CHAPTER VI.

PHYSICAL FORM AND CHARACTER OF THE SIAMESE.--MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.--TREATMENT OF THE DEAD, AND FUNEREAL OBSEQUIES OF THE MONARCH.--LAWS.--ADULTERY.--THEFT.--HISTORY.--STATE OF DEFENCE.--REVENUE.--SIAMESE NUMERALS.--KALENDAR.--ANNUAL FESTIVAL AT THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR.--RELIGION.--LAWS OF BUDDHA.--PROVINCE OF CHANTIBOND THE RICHEST PORTION OF THE TERRITORY OF SIAM.--ITS PRODUCTS.--MINES OF GOLD AND OF PRECIOUS STONES.--ZOOLOGICAL REMARKS.

I have already, on more than one occasion, briefly alluded to the physical form of the Siamese. At present I shall make such observations as more extensive experience has enabled me to collect.

That the Siamese are one of the numerous tribes which constitute that great and singular family of the human race, known generally by the appellation of Mongols, will appear to most persons sufficiently obvious. If they do not possess, in the most acute degree, the peculiar features of the original, they are at least stamped with traits sufficiently just to entitle them to be considered as copies. There is, however, one general and well-marked form, common to all the tribes lying between China and Hindostan. Under this head are comprehended the inhabitants of Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambodia, and even of Cochin-China, though those of the latter country more resemble the Chinese than the others. This distinctive character is so strongly blended with the Mongol features that we have no hesitation in considering these nations as deriving their origin from that source. It appears to me that to this source also we ought to refer the Malays[13], who cannot be said to possess national characters, at least of physiognomy and physical form, sufficiently distinct and obvious to entitle them to be considered as a distinct race. Where there is a difference between the Malays and the tribes mentioned, it is more to be referred to the condition of the mental faculty, than to that of bodily form; to the state of manners, habits of life, language; in short to circumstances altogether, or in great part, produced by mind. In other respects they would appear to differ but little from the tribes mentioned above. Traces of a much ruder people are to be met with in the mountainous districts of these kingdoms, particularly in the peninsula of Malacca. Our knowledge of these is much too scanty to enable us to trace their filiation. Though generally asserted, there are no records to prove that they are the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, at least of any other part of it than the wilds and impenetrable forests which they continue to occupy. The woolly-headed race, and another resembling the Indian, are not uncommon[14]. Their origin will probably ever remain uncertain.

The following observations will be found to apply to the several nations already mentioned, and in general to the Chinese also, whom I consider as the prototype of the whole race. A multitude of forms are to be seen in every nation, not referable to any particular family or variety of the human race. For our present purpose, we must select such only as possess the peculiar form in the most characteristic degree. But as all the requisites of this form are not always developed in a very acute degree in all, we must collect from a multitude of instances, what appears to be the predominating tendency. In this way we may make out a portrait of the whole.

The stature of the body would appear to be much alike in all the tribes of the Mongol race, the Chinese being perhaps a little taller, and the Malays lower than the others. In all it is below that of the Caucasian race. The average height of the Siamese, ascertained by actual measurement of a considerable number of individuals, amounts to five feet three inches.

The skin is of a lighter colour than in the generality of Asiatics to the west of the Ganges; by far the greater number being of a yellow complexion, a colour which, in the higher ranks, and particularly amongst women and children, they take pleasure in heightening by the use of a bright yellow wash or cosmetic, so that their bodies are often rendered of a golden colour. The texture of the skin is remarkably smooth, soft, and shining.

Throughout the whole race there is a strong tendency towards obesity. The nutritious fluids of the body are principally directed towards the surface distending and overloading the cellular tissue with an inordinate quantity of fat. The muscular textures are in general soft, lax, and flabby, rarely exhibiting that strength or developement of outline which marks the finer forms of the human body. In labourers and mechanics, particularly the Chinese, the muscular parts occasionally attain considerable volume, but very rarely the hardness and elasticity developed by exercise in the European race. On a simple inspection, we are apt to form exaggerated notions respecting their muscular strength, and capacity for labour. A more close examination discovers the reality, and we find that something more than volume is necessary to constitute vigour of arm.

In point of size, the limbs are often equal to, if not larger than those of Europeans, particularly the thighs, but this magnitude of volume will be found to depend upon the cause alluded to above. The same circumstance gives to the whole body a disproportionate bulk; and hence they form what is called a squat race.

The face is remarkably broad and flat, the cheek-bones prominent, large, spreading, and gently rounded. The glabellum is flat and unusually large. The eyes are in general small. The aperture of the eye-lids, moderately linear in the Indo-Chinese nations and Malays, is acutely so in the Chinese, bending upward at its exterior termination. The lower jaw is long, and remarkably full under the zygoma, so as to give to the countenance a square appearance. The nose is rather small than flat, the alæ not being distended in any uncommon degree; in a great number of Malays, however, it is largest towards the point. The mouth is large, and the lips thick. The beard is remarkably scanty, consisting only of a few straggling hairs. The forehead, though broad in the lateral direction, is in general narrow, the hairy scalp descending very low. The head is peculiar. The diameter from the front backwards is uncommonly short; and hence the general form is somewhat cylindrical. The occipital foramen in a great number of instances is placed so far back, that from the crown to the nape of the neck is nearly a straight line. The top of the head is often unusually flat. The hair is thick, coarse, and lank, in some shewing a disposition to curl on the forehead, but this is more peculiar to the Malays. The colour is always black.

