CHAPTER XXIV

PARZIVAL, THE BRAVE MAN SLOWLY WISE

The instances of romantic chivalry and courtly love reviewed in the last chapter exemplify ideals of conduct in some respects opposed to Christian ethics. But there is still a famous poem of chivalry in which the romantic ideal has gained in ethical consideration and achieved a hard-won agreement with the teachings of mediaeval Christianity, and yet has not become monkish or lost its knightly character. This poem told of a struggle toward wisdom and toward peace; and the victory when won rested upon the broadest mediaeval thoughts of life, and therefore necessarily included the soul’s reconcilement to the saving ways of God. Yet it was knighthood’s battle, won on earth by strength of arm, by steadfast courage, and by loyalty to whatsoever through the weary years the man’s increasing wisdom recognized as right. A monk, seeking salvation, casts himself on God; the man that battles in the world is conscious that his own endeavour helps, and knows that God is ally to the valiant and not to him who lets his hands drop--even in the lap of God.

Among the romances presumably having a remote Breton origin, and somehow connected with the Court of Arthur, was the tale of Parzival, the princely youth reared in foolish ignorance of life, who learned all knighthood’s lessons in the end, and became a perfect worshipful knight. This tale was told and retold. The adventures of another knight, Gawain, were interwoven in it. Possibly the French poet, Chrétien de Troies, about the year 1170, in his retelling, first brought into the story the conception of that _thing_, that magic dish, which in the course of _its_ retellings became the Holy Grail. Chrétien did not finish his poem, and after him others completed or retold the story. Among them there was one who lacked the smooth facility of the French Trouvère, yet surpassed him and all others in thoughtfulness and dramatic power. This was the Bavarian, Wolfram von Eschenbach. He was a knight, and wandered from castle to castle and from court to court, and saw men. His generous patron was Hermann, Landgraf of Thüringen, who held court on the Wartburg, near Eisenach. There Wolfram may have composed his great poem in the opening years of the thirteenth century. He was no clerk, and had no clerkly education. Probably he could neither read nor write. But he lived during the best period of mediaeval German poetry, and the Wartburg was the centre of gay and literary life. Walther von der Vogelweide was one of Wolfram’s familiars in its halls.

Wolfram knew and disapproved of Chrétien’s version of the _Perceval_; and said the story had been far better told by a certain Kyot, a singer of Provence.[722] Nothing is known of the latter beyond Wolfram’s praise. Perhaps he was an invention of Wolfram’s; not infrequently mediaeval poets referred to fictitious sources. At all events, Wolfram’s sources were French or Provençal. In large measure the best German mediaeval poetry was an adaptation of the French; a fact which did not prevent the German adaptations from occasionally surpassing the French works they were drawn from. In the instance of Wolfram’s _Parzival_, as in that of Gottfried von Strassburg’s _Tristan_, the German poems were the great renderings of these tales.

As our author was a thoughtful German, his style is difficult and involved. Yet he had imagination, and his poem is great in the climaxes of the story. It is a poem of the hero’s development, his spiritual progress. Apparently it was Wolfram who first realized the profound significance of the Parzival legend. Both the choice of subject and the contents of the poem reflect his temperament and opinions. Wolfram was a knight, and chose a knightly tale; for him knightly victories were the natural symbols of a man’s progress. He was also one living in the world, prizing its gifts, and entertaining merely a perfunctory approval of ascetic renunciation. The loyal love between man and woman was to him earth’s greatest good, and wedlock did not yield to celibacy in righteousness.[723] Let fame and power and the glory of this world be striven for and won in loyalty and steadfastness and truth, in service of those who need aid, in mercy to the vanquished and in humility before God, with assurance that He is truth and loyalty and power, and never fails those who obey and serve Him.

“While two wills (_Zvifel_, _Zweifel_ == doubt) dwell near the heart, the soul is bitter. Shamed and graced the man whose dauntless mood is--piebald! In him both heaven and hell have part. Black-coloured the unsteadfast comrade; white the man whose thoughts keep troth. False comradeship is fit for hell fire. Likewise let women heed whither they carry their honour, and on whom they bestow their love, that they may not rue their troth. Before God, I counsel good women to observe right measure. Their fortress is shame: I cannot wish them better weal. The false one gains false reward; her praise vanishes. Wide is the fame of many a fair; but if her heart be counterfeit, ’tis a false gem set in gold. The woman true to womanhood, be hers the praise--not lessened by her outside hue.

