436, 437. bridges, 42, 56-79. stations, 80-106. suburban service, 80, 81, 90, 311-324. roundhouses, 88-90. yards, 83-91, 115-118. freight terminals, 107-115, 408. locomotives and cars, 119-137, 388-404. building of the locomotive, 128-132. building of cars, 132-137. reconstruction of, 138. grades, 139-151. officials, 152-169, 187-219, 276-287. legal department, 170-179. financial department, 179-186. tickets, 181-183, 288-290. operating, 220-242. time table, 221-223. signals, 225-227, 236-238. use of telephone, 235. employees, 243-255, 418-431. wrecking trains, 256. rates, 282-287. special trains and private cars, 292-310. commuters' trains, 311-324. freight traffic, 325-355. freight rates, 327-337. scientific farming, 359-366. express service, 369-374. mail service, 374-387. marine, 404-418. ferries, 407-418. electricity, 432-445. mono-rail, 441-445. organization, 449-464.

Rails laid on stone sleepers, 11.

Reading Railroad, 123, 313, 320.

Rebating, prohibition of, 328, 329.

Reconstruction of railroads, 138-151.

Red Line, All-British, 141.

Red Spot, Order of the, 430, 431.

Repair shops, locomotive and car, 400.

"Residences," in railroad construction, 43.

Richardson, the architect, 106.

Rider, Nathaniel, 60.

Rio Grande & Western Railroad, 74.

Roadmaster, duties of, 239, 240.

Roads as compared with canals, 5.

Rochester, railroad connections of, 13, 14; depot, 96.

Rock Island, _see_ Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific R. R.

Rockaway section, Long Island, home of Lillian Russell, 294.

Rockefeller, Mr., 296.

Roebling's suspension at Niagara Falls, 75.

Rogers, Grosvenor, and Ketchum, locomotive builders, of Paterson, N. J., 26; locomotive works, 121, 122, 124.

Ronkonkoma, Long Island, home of Maude Adams, 293, 294.

Roosevelt, Governor, 217, 218.

Rotary plough, 271.

Roundhouses, 88-90, 270, 388-402.

Rural free delivery, development of, 376.

Russell, Lillian, 294.

Rutland Railroad, 417.

Sacramento Valley Railroad, 30.

Sails on cars, experiments with, 17.

St. Albans, Vt., 333, 335.

St. John's Church, New York, 354.

St. John's Park, New York, 353, 354.

St. Louis, railroad connections of, 19, 29; Union Station at, 88, 97, 99, 100, 106.

St. Paul, _see_ Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul R. R.

Salaries, paid to railroad presidents, 168, 169; to the general attorney, 171.

"Sand-hogs," 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73.

_Sandusky_, first locomotive with whistle, 26, 124.

Santa Fe, _see_ Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R.

Schedules, Train, _see_ Time Tables.

Scherl, August, 443.

Secret service, the railroad's, 177-179.

Section-boss, duties of, 239, 240, 431.

Seibert, Leonard, 301.

Signal, bell-rope, 124, 225, 226, 227; along line of railroad, 236; interlocking, 236; block system of, 237; operation of, 236-239; maintenance of, 239.

Signal towers, 82, 84-87.

_Situation_, The, the official daily report, 196, 197.

Slateford, Pa., bridge, 78.

Sleeping-cars, introduction and use of, 299, 301, 302.

Smith, A. H., 205.

Smith, C. Shaler, 66.

Smith, Reuben F., 418.

Snow-belt of Great Lakes, 268.

Snow ploughs, 38.

Snow-sheds, 268.

South Carolina Railroad, 8.

South Station, Boston, 88, 97-99, 313, 319, 320, 384.

Southern California, interurban electric line in, 297.

Southern Express company, 373.

Southern Pacific Railroad, 2, 32, 126, 139, 144, 159, 441, 454.

Spearman, Frank H., 144.

Spiral tunnels, 141, 142.

Spokane case, the, 334, 335.

Springfield, Mass., bridge, 57.

Springfield, station at, 106.

Springstead, Harvey, 431.

Stage, Henry W., 418.

Stampede Tunnel, 50, 51.

Stanford, Leland, 30, 31.

Starucca Viaduct, 58, 59, 77.

Station-agent, multifarious duties of, 253-255.

Stations, _see under_ Railroad.

Statistics, making of railroad, 184-186.

Steam brake, 125.

Steamships, 352, 353, 404, 405.

Steel, use of, 56, 61, 72, 125, 386, 397-400.

Stephenson, George, inventor, 5, 121.

Stephenson, George & Robert & Company, 121.

Stephenson, Robert, 125.

Steubenville, Ohio, bridge, 75, 76.

Stonington, Conn., railroad connections of, 10.

_Stourbridge Lion_, locomotive, 7, 8, 119.

Street railroad systems, 427, 428.

Stubbs, of the Union Pacific, 298.

Suburban service, 80, 81, 90, 98, 99, 147, 148, 315-319, 440.

Superintendent of bridges, 239, 240.

Superintendents, 153-155, 187, 220, 221-242.

Susquehanna Railroad, _see_ Northern Central Railroad.

Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania R. R. bridge over, 77.

Susquehanna River bridge, between Havre-de-Grace and Aiken, 64, 65.

Susquehanna shop, 393, 394.

Swindon, the English railroad town, 393.

Switchback principle, 41.

Switches and switchmen, 84-86, 111-118, 252, 253, 320.

Tacony, Philadelphia trains stopped at, 10.

Taylor, President Zachary, 123.

Telegraph, Erie first railroad to use, 24; development of, in 1851, 24; introduction of, 25, 224; substitution of telephone for, 235, 236; crippling of service of, 267, 268.

Telephone, use of, 235, 236.

Terminal, keeper of the, 82; map of tracks and station of, 83, 84; guarded by interlocking switches, 84, 85.

Terminals, _see_ Railroad stations; _also_ Freight terminals.

Thomas, Philip E., 16, 19.

Thomas Viaduct, 58, 59, 76.

Thompson, A. W., 65.

Thomson, J. Edgar, 6.

Thomson, John, 6.

"Throat" of station yard, 87, 88.

Tickets and mileage-books, 182, 276-278, 286; bill for printing, 288; rate-sheet for, 289; redemption of, 289, 290.

Time Tables, 221.

Tioga Railroad, 133.

_Tom Thumb_, locomotive, 18, 120.

Towanda, Pa., bridge at, 144.

Towermen, 82, 83, 85, 274.

Townsend, Oscar, 418.

Track-laying, world's record of, 45; profession of, 45, 46; machine for, 46.

Track, on which _Stourbridge Lion_ locomotive ran, 7.

Track-walker, responsibility of, 253.

Traffic, making of freight and passenger, 355-368.

Trailer, the, 128, 129.

Train-despatcher, 221, 223, 224, 228-231, 233-235, 261.

Trainman, _see_ Brakeman, duties of.

Train-master, duties of, 221.

Transcontinental railroads, 357, 358.

Transfer-house, 111-116.

Travelling passenger agents, duties of, 278.

Trenton, bridge at, 57, 77.

"Trolley arrangement" in freight-houses, 450.

Trumbull, --, bridge-builder, 60.

Tug, use of, 407, 409, 412.

Tunnels, 41, 48-55, 102, 104, 122, 141, 142, 145, 160, 161, 317-319, 412-414, 436, 437, 439, 441.

Turner, John B., 28.

Turn-tables, 89.

Underwood, F. D., 23, 142, 143, 164.

Union line, 13.

Union Pacific Railroad, 2, 28, 31, 32, 44, 137, 139-141, 298, 357, 459.

Union Station, Cleveland, 96, 418, 419.

Union Station, Pittsburgh, 148.

Union Station, St. Louis, 88, 97, 99, 100, 106.

Union Station, Washington, 88, 100, 101, 106.

United States Express Company, 372, 373.

Utica, railroad connections of, 13, 14.

Vanderbilt, Commodore, 14, 22, 378, 379.

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 419.

Vanderbilt, William H., 378, 379.

Vanderbilt family, the, 354, 419, 434.

Vermont Central Railroad, 123.

Vice-presidents of railroads, 156.

Voluntary Relief Department, 423-425.

Von Moltke, his reconstruction of the German army, 452.

Wabash Railroad, 26, 51, 414.

Wagner Palace Car Company, 300.

Walcott, --, builder of Springfield, Mass., bridge, 57.

Walsheart gears, 128.

Washington, George, 375.

"Washington cars," 132, 133.

Washington, Connecticut Avenue Bridge at, 78; Union Station at, 88, 100, 101, 106.

Water for use of railroad, 41.

Water transportation, _see_ Inland Water Ways.

Waterford bridge, over Hudson River, 57.

Watertown, blizzard at, 268.

Waverley, the interchange yard, 110.

Webster, Daniel, and his trip on the Erie, 23, 25.

Weehawken "bridge," 411.

Wells, Henry, 371, 372.

Wells, Fargo & Co., 372, 373.

West Penn Road, 149.

_West Point_, locomotive, 9.

West Shore Railroad, 75, 151, 265, 412, 434, 435.

Western Pacific Railroad, 29, 32.

Western Railroad, 10.

Westinghouse, George, 125.

Wheeling, railroad connections of, 18, 19.

Whipple, Squire, 61, 63.

Whistle on locomotive, first use of, 26, 124.

Whitney, Asa, 29, 30.

Whitney, Silas, 6.

Whyte's classification, 127, 128.

Wiley, Dr., 397.

Willard, Daniel, 22.

Winans, Ross, 19, 122, 124, 132, 133.

Winnipeg shops, 393.

Women, conveniences for travelling, 309.

Woodruff Company, 299, 300.

Worcester, station at, 106.

World's Fair of 1904, St. Louis, 99.

Wrecks, railroad, 189, 194-196; wrecking-trains for, 257-265.

_Yale_, the, 405, 406.

Yardmaster, duties of, 189, 190, 193, 227-229.

_York_, _see_ _Arabian_, locomotive.

Young Men's Christian Association, 418, 419.

End of Project Gutenberg's The Modern Railroad, by Edward Hungerford