The limbs are thick, short and stout, and the arms rather disproportionate in length to the body.

The arms, particularly in Malays, are uncommonly long. The foot is, in general small, but the hand is much larger than in the natives of Bengal.

The trunk is rather square, being nearly as broad at the loins as over the pectoral muscles. There is in this respect the greatest difference between them and the inhabitants of either India, who are in general remarkable for small waists. The diameter of the pelvis is particularly large, and the dimensions of the cavity would appear to be somewhat greater than in the other races.

From this account of their form, they would appear to be admirably calculated to execute and to undergo the more toilsome and laborious, but mechanical, operations which are the usual lot of the labouring classes of mankind. They have the frame, without the energy of London porters. The greater number of them are indeed more distinguished for mechanical skill, and patience under laborious occupations, than for brightness of imagination or mental capacity. Others of them are equally remarkable for indolence and aversion to labour.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE SIAMESE.

TREATMENT OF THE DEAD.

The treatment of the dead is not amongst the least singular of the customs peculiar to the Siamese. It is more or less expensive according to the rank which the individual held in the community, or the ability of his relations. The poorest amongst them are negligently and without ceremony thrown into the river. Those a little higher in the scale of society are burnt; often very imperfectly, and their partially-consumed bones are left to bleach on the plain, or to be devoured by ravenous beasts. Children, before the age of dentition, are interred in a superficial grave, to one end of which an upright board is attached. Women who have died pregnant are interred in a similar manner. After the lapse of a few months, however, their remains are taken up for the purpose of being burnt.

With the exceptions mentioned, the practice of burning the dead extends to all ranks. The ceremony may be witnessed almost daily in the environs, and within the precincts of the temples. The latter are generally provided with a lofty shed, of a pyramidal form, open on all sides, and supported on tall wooden posts, of sufficient height to admit of the combustion of the body without injury to the roof. Nor is even this simple shed common to all. The avarice of the priesthood, taking advantage of the weaker feelings of the human mind, has even here established distinctions at which death mocks. The poorer sort, therefore, raise the pile at a humble distance from the roof of pride.

A singular custom takes place in many instances previous to the ceremony of combustion. It is that of cutting the muscular and soft parts of the body into innumerable small pieces, until nothing is left of the corpse but the bare bones. The flesh thus cut up is thrown to dogs, vultures, and other carnivorous birds, which on this account resort to such places in great numbers. We found one of those pyramids covered with vultures, and the enclosure much frequented by dogs. The scene was loathsome and disgusting in the extreme, and sufficiently attested the prevalence of this custom. The practice is looked upon as charitable and laudable, and the Siamese arrogate to themselves no small share of merit in thus disposing of the body as food, the material of life, to the beasts of the field, and to the birds of the air. It seems probable that this singular practice is connected with their notions of a future existence, and may have derived its origin in some way from the ancient doctrine of Metempsychosis, so strongly inculcated by their religion[15].

A different custom prevails among the higher orders of Siamese, which, considering that the body is finally destined to be consumed by fire, is as unaccountable as the other is barbarous and unfeeling. The custom I allude to is that of embalming the dead. But what seems most singular in this custom is, that the body has no sooner undergone that degree of preparation which renders it capable of being preserved for a longer period, than it is destined to be totally consumed. Were it not for this apparent inconsistency, we should have little hesitation in attributing the origin of this practice to that warmth of filial affection, and the well known devotion to their ancestors, for which the Chinese are so remarkable.

The art of embalming, as known to the Siamese, is extremely imperfect, notwithstanding that it has been practised from very ancient times. Its actual state is characteristic of that general ignorance of the ornamental, as well as of the useful arts of civilized life, which I have already hinted at on several occasions.

The process is for the most part left to the relations of the deceased, who call in the assistance of the more experienced.

After washing the body with water, the first step is to pour a large quantity of crude mercury into the mouth. Persons of the highest rank alone, however, can have recourse to a material so expensive. The others substitute honey in its stead, but it is said with a less favourable result. The body is now placed in a kneeling posture, and the hands are brought together before the face, in the attitude of devotion. Narrow strips of cloth are then bound tightly round the extremities, and the body is compressed in a similar manner. The object of the ligatures is to squeeze the moisture out of the body. They act also in preserving the required posture, and with this object the more flexile tendons of the extremities are divided. In this posture the body is next placed in an air-tight vessel of wood, brass, silver, or gold, according to the rank of the deceased. A tube, or hollow bamboo, inserted into the mouth of the deceased, passes through the upper part of the box, and is conducted through the roof of the house to a considerable height. A similar bamboo is placed in the bottom, and terminates in a vessel placed under it to receive the draining off from the body. If the deceased is of the rank of a prince, the sordes thus collected is conveyed with great formality and state, in a royal barge, highly ornamented, to be deposited at a particular part of the river below the city. That collected from the body of the king is put into a vessel, and boiled until an oil separates, which oil is carefully collected, and with this they, on certain occasions, (as when his descendants and those of his family go to pay their devotions to his departed spirit), anoint the singular image called Sema, usually placed in the temple after his death.