“Shall I now prove and draw a man and woman rightly? Hear then this tale of love--joy and anguish too. My story tells of faithfulness, of woman’s truth to womanhood, of man’s to manhood, never flinching. Steel was he; in strife his conquering hand still took the guerdon; he, brave and slowly wise, this hero whom I greet, sweet in the eyes of women, heart’s malady for them as well, himself a very flight from evil deed.”

Such is Wolfram’s Prologue. The story opens in a forest, where Queen Herzeloide had buried herself with her infant son after the death in knightly battle of Prince Gahmuret, her husband. The broken-hearted, foolish mother is seeking to keep her boy in ignorance of arms and knights. He has made himself a bow; he shoots a bird--its song is hushed. This is the child’s first sorrow, and childish ignorance has been the cause; as afterwards youth’s folly and then man’s lack of wisdom will cause that child, grown large, more lasting anguish. Now to see a bird makes his tears start. His still foolish mother orders her servants to kill them. The boy protests, and the mother with a quick caress declares the birds shall have peace, she will no more infringe God’s commands. At this unknown name the boy cries out, “O mother! what is God?” “Son, I will tell thee. Brighter than the day is He--who put on a human face. Pray to Him in need; His faithfulness helps men ever. There is another, hell’s chief, black and false. Keep thy thoughts from him and from doubt’s waverings.” Away springs the boy again; and in the forest he learns to throw the hunting-spear and slay the stags. One day he hears the sounds of hoofs. He waves his spear: “May now the devil come in all his rage; I’d stand against him. My mother speaks of him in dread; but she is just afraid.” Three knights gallop up in glancing armour. He thinks each is a god; falls on his knees before them. “Help, god, since thou canst help so well!” “This fool blocks our path,” cries one. A fourth, their lord, rides up, and the boy calls him God.

“God?--not I; I gladly do His behests. Thou seest four knights.”

“Knights? what is that? If thou hast not God’s power, then tell me, who makes knights?”

“Young sir, that does King Arthur; go to him. He’ll knight you--you seem to knighthood born.”

The knights gazed on the boy, in whom God’s craft showed clear. The boy touches their armour, their swords. The prince speaks over him: “Had I thy beauty! God’s gifts to thee are great--if thou wilt wisely fare. May He keep sorrow from thee!” The knights rode on, while the boy sped to his mother, to tell her what he had seen. She was speechless. The boy would go to Arthur’s Court. So she bethought her of a silly plan, to put fool’s garb on him, that insult and scoff might drive him back to her. She also gave him counsel, wise and foolish.

So the youth is launched. He rides away; his mother dies of grief. As his path winds on, he finds a lady asleep in a pavilion, and following his mother’s counsel he kisses her, and takes her ring by force; trouble came from this deed of folly. Then he meets with Sigune, mourning a dead knight. He stops and promises to avenge her. She was his cousin and, recognizing him, called him by name, and spoke to him of his lineage. Then the youth is piloted by a fisherman, till, in the neighbourhood of Arthur’s Court, he meets a knight, Ither, in red armour, who greets him, points out the way, and sends a challenge to Arthur and his Round Table. Parzival now finds himself at Arthur’s thronging Court. The young Iwein first speaks to him and the fool-youth returns: “God keep thee--so my mother bade me say. Here I see so many Arthurs; who is it that will make me knight?” Iwein, laughing, leads him to the royal pavilion, where he says: “God keep you, gentles, especially the king and his wife--as my mother bade me greet--and all the honoured knights of the Round Table. But I cannot tell which one here is lord. To him a red knight sends a challenge; I think he wants to fight. O! might the king’s hand grant me the Red Knight’s harness!” They crowd around the glorious youth. “Thanks, young sir, for your greeting which I shall hope to earn,” said the king.

“Would to God!” cried the young man, quivering with impatience; “the time seems years before I shall be knight. Give me knighthood now.”

“Gladly,” returns the king. “Might I grant it to you worthily. Wait till to-morrow that I may knight you duly and with gifts.”

“I want no gifts--only that knight’s armour. My mother can give me gifts; she is a queen.”