Notwithstanding the precaution of using the tubes and the tight box, the odour, it is said, is often most offensive. In a few weeks, however, it begins to diminish, and the body becomes shriveled and quite dry.

The body thus prepared by this rude process is, at the proper period, brought forth to be burnt, the relations having in the mean time made every necessary arrangement for the solemn occasion. Early in the morning a number of priests are assembled at the house of the deceased; having received robes of yellow cloth, and been feasted, they repeat prayers in the Pali language, after which the body is carried forth to be burned. The priests receive the body as it approaches the temple, and conducting it towards the pile, repeat a verse in the Pali language, which has been thus interpreted to me:

Eheu! mortale corpus, Ut fumus hic nunc ascendit, sic et Animus tuus ascendat in cœlum[16].

After the body has been destroyed, the ashes, or rather the small fragments of bone which remain, are carefully collected, and the use that is made of them is somewhat singular. The priests are again called in; prayers are again repeated in the Pali language, and various requisite ceremonies are performed, after which the ashes which had been collected after combustion, are reduced to a paste with water, and formed into a small figure of Buddha, which being gilded, and finished by the priests, is either placed in the temple, or preserved by the friends of the deceased.

This last ceremony is attended with considerable expense, and, therefore, the poorer orders, when unable to engage priests for its performance, keep the ashes of their relations by them, until they are in a condition to have it carried into effect in a becoming manner.

It must be confessed, that in matters of this sort, the Siamese shew the greatest regard to the memory of their relations and ancestors. Where death and its dread apparatus are thus brought daily home to the feelings,--where the mind is accustomed to view the disgusting and humiliating phenomena that attend the last scene of mortality, it might be thought that a stupid insensibility, if not scornful indifference, would be the general result. We have no reason to believe that such is the case with the Siamese. The care and attention they have bestowed upon the remains of their relations, seem but to endear their memory the more to them. The fear of death is, besides, of that nature, that neither the most deliberate reason, nor the most obtuse feeling, can lay it altogether aside. On the minds of the multitude more especially, this fear operates strongly, and produces effects in proportion to their degree of intelligence. Where there is already a strong tendency towards superstition, this bias is still more heightened, and there are perhaps few nations more strongly imbued with this sentiment than the Siamese; and, in general, all the tribes of Mongol origin. With them judicial astrology still holds the rank of the most important of sciences, and is cultivated with the most scrupulous attention. Its pretended results are required on all important occasions, either of a public or a private nature. Nor are the most gross and revolting superstitions confined to the vulgar, as the following anecdote respecting the present Pra-klang, Suree-wong Montree, will shew.

This gentleman hearing of the wonderful effects said to be produced by mercury, became extremely desirous to make proof of the popular belief, that this metal when reduced to a solid state, confers on its fortunate possessor the most extraordinary power, and amongst others that of travelling into the most distant regions of the globe, without other effort than that of the will to do so. The prospect of seeing neighbouring kingdoms in all their nakedness was irresistible, and the terms were so easy, and attended with so little labour, as to be quite inviting even to the phlegmatic imagination of the Pra-klang, whose fat, ponderous, and unwieldy corporation was more than enough to have excited doubts of success. A quantity of the metal was procured. The most expert magicians, alchymists, and astrologers were assembled on the occasion, but their united skill failed to produce the much desired effect. They boiled, and they roasted, and they tortured in every possible way the stubborn slippery metal, but all to no purpose. The poor Pra-klang, ashamed and disappointed, instead of flying through the air, saw himself reduced to the sad necessity of carrying his unwieldy bulk about the streets of Siam for the rest of his life.

Further proofs of the superstitious nature of this people were easily furnished. The belief in the agency of evil spirits is universal, and though disclaimed by the religion of Buddha, they are more frequently worshipped than the latter. Nor will the darker periods of German necromancy and pretended divination be found to exceed, in point of the incredible and the horrible, what is to be observed amongst the Siamese of the present day.

It is usual to inter women that have died pregnant; the popular belief is that the necromancers have the power of performing the most extraordinary things when possessed of the infant which had been thus interred in the womb of the mother: it is customary to watch the grave of such persons, in order to prevent the infant from being carried off. The Siamese tell the tale of horror in the most solemn manner. All the hobgoblins, wild and ferocious animals, all the infernal spirits are said to oppose the unhallowed deed; the perpetrator, well charged with cabalistic terms, which he must recite in a certain fixed order, and with nerves well braced to the daring task, proceeds to the grave, which he lays open. In proportion as he advances in his work the opposing sprites become more daring; he cuts off the head, hands, and feet of the infant, with which he returns home. A body of clay is adapted to these, and this new compound is placed in a sort of temple; the matter is now accomplished, the possessor has become master of the past, present, and future.

The funeral ceremonies observed on the death of a king are somewhat different from those mentioned above, but the principle is the same. All the people go into mourning. All ranks and both sexes shave the head, and this ceremony is repeated a third time. An immense concourse is assembled to witness the combustion of the body. The ceremony is said to constitute the most imposing spectacle which the country at any time can boast.

Within the first enclosure a line of priests are seated, reciting prayers from the sacred books, in a loud voice. Behind them the new king has taken his station. In the succeeding enclosures the princes of the royal family and other persons of distinction have taken their places. It will be seen by the manner in which the funeral-pile is lighted, how much attention has been bestowed upon the arrangement even of the most trivial matters. A train is laid from the pile to the place where the king stands, others to those occupied by the princes of the family, with this distinction in their distribution, that the train laid to the king’s station is the only one that directly reaches the pile. That of the next person in rank joins this at a little distance, and so of the others, in the order of rank. These trains are fired all at the same moment.

The outer circle of all is allotted to the performance of plays, gymnastic exercises, and feats of dexterity, and sleight of hand. The plays are divided into Siamese, Barman, Pegu, Laos, and Chinese; and they are so called more from the performers being of these several countries, than from any essential difference in the drama.

The external forms of reverence for the deceased king are impressive and unbounded; and the image formed from his ashes, being placed upon the altar, claims scarce less devotion than that of Buddha himself. That during life, while he yet grasped the sceptre, and made his subjects tremble, he should impiously assume the attributes of divinity, and claim from the unwilling mind the adoration due only to the Deity, seems even less strange, and less revolting, than this shameful, because voluntary prostitution of human intellect.

LAWS.

Where the government is perfectly despotic, it will readily be conceived that law and right are but empty names, at least, as far as regards the king, and his under-despots; that, in fact, power is law, and right, and justice. Yet where the interests of these are not directly involved, we shall find in the system of laws a marked attention to distributive justice on the part of government. Necessity itself dictates this policy, without which no government could long exist. Under this form of administration the laws are often strictly equitable, and severely just. Yet though the laws are good, the propounders of them are in general corrupt; and where the channels of justice are tarnished, it matters little to the people that they have derived good laws from their ancestors.

ADULTERY.

The laws regarding this crime have undergone considerable changes, and seem to have kept pace with the state of civilization. Anciently, the punishment was left entirely in the hands of the injured husband, the government taking no cognizance of the affair. He could put one or both of the offending parties to death in what manner he chose. Compensation in money or goods often reconciled the parties. Subsequently, this unlimited power was taken out of the hands of the individual, and the law declared that the husband had a right to put both the offending parties to death upon the spot, but not one alone. The punishment, to be legal, must have been inflicted instantly, and without deliberation. The present laws have left no part of the punishment in the hands of individuals; the crime is punishable only by fine. The amount of the fine, though fixed, is in proportion to the rank of the criminal. Thus, a man of low rank, offending in this manner, his equal, or one of superior rank, pays two catties of silver, about two hundred Bengal rupees, or twenty-five pounds sterling. A man of rank again pays six catties.

It is reckoned a capital crime to seduce any female belonging to the palace.

THEFT--DEBT.

The laws regarding theft are in many instances particularly severe. After restoring the property or its value to the rightful owner, a fine is imposed, and the culprit is cast into prison, for a longer or shorter period, during which he is obliged not only to maintain himself, but he is made to pay for light, and even for his lodging. Of the greater number of debtors, begging is the only means of existence. They are supplied with food by the people as they pass along in chains through the bazar. Their necessities impel them to greater crimes, and they ultimately become involved in perpetual slavery. Yet the Siamese are undoubtedly a very charitable people, and appear to take delight in assisting the needy, feeding the hungry, and helping the wretched. Nor is this virtue in them connected with ostentation. Wherever want exists, wherever distress is observed, there their aid is freely bestowed.

HISTORY.

My information on this subject is extremely scanty, and extends back but a few years.

The principal event which has occurred of late years in the history of Siam, is the capture of the old capital Yuthia, by the Barmans, under their ambitious and enterprising leader Luong Pra, whom Captain Symes calls by the name of Alompra. This took place in the year 1767. The king was at the same time taken prisoner, and by this decisive blow, the Barmans may be said to have effected the entire conquest of the country. Yet their footing was insecure. The people were rather dispirited than subdued, and their long-cherished hatred of the Barmans had undergone no change. In this state of things, a leader soon started up amongst them, who though of foreign extraction, speedily acquired influence from success.

Pe-ya-tac, the son of a wealthy China-man, by a Siamese woman, had been brought up as a menial in the palace of the king, who became attached to him as he grew up. He obtained the government of the province called Muong-tac, where he conducted himself to the satisfaction of his master, and amassed great wealth.

The war with the Barmans was soon followed by famine. Pe-ya-tac had, on the approach of the enemy, removed with his wealth to the province of Chantibond. In this remote quarter, his generosity fed multitudes who were starving. He collected around him the dispirited inhabitants, and ventured to make head against the enemy. His first efforts were crowned with success; his followers increased in number, victory led on to victory, until he saw the enemy expelled, and himself at the head of the nation. He declared himself king, and removed the capital of the kingdom from Yuthia to Bankok. He fortified the place, and built himself a palace which is still to be seen. Every second or third year, he was involved in war with the Barmans, whom he always repulsed. He not only recovered all the former dominions of the kingdom, but added to them. Having subdued his enemies, he next turned his attention to the peaceful arts.

He readily appreciated the superior industry of his countrymen, and granted them peculiar privileges. He behaved with the greatest moderation, and is still extolled for his regard of justice.