Arthur feared to send the raw youth against the noble Ither, but yielded to the malignant spurring of Sir Kay, and Parzival rode out with his unknightly hunting-spear. Abruptly he bade Ither give him his horse and armour, and on the knight’s sarcastic answer, grasped his horse’s bridle. The angry Ither reversed his lance, and with the butt end struck down Parzival and his sorry nag. Parzival sprang to his feet and threw his spear straight through the visor of the other’s helmet; and the knight fell from his horse, dead. With brutal stupidity Parzival tried to pull his armour off, not knowing how to unlace it. Iwein came and showed him how to remove and wear the armour, and how to carry his shield and lance. So clad in Ither’s armour and mounted on the great war-horse, he bids Iwein commend him to King Arthur, and rides off, leaving the other to care for the body of the dead knight.

In the evening he reached the castle of an aged prince, who saw the marvellous youth come riding, with the fool garments showing out from under his armour. Courteously received, the youth enjoyed a bath, a repast, and a long night’s sleep. Fortunately his mother had bade him follow the counsels of grey hairs; so in the morning he put on the garments which his host had left in his room for him, instead of what his mother gave. The host first heard mass with his simple guest, and instructed him as to its significance, and how to cross himself and guard against the devil’s wiles. Then they breakfasted, and the old man, having heard Parzival’s story, advised him to leave off saying “My mother bade me,” and gave him further counsel: “Preserve thy shame; the shameless man is worthless, and at last, wins hell. You seem a mighty lord, mind you take pity on those in need; be kind and generous and humble. The worthy man in need is shamed to beg; anticipate his wants; this brings God’s favour. Yet be prudent, neither lavish nor miserly; right measure be your rule. Sorely you need counsel; avoid harsh conduct, do not ask too many questions, nor yet refuse to answer a question fitly asked; observe and listen. Let mercy temper valour. Spare him who yields, whatever wrong he has done you. When you lay off your armour, wash your hands and face; make yourself neat; woman’s eye will mark it. Be manly and gay. Hold women in respect and love; this increases a young man’s honour. Be constant--that is manhood’s part. Short his praise who betrays honest love. The night-thief wakes many foes; against treachery true love has its own wisdom and resource. Gain its disfavour and your lot is shame.”

The guest thanked the host for his counsel. He spoke no more of his mother save in his heart. Then his host, remarking that he had seen many a shield hang better on a wall than Parzival’s on him, took him out into a field; and there in the company of other knights he instructed him in jousting, and found him a ready and resistless pupil. The old man looked fondly on him--his daughter Liasse--she is fair--would not Parzival think so, and stay as a son in the now sonless house? Fair and chaste was the damsel, but Parzival says: “My lord, I am not wise. If I gain knighthood’s praise so that I may look for love--then keep Liasse for me. You shall have less weight of grief if I can lighten it.”

Parzival’s first experience of life and the old man’s counsels had changed him. He was no longer the callow boy who a few days before in the forest took the knights for gods, but a young man conscious of his inexperience and lack of wisdom. Perhaps the change seems sudden; but the subtle development of character had not yet found literary expression in the Middle Ages, and Wolfram here is a great pioneer.

So the young knight rode away, carrying secret thoughts of the maiden, and a little pain, his heart lightly touched with love, and so made ready for a mightier passion. His horse carried him on through woods and savage mountains, to the kingdom whose capital, Pelrapeire, was besieged, because it held its queen, Condwiramurs (_coin de voire amors_). Within the town were famine and death, without, a knightly, cruel foe, King Clamide, who fought to win the queen by sack and ruin. Crossing a field and bridge where many a knight had fallen, Parzival reached a gate and knocked. A maid called out, and finding that he brought aid and not enmity, she admitted him. Armed men weak with hunger fill the streets, through which the maid leads the knight on to the palace. His armour is removed, a mantle brought him. “Will he see the queen, our lady?” ask the attendants. “Gladly,” answers Parzival. They enter the great hall--and the queen’s fair eyes greet him. She advances surrounded by her ladies. With courtesy she kisses the knight, gives him her hand, and leads him to a seat. The faces of her warriors and women are sad and worn; but she--had she contended with Enit and both Iseults fair, and whomsoever else men praise for beauty, hers had been the prize.

The guest mused: “Liasse was there--Liasse is here; God slacks my grief, here is Liasse.” He sat silent by the queen, mindful of the old prince’s advice not to ask questions. “Does this man despise me,” thought she, “because I am no longer lovely? No, he is the guest, the hostess I; it is for me to speak.” Then aloud: “Sir, a hostess must speak. Your greeting won a kiss from me; you offered me your service--so said my maid. Rare offer now! Sir, whence come you?”