In the latter years of his reign, his conduct became greatly changed. The combined influence of suspicion and fanaticism rendered him an object of general dread. At the same time the most sordid avarice took possession of his mind, and led to the commission of numerous acts of cruelty. The father of the present king headed a conspiracy against him, and put him to death. The massacres which took place on this occasion were less numerous than was to have been expected from the existing state of society and public opinion.

We know but little of the character of the successor to Pe-ya-tac, but that the kingdom readily yielded to him. He died in 1782, and the present king ascended the throne at the same time.

The first public act of the present king’s reign was inauspicious. He was yet scarcely seated on his throne, before he put to death his nephew, the Prince Chau-pha, with upwards of a hundred persons of rank, who were supposed to be too much attached to the latter. The pretensions of Chau-pha to the throne were, if they had any existence, but ill-supported. His popularity was the cause of his ruin. The death of so many persons of distinction, some of whom had rendered themselves famous in war against the Barmans, was displeasing to the people, and occasioned considerable discontent, which nothing but the subsequent good conduct of the king could have overcome.

The present king has been engaged in almost constant wars with the Barmans; and it is the boast of his reign that he has lost nothing in the contest. The Malay and other dependent states have made no effort to throw off the yoke. Yet the kingdom is but little indebted to the government for the tranquillity which it has enjoyed. Nothing can be conceived more weak, or more contemptible, than the measures instituted for its defence.

It would seem as if it feared its own subjects as its greatest enemies; as if it dreaded domestic sedition, more than an attack from abroad. The country lies open in every quarter, without even a shew of defence. Thus it must ever be with governments founded on despotism. All confidence must be destroyed, where the interests of the people are trampled upon.

REVENUE.

The land-tax is paid chiefly in kind. Besides this, a considerable revenue is derived from the privilege of fishing in rivers, and of distilling arrack. Other taxes are levied in a more odious and oppressive manner, as in the case of commercial and other monopolies. The principal of these are monopolies of sugar, pepper, benzoin, agila wood, and, in short, of all valuable commodities. They are delivered to the king at a fixed price.

Arrack is consumed almost exclusively by the Chinese, and the manufacture of it is entirely in their hands.

The privilege of distilling arrack at Bankok, is let for eighteen peculs of silver = 72,000 ticals[17],

At Yuthia, for 6 peculs Sohai 1 do. Ta Saim 1 do. Rahain 1 do. Camphen 1 do. Cha-nāāt 0 20 catties Korāāt 2 Ban-chang 3 Kan-būri 0 20 catties Chan-pon 0 30 do. Pat-thee 0 20 do. Chia 0 8 do. To-long 0 30 do.

Fruit trees, &c., are taxed as follows:--

1 Mangoe tree 1 fuang[18]. Mangosteen 1 do. Durian 1 tical each tree. Cocoa-nut 1 fuang for eight trees. Areca nut 1 do. for 100 trees. Piper betel 1 do. do. Tobacco 2 fuangs for 100 plants. Sugar cane 2 do. per bed.

No other fruits pay duty.

The revenue derived from fruit trees alone, is said to amount to 7000 catties of silver.

That derived from the gambling houses is said to equal that from arrack.

The privilege of fishing in rivers is said to be let for eight peculs.

NUMERALS.

The notation of the Siamese seems to be exactly similar in principle to our own, and is evidently derived from the mode used in Sanskrit, from some ancient form of which the notation of Arabia and the west has branched off.

1 Nung. 2 Sōng. 3 Sāām. 4 Sēē. 5 Hāā. 6 Hōc. 7 Chāyt. 8 Pāyt. 9 Kao. 10 Seep. 11 See-bayt. 12 Seep-sōng. 13 Seep-sāām. 14 Seep-see. 15 Seep-hāā. 16 Seep-hōc. 17 Seep-chayt. 18 Seep-payt. 19 Seep-kao. 20 Y-seep. 21 Y-see-boyt. 30 Sāām-sēēp. 40 See-seep. 50 Hāā-seep. 60 Hoc-seep. 70 Chayt-seep. 80 Payt-seep. 90 Kao-seep. 100 Roy.

DAYS OF THE WEEK.

Days. Siamese name. Signification of Siamese name.

Sunday Van-a-thed Day of the sun. Monday Van-chan do. moon. Tuesday Van-ang-khān do. star ang-khan. Wednesday Van-phoodh do. do. phoodh. Thursday Van-pra-hadh Day of the star pra-hadh. Friday Van-sookh do. sookh. Saturday Van-sao do. sao.

NAMES OF THE MONTHS.

Months. Siamese name. Literally. January Duan-aij. 1st. month. February Duan-jee. 2d. do. March Duan-sāām. 3d. do. April Duan-see. &c. &c. May Duan-hāa. June Duan-hōk. July Duan-ched. August Duan-ped. September Duan-kao. October Duan-seep. November Duan-seebet. December Duan-seep-song.

The Siamese year commences with the first moon in December. At the close of the year there is a grand festival, called the feast of the souls of the dead. At this period also the Siamese propitiate the elements; the fire, the air, the earth, and water. Water is the favourite element. Rivers claim the greatest share in this festival. Rice and fruits are thrown into the stream; a thousand fantastic toys are set afloat on the water; thousands of floating lamps cast a flickering light upon the scene, and the approach of evening is hailed as the season of innocent amusement, as well as of religious duty.

The Siamese affect to bestow great attention upon the construction of their calendar. There is little difference between it and that of the Chinese; and it is very doubtful if they could construct one without the assistance of the latter, which they procure regularly from Pekin. Formerly a Brahman was entertained at court for the purpose of regulating the calendar. That office is now executed by a native of the country, by name Pra-hora.

The Siamese years are divided as below into duodecennial periods, thus:

Years. Siamese name. In English meaning. 1st. Chouat Rat’s year. 2d. Cha-lou Cows’ do. 3d. Khān Tiger’s do. 4th. Thō Hare’s do. 5th. Maron Dragon’s do. 6th. Maseng Snakes’ do. 7th. Mā-mia Horses’ do. 8th. Ma-may Goats’ do. 9th. Vock Monkey’s do. 10th. Ray-ka Fowls’ do. 11th. Chō Dog’s do. 12th. Khun Pig’s do.

RELIGION.

Our inquiries respecting the origin of the Bauddhic religion amongst the Siamese have been attended with but little success; nor do they leave us much ground to hope that any documents or writings they possess are calculated to throw any certain or steady light upon this interesting, but very obscure, subject.

The general persuasion amongst the priests, however, is, that it had its origin in the country called Lanka[19], which they acknowledge to be Ceylon, for which island they still entertain the highest reverence, and imagine that there the doctrines of their faith are contained in their greatest purity. Others maintain that it had its origin in the country called Kabillah Path, the common name amongst the Siamese for Europe; while others again assert it to be of domestic origin, and taught by a man sent from God.

The person who taught them this religion is known under various names, as,

Ong-Sam-ma, Sam Puttho, which is said to mean Omnipotens.

Sommonokodam, i. e., one who steals cattle. Phut, and Phuti. (Pati, a lord?)

Prā-phut, the high Lord.

Pra-phuti-roop, i. e., the image of the high Lord.

Before he was considered sacred, his name was Prā-si Thāāt.

He is said to have been born of a father called Soori-soo-thoght, and of a mother called Pra-Soori-maha-maya.

Other names of Buddha:--

Y-thee-pee-so. Pā-kā-wā. Ora-hang.

They state that 2340 years have elapsed since the religion was first introduced; a date which is said to be stated in their sacred books, and particularly in that called Pra-sak-ka-rah, which was written by Buddha himself, or at least under his direction.

He commenced the task of converting men, by teaching them a more civilized mode of life, directing them to avoid rapine and plunder; to cultivate the soil and to lay aside their ferocious manners, and to live in peace with each other, and with all other animals of the creation.

His commands were, at first, but five; they were afterwards increased to eight. The five first alone are essential to the salvation of man, and he who observes them will assuredly merit heaven. These five are more particularly calculated for the lower orders; but it is very meritorious to observe the other three.

Commands of Buddha:--

1.[20]Panna Thi-bāt, ham-mi kha Satt.

You shall not kill an animal or living creature of any kind.

2. Ad thi ma than, ham-mi hai lac sab.

You shall not steal any thing.

3. Kham-mi sumi cha-chān, ham-mi hai somg sel năi phi ri yan than puun.

You shall not have intercourse with the wives of other men.

4. Moo-sa va tha, ham mi hai phût kohoc sab plab.

You shall not speak an untruth or any falsehood on any occasion.

5. Sura me rai, hai mi hai dūūm kin sung nam maou.

You shall not drink any intoxicating liquor, or any substance calculated to intoxicate.

6. Ka me sumitsa cham, ham-mi hai non kab mia.

During the increase of the moon, you shall not, on the 8th, or on the 15th, have connexion with woman.

N.B. These two days are called von-prā, i. e., Dies Domini, the days of the Pra.

7. Vi ka la po chana, ham-mi hai kin khong nōek vela.

You shall not eat after mid-day.

8. Oocha se jana, ham mi hai nōn nūa thiang an vi chit ang gnam.

It is not becoming to sleep on costly, soft, rich, and elevated beds. You shall sleep on a clean mat.

There are, as has been already observed, set days, on which it is proper to worship at the temples, as on the 8th and 15th of the moon. There are also other days that are held sacred, and they are pointed out as such by persons who profess to be acquainted with judicial astrology. This sort of divination, however, is not cultivated by the priests, who affect to consider it as profane and improper. Yet when the astrologers have pointed out particular days as proper for devotion, or as being lucky or the contrary, the priests observe them.

It is customary for every Siamese to enter the rank of priests in the course of his life. He may remain in it or leave it at pleasure.

PROVINCE OF CHANTIBOONA, OR CHANTIBOND.

The reverses of fortune which this province has undergone, within a comparatively short period, have been remarkable. It for a long time belonged to the ancient kingdom of Cambodia, but on the partition of that admired and beautiful, but unfortunate country, was seized upon by the Cochin-Chinese. It has since passed into the hands of the king of Siam, and has constituted an integral part of his dominions since the reign of the Chinese king.