“Lady, I rode this very day from the house of the good, well-remembered host, Prince Gurnemanz.”

“Sir, I had hardly believed this from another; the way is so long. His sister was my mother. Many a sad day have I and his Liasse wept together. Since you bear kindness for that prince, I will tell you our grievous plight.”

The telling is deferred till some refreshment is obtained, and then Parzival is shown to his chamber. He sleeps; but the sound of sobbing breaks his slumber. The hapless queen in her need had sought out her guest in the solitude of night; she had cast herself on her knees by his couch; her tears fall--on him, and he awakes. Touched with love and pity at the sight, Parzival sprang up. “Lady! you mock me? You should kneel to God.” In honour they sit by each other, and the queen tells her story, how King Clamide and his seneschal have wasted her lands, unhappy orphan, slain her people, even her knightly defender, Liasse’s brother--she will die rather than yield herself to him.

Liasse’s name stirs Parzival: “How can I help you?”

“Save me from that seneschal, who harries me and mine.”

Parzival promises, and the queen steals away. The day is breaking, and Parzival hears the minster bells. Mass is sung, and the young knight arms and goes forth--the burghers’ prayers go with him--against the host led by the seneschal. Parzival vanquishes him, grants him his life, and sends him to Arthur’s Court. The townsmen receive the victor with acclaim, the queen embraces him. Who but he shall be her lord? So their nuptials were celebrated, although Parzival felt the reward to be too great; it were enough for him to touch her garment’s hem. Soon King Clamide himself ordered an assault upon the town, only to meet repulse. He challenged Parzival, and, vanquished like his seneschal, was likewise sent to Arthur’s Court.

Love was strong between Queen Condwiramurs and Parzival her husband. One morning Parzival spoke to her in the presence of their people: “Lady, please you, with your permission, I would see how my mother fares and seek adventures. If thus I serve and honour you, your love is ample guerdon.”

From his wife and from all those who called him Lord, Parzival rode forth alone. He has to learn what pain and sorrow are; the first teaching came now, as longing for his wife filled his heart with grief. In the evening he reached the shore of a lake, and saw a fisher in a boat, attired like a king.[724] The fisher directed him to a castle, promising there to be his host. Following his directions, Parzival came to a marvellously great castle, where, on saying that the fisher sent him, he was courteously received and his needs attended to. Sadness pervaded the great halls. The banquet-room, to which he was shown, was lighted by a hundred chandeliers, and around the walls were ranged a hundred couches. The host entered and lay down on one of them, made like a stretcher; he seemed a stranger to joy. They covered him with furs and mantles, as a sick man. He beckoned Parzival to sit by him. As the hall filled with people, a squire entered carrying a bleeding lance, whereupon all present made lament. A procession of nobly clad ladies followed, bearing precious dishes, and at last among them a queen, Repanse de Schoye. She bore, upon a silken cushion, the fulness of all good, an object called the Grail. Only a maiden pure and true might carry it. There also came six other maids bearing each a flashing goblet; and they set their burdens before the host. Water for the hands was then brought to the host and to his guest, and to the knights ranged on the couches; and tables were placed before them all. A hundred squires came and reverently took from the Grail all manner of food and wine, which they set before the knights, whatever each might wish. Everything came from the power of the Grail.

Parzival wondered, but kept silence, thinking of the old prince’s counsel not to ask many questions, and hoping to be told what all this might be. A squire brought a sword to the host, who gave it to the guest: “I bore this sword in all need, until God wounded me. Take it as amends for our sad hospitality. Rely on it in battle.”

The gift of the sword was Parzival’s opportunity to ask his host what had stricken him. He let it pass. The feast was solemnly removed. “Your bed is ready, whenever you will rest,” said the host; and Parzival was shown to a bedchamber, where he was left alone. But the knight did not sleep uncompanioned. Coming sorrow sent her messengers. Dreams overhung him, as a tapestry, woven of sword-strokes and deadly thrusts of lance. He was fighting dark, endless, battles for his life, till sweating in every limb he woke. Day shone through the window. “Where are the knaves to fetch my clothes?” He heard no sound. He sprang up. His armour lay there, and the two swords--the one which he took from Ither and the one given him by his host. Thought he: “I have suffered such pain in my sleep, there must be hard work for me to-day. Is mine host in need, I will gladly aid him and her too, Repanse, who gave me this mantle; yet I would not serve her for her love; my own wife is as beautiful.”