Chantibond is a mountainous country, forming the eastern boundary of the kingdom of Siam, dividing it from Cambodia, and situated at the head of the Gulf of Siam. It is said to be one of the richest and most valuable provinces of the king of Siam. It is singularly beautiful and picturesque, diversified by lofty mountains, extensive forests, and fertile vallies and plains. The passage thence to Cambodia is of short distance, a ridge of mountains dividing the two countries. It possesses a good and convenient harbour, well protected by numerous beautiful islands in front. The river is obstructed in a great measure at its mouth, but affords convenient and safe navigation to small vessels and boats. It once possessed an extensive and profitable commerce, which has been upon the decline since the place fell into the hands of the Siamese. The produce of the country is annually removed to Bankok, and the commerce with foreign ships is prohibited.

The principal productions are pepper, the cultivation of which may be increased almost to an unlimited extent, benzoin, lac, ivory, agila wood, rhinoceros’ horns, hides of cows, buffaloes, deer, &c., gamboge, some cardamoms, and precious stones, the latter of inferior quality. The forests abound in excellent timber, and afford the best materials for ship-building: accordingly, many junks are built at this place. Many of the islands in front of the port, and particularly that called Bangga-cha, produce abundance of precious stones. The island Sa-ma-ra-yat, to the east of the harbour, is said to produce gold. In the former of these islands, there is a safe and convenient harbour.

At a short distance from the coast, there is a very high mountain, called Bomba-soi, commanding an extensive view both of Chantibond and of Cambodia.

The amount of population is uncertain, some stating that it amounts to nearly one million, while others reckon it under half that number. It is composed of Chinese, Cochin Chinese, Cambodians, and Siamese; but by far the greater number are Chinese, in whose hands are all the wealth, and the richest products of the country. There are also from two to three hundred native Christians in the place, who, like those in other parts of Siam, are placed under the care of the bishop of Metellopolis, Joseph Florens, a Frenchman.

The place is governed by a man of Chinese extraction, appointed by the king of Siam.

Of pepper, the principal object of culture, the annual produce, at the present time, is said to amount to 20,000 peculs. It is sold to the king on the spot, for eight ticals a pecul. The price in Bankok is eighteen.

The cardamoms produced in Chantibond are reckoned of inferior quality. Those of Cambodia are reckoned the best. They are purchased on the spot by the king, for 120 or 140 ticals, and re-sold at Bankok for 270, 280, and even 300. They are carried exclusively to China, where they are held in high esteem.

The agila wood of Chantibond is reckoned among the best, and is only equalled by that of Cochin China.

The consumption of this highly odoriferous substance is very considerable even in Siam, but the greatest part is exported to China. Its use is of the highest antiquity, and it has in general been allotted chiefly for sacred purposes, for the service of the temple, and the solemn ceremonies of funeral rites. Much of it is consumed in the combustion of bodies of persons of distinction. The Chinese would appear to use it chiefly in their temples, both public and private, and as every Chinese house is furnished with a small temple for the reception of their household gods, the consumption of this wood by them must be very extensive. It is used in a very economical and neat mode. A quantity of the wood is first reduced to a fine powder, which, being mixed with a gummy substance, is laid over a small slip of soft wood, about the size of a bull-rush, so as to form a tolerably thick coating. These small sticks are stuck on end in the temple, and being lighted, give out a feeble but grateful perfume, the substance burning with a slow and smothered flame. This sort of taper is made up into bundles, wrapt up in fine paper, and sold in almost every shop.

The odoriferous principle in agila wood resides in a black, thick, concrete oil, resembling tar or resin while burning[21]. It is disposed in numerous cells, and gives to the wood a blackish, dotted appearance. It is generally asserted that this is the effect of a disease in the tree; but the opinion may well be called in question. It would rather seem to be the natural effect of a necessary modification of the living principle of the plant itself, no more partaking of the nature of disease than an inevitable and destined change and termination of life can be said to constitute such a state.

The odoriferous part is found in comparatively few trees, and those chiefly where the trees have either died, or have been possessed of feeble remains of vitality. The perfect trees, those bearing leaves, or fruit in perfection, rarely possess any part of it: neither does it appear to depend much upon the size of the tree, small ones often affording it in large quantity, while large ones yield very little or none at all. Is it not probable that it proceeds from an effort of nature to support the feeble remains of vegetable life? In this case, the juices of the plant, like the blood of animals, retreat towards the centre, where they still, for a time, maintain the feeble spark. The oil, in the case of this plant, is secreted in larger quantity; and accumulating in the thicker and central parts of the tree, and towards the root, forms the substance in question.

The Siamese name this substance--Nuga-mai, also, Mâi-hoâm. For a botanical description of the tree, see Loureiro, page 327. Roxburgh has also described this tree under the title Aguillaria Agallocha. Loureiro states, that a particular, and that the most valuable variety of this wood, is called Colambac, or Calampac. This last is represented by the Siamese as the produce of a tree totally different.

The cause which has been assigned above for the scantiness of my information on matters of general interest, will apply with still greater force to the subject of natural history. Ill health, and the restrictions under which we were placed by the government, have rendered this subject almost a complete blank; a circumstance the more to be regretted, for that we had reason to expect an ample accession to our knowledge in this quarter. The few facts which I have been enabled to collect, I shall now briefly relate.

In speaking of the peninsula of Malacca, I have said, that its unfrequented forests seemed to contain zoological treasures yet unknown to us. A similar remark is no less applicable to the kingdom of Siam generally. There seems every reason to believe that an extensive search would be attended with the happiest results to the science of natural history. Restricted as we were from researches of this nature, we have discovered animals in the classes Mammalia, Aves, and Reptilia, which are either imperfectly, or altogether unknown to the European world.

Of that uncommon variety of the elephant, the white or Albino, a description has already been given. This, however, cannot be considered other than a variety of the common elephant of the country, which does not appear to differ in any considerable degree from that of Hindostan and Ceylon. All the elephants here were less in size than the Ceylon elephant; their tusks were also shorter, and less curved; although in one or two of those we saw, a greater degree of symmetry was noticed than is common in this animal.

At Bankok, the elephant is hardly available to any useful purpose, few roads existing on which he can walk. They are kept about the palace, and used only on state occasions. The king is said to have a great number in his possession. They are employed as beasts of burden with the troops in the interior of the country.

A description has also been given above, of a species of white Simia. This, likewise, is a genuine Albino. I was informed by several persons, that about two years ago, the king had in his possession an Albino of the deer kind. Albinos among buffaloes are in this country very common, often indeed the most frequent and only variety of that animal, and generally exceeding in bulk the common or original black one. It is of frequent occurrence in the Malay Islands, and in all agricultural countries, from Penang as far east as Java.

This prevalence of the leucæthiopic habit among so many of the more perfect and larger animals of the Class Mammalia is deserving of remark. How far the habit is developed by peculiarity of climate, it is difficult to determine; the geographical limits, however, within which this variety of animal occurs, with unwonted frequency, are not very extensive.

It is, perhaps, but little connected with this subject to state, that on the coasts of Siam we saw, on two occasions, a species of Porpoise of a white colour, with a slight cast of pink. Viewing these animals from a distance, it is of course impossible to say whether they were of the leucæthiopic habit or not. The fact that this distinction has not hitherto been observed in any animal with cold blood, would seem unfavourable to the first supposition.

The Royal Tiger is extremely common in the interior parts of the country. Their bones, as well as skins, constitute a considerable article of commerce with China; and, from the very great numbers in which they are exposed for sale, we may infer their frequency. The bones are said to be used as medicine by the Chinese, and a quantity of them may be seen suspended in every medicine-shop. The Black Tiger is by no means rare. Both this and the former, I consider smaller than the Bengal Tiger.

Leopards would also appear to be common. Many of the handsomest skins are exposed in the shops on the river. Of this animal I have observed no variety. No Jackalls, Hares, or Rabbits were seen.

FOOTNOTES:

[13] If we compare the Malays with the more acute forms of the Tartar race, with the Chinese on the one hand, or with the Arabs or Hindoos that frequent their islands, on the other, we may be disposed to consider them as forming a different race. Their affinity with the Indo-Chinese nations, whom we have every reason to consider as of Tartar origin, is, however, quite unequivocal; and it is through this medium, it appears to me, that we ought to trace their filiation. The sea-coasts of the peninsula of Malacca, Sumatra, and a few other places in that neighbourhood, will be found to afford the best forms illustrative of the character of this tribe; as for instance, the people called _Orang Laut_. In the better-cultivated islands, the physical form is much modified, as well as the manners, by intermixture with other tribes; probably with those who preceded them in the possession of the country. Let the inhabitants of the places referred to be compared, not directly with the Chinese, but with the Siamese, Barmans, &c., and little doubt will be entertained as to the probable origin of this people.

[14] A comparison of languages, both in the grammar and vocabulary, may yet produce much light on the interesting subject of the family origin of nations. A comparative vocabulary of some of the Indo-Chinese languages was published by the lamented Dr. John Leyden; to render such a compilation perfect, it should embrace, not merely the more obvious dialects, but those of the inland recesses. Is there any affinity between the language of the tribes who inhabit the hilly wildernesses of the Goand country, of Rajemahal and Malwa, and those similarly situated on the Malay peninsula, Kassai and Asam?--or extending the investigation, do any ancient languages of the east bear affinity to those of Ethiopia or Africa?--_Ed._

[15] A custom somewhat similar is not unknown to the Bauddhists of Ceylon. During the late war in that country, a chief of some rank was sentenced to undergo the punishment of death by decapitation. It was intimated to him that government would not prevent his relations from rendering to his body the funeral rights of his country. He replied that it was his desire that his body might be left to be devoured by the jackals and other wild beasts.

[16]

Ah! mortal is the body, as now ascends this smoke, So may thy soul ascend to heaven.

[17] The tical is about twenty-five per cent. more valuable than the Sicca rupee.

[18] A fuang is the eighth part of a tical.

[19] The Barmans entertain the highest reverence for Magadha; a deputation from his Majesty of Ava visited the sacred places in that vicinity a few years ago. Possibly this veneration for localities changes according to political circumstances.

[20] According to Loubere, this enactment suffers various interpretations, some abstaining from feeding on vegetables so as to hurt the seed, and so, says he, eat only fruit; others vary the practice of the law in the opposite direction, and hang themselves out of devotion, which action, if performed on a certain sacred tree, is considered as having great merit.

[21] It is, perhaps, a combination of an essential oil with resin.