Parzival passed through the castle’s empty halls, calling aloud in anger. He saw no one, heard no sound. In the courtyard he found his horse, and flung himself into the saddle. He rode through the open castle-gate, over the draw-bridge, which an unseen hand drew up before his horse’s hoofs had fairly cleared it. He looked behind him in surprise. A squire cursed him: “May the sun scorch you! Had you just used your mouth to ask a question of your host! You missed it, goose!” Parzival called for explanation, but the gates were swung to in his face. His joy was gone, his pain begun. By chance throw of the dice he had found and lost the Grail. He sees the ground torn as by the hoofs of knights riding hard. “These,” thought he, “fight to-day for my host’s honour. Their band would not have been shamed by me. I would not fail them in their need--so might I earn the bread I ate and this sword which their lord gave me. I carry it unearned. They think I am a coward.”

He followed the hoof tracks; they led him on a way, then scattered and grew faint. The day was young. Under a linden sat a lady, holding the body of a knight embalmed. What earthly troth compared with hers? He turned his horse to her: “Lady, your sorrow grieves my heart. Would my service avail you?”

“Whence come you? Many a man has found death in this wood. Flee, as you love your life; but, say, where did you spend the night?”

“In a castle not a league from here.”

“Do not deceive. You carry stranger shield. There is no house in thirty leagues, save one castle high and great. Those who seek it, find it not. It is only found unsought. Munsalvaesch its name. The ancient Titurel bequeathed it to his son Frimutel, a hero; but in the jousts he won his death from love. Of his children, one is a hermit, Trevrizent; another, Anfortas, is the castle’s lord, and can neither ride nor walk, nor sit nor lie. But, sir, if you were there, may be that he is healed of his long pain.”

“Many marvels saw I there,” he answered.

She recognized the voice: “You are Parzival. Say, then, saw you the Grail and the joyless lord? If his pain is stilled through you, then hail! far as the wind blows spreads your glory, your dominion too.”

“How did you know me?” said Parzival.

“I am the maid who once before told you her grief, your kinswoman, who mourns her lover slain.”

“Alas! where are thy red lips? Art thou Sigune who told me who I was? Where is fled thy long brown hair, thy loveliness and colour?”

Sigune spoke: “My only consolation were to hear that you have helped the helpless man whose sword you bear. Know you its gifts? The first stroke it strikes well, at the second, breaks; a word is needed that the sword may make its bearer peerless. Do you know this word? If so, none can withstand you--have you asked the question?”

“I asked nothing.”

“Woe is me that mine eyes have seen you! You asked no question! You saw such wonders there--the Grail, the noble ladies, the bloody spear. Wretched, accursed man, what would you have from me? Yours the false wolf-tooth! You should have taken pity on your host, and asked his ail--then God had worked a miracle on him. You live, but dead to happiness.”

“Dear cousin, speak me fair. I will atone for any ill.”

“Atone? nay, leave that! At Munsalvaesch your honour and your knightly praise vanished. You get no more from me.”

Parzival’s fault was not accident; it sprang from what he was--unwise. He could atone only through becoming wise through the endurance of years of trial. The unhappy knight rode on, loosing his helmet to breathe more freely. Soon he chanced to overtake the lady Jesute, travelling on a mean horse in wretched guise, her garments torn, her face disfigured. He offered aid, and she, recognizing him, said with tears that her sorrows all were due to him; she was the lady whose girdle and ring his fool’s hand had taken, and now her husband Orilus treated her as a woman of shame. Here the proud duke himself came thundering up, to see what knight dared aid his cast-off wife. Parzival conquered him after a long combat; and the three went to a hermitage where the victor made oath that it was he who took by force the ring and girdle from the blameless lady. Returning the ring to Orilus, he sent him with his lady, reconciled and happy, to Arthur’s Court. Thus Parzival’s knighthood made amends for his first foolish act. He found a strong lance in the hermitage, took it, and departed.

When Orilus and his lady had been received with honour at Arthur’s Court, the king with all his knights set forth towards Munsalvaesch to find the mighty man calling himself the Red Knight, who had sent so many conquered pledges of his prowess; for he wished to make him a knight of the Round Table. It was winter. Parzival--the Red Knight--came riding from the opposite direction. As he drew near the encampment of the king, his eye lighted on three drops of blood showing clear red in the fresh-fallen snow; in mid air above, a wild goose had been struck by a falcon. The knight paused in reverie--red and white--the colours carried his thoughts to his heart’s queen, Condwiramurs. There he sat, as a statue on his horse, with poised spear; his thoughts had flown to her whose image now closed his eyes to all else. A lad spied the great knight, and ran breathless to Arthur, to tell of the stranger who seemed to challenge all the Round Table. Segramors gained Arthur’s permission to accost him. Out he rode with ready challenge; Parzival neither saw nor heard, till his horse swerved at the knight’s approach, so that he saw the drops no longer. Then his mighty lance fell in rest, Segramors was hurled to the ground, and took himself back discomfited, while Parzival returned to gaze on the drops of blood, lost in reverie as before. Now Kay the quarrelsome rode out, and roused the hero with a rude blow. The joust is run again, and Kay crawls back with broken leg and arm. Again Parzival loses himself in reverie. And now courtly Gawain, best of Arthur’s knights, rides forth, unarmed. Courteously he addresses Parzival, who hears nothing, and sits moveless. Gawain bethinks him it is love that binds the knight. Seeing that Parzival is gazing on three drops of blood, he gently covers them with a silken cloth. Parzival’s wits return; he moans: “Alas, lady wife of mine, what comes between us? A cloud has hidden thee.” Then, astonished, he sees Gawain--a knight without lance or shield--does he come to mock? With noble courtesy Gawain disclosed himself and led the way to Arthur’s Court, where fair ladies and the king greeted the hero whom they had come to seek. A festival was ordained in his honour. The fair company of knights and ladies are seated about the Round Table; the feast is at its height, when suddenly upon a gigantic mule, a scourge in her rough hand, comes riding the seeress Cundrie, harsh and unlovely. Straight she addresses Arthur: “Son of King Uterpendragon, you have shamed yourself and this high company, receiving Parzival, whom you call the Red Knight.” She turns on Parzival: “Disgrace fall on your proud form and strength! Sir Parzival, tell me, how came it that you met that joyless fisher, and did not help him? He showed you his pain, and you, false guest, had no pity for him. Abhorred by all good men, marked for hell by heaven’s Highest, you ban of happiness and curse of joy! No leech can heal your sickened honour. Greater betrayal never shamed a man so goodly. Your host gave you a sword; you saw them bear the Grail, the silver dishes, and the bloody spear, and you, dishonoured Parzival, were silent. You failed to win earth’s chiefest prize; your father had not done so--are you his son? Yes, for Herzeloide was as true as he. Woe’s me, that Herzeloide’s child has so let honour slip!” Cundrie wrung her hands; her tears fell fast; she turned her mule and cried: “Woe, woe to thee Munsalvaesch, mount of pain; here is no aid for thee!” And bidding none farewell, she rode away, leaving Parzival to his shame, the knights to their astonishment, the ladies to their tears.

Cundrie was hardly out of sight, before another shame was put on the Round Table. An armed knight rode in, and, accusing Gawain of murdering his king and cousin, summoned him to mortal combat within forty days before the King of Askalon. Arthur himself was ready to do battle for Gawain, but that good knight accepted the challenge with all courtesy.

Parzival’s lineage was first known to the Court from Cundrie’s calling him by name and speaking of his mother. Now Clamide, once Condwiramurs’s cruel wooer, begged the hero to intercede for him with another fair one, the lady Cunneware. Parzival courteously complied. A heathen queen then saluted him with the news that he had a great heathen half-brother, Feirefiz, the son of Parzival’s father by a heathen queen. Thanking her, Parzival spoke to the company: “I cannot endure Cundrie’s reproach;--what knight here does not look askance? I will seek no joy until I find the Grail, be the quest short or long. The worthy Gurnemanz bade me refrain from questions. Honoured knights, your favour is for me to win again, for I have lost it. Me yet unshamed you took into your company; I release you. Let sorrow be my comrade; for I forsook my happiness on Munsalvaesch. Ah! helpless Anfortas! You had small help from me.”

Knights and ladies were grieved to see the hero depart in such sorrow, and many a knight’s service was offered him. The lady Cunneware took his hand; Lord Gawain kissed him and said: “I know thy way is full of strife; God grant to thee good fortune, and to me the chance to serve thee.”

“Ah! what is God?” answered Parzival. “Were He strong He would not have put such shame on me and you. I was His subject from the hour I learned to ask His favour. Now I renounce His service. If He hates me, I will bear it. Friend, in thine hour of strife let the love of a woman pure and true strengthen thy hand. I know not when I shall see thee again; may my good wishes towards thee be fulfilled.”

The hero’s arms are brought; his horse is saddled; his grievous toil begins.

Why should long sorrow come to Parzival for not asking a question, when his omission was caused neither by brutality nor ill will? when, on the contrary, he would gladly have served his host? The relation between his conduct and his fortune seems lame. Yet in life as well as in literature, ignorance and error bring punishment. Moreover, to mediaeval romance not only is there a background of sorcery and magic, but active elements of magic survive in the tales.[725] And nothing is more fraught with magic import and result than question and answer. Wolfram did not treat as magical the effect upon his hero’s lot of his failure to ask the question; but he retained the palpably magic import of the act as affecting the sick Anfortas. It was hard that the omission should have brought Parzival to sorrow and despair; yet the fault was part of himself, and the man so ignorant and unwise was sure to incur calamity, and also gain sorrow’s lessons if he was capable of learning. So the sequence becomes ethical: from error, calamity; from calamity, grief; and from grief, wisdom. With Wolfram, Parzival’s fault was Parzival; failure to ask the question was a symbol of his lack of wisdom. The poet was of his time; and mediaeval thought tended to symbolism, and to move, as it were, from symbol to symbol, and from symbolical significance to related symbolical significance, and indeed often to treat a symbol as if it were the fact which was symbolized.

* * * * *

At this point Wolfram’s poem devotes some cantos to the lighter-hearted adventures of Gawain. This valiant, courtly, loyal knight and his adventures are throughout a foil to the heavier lot and character of Parzival. But when Gawain has had his due, the poet is glad to return to his rightful hero. Parzival has ridden through many lands; he has sailed many seas; before his lance no knight has kept his seat; his praise and fame are spread afar. Though he has never been overthrown, the sword given him by Anfortas broke; but with magic water Parzival welded it again. In a forest one day he rode up to a hut, where Sigune was living as a recluse, feeding her soul with thoughts of her dead lover, barring all fancies that might disunite her from the dead whom she still held as her husband. Parzival recognized her, and she him, when he removed his helm: “You are Sir Parzival--tell me, how is it with the Grail?”

“It has given me sorrow enough; I left a land where I was king, a loving wife, fairest of women; I suffer anguish for her love, and more because of that high goal of Munsalvaesch which is not reached. Cousin Sigune, knowing my sorrow, you do wrong to hate me.”

“My wrath is spent. You have lost joy enough since that time you failed to question Anfortas, your host--your happiness as well. Then that question would have blessed you; now joy is denied you; your high mood halts; your heart is tamed by sorrow, which had stayed a stranger to it had you asked the question.”

“I acted as a luckless man. Dear cousin, counsel me--but, say, how is it with you? I should bemoan your grief were not my own greater than man ever bore.”

“Let His hand help you who knows all sorrow. A path might bring you yet to Munsalvaesch. Cundrie but now rode hence--follow her track.”

Parzival started to follow the track of Cundrie’s mule, which soon was lost, and with it the Grail was lost again. Without guidance he rode on. He overthrew a Grail knight, and took his horse, his own having been wounded in the combat. How long he rode I know not, says the poet. One frosty morning he met an aged knight unhelmeted, and walking barefoot with his wife and daughters. The knight reproved him for riding armed on that holy day.

Parzival answered: “I do not know the time of year; it is long since I kept count of days. Once I served Him who is called God--until He graced me with His mockery. He helps, men say. I have not found it so.”

“If you mean God who was born of a virgin,” replied the old knight, “and believe that He took man’s nature, you do wrong to ride in armour; for this is the day when He hung on the Cross for us. Sir, not far from here dwells a holy man, who will give you counsel; you may repent and be absolved from your sins.”

Parzival courteously took his leave. He had regarded his failure to ask that question as a luckless error, had felt that God was unjust to him, and had also doubted His power to aid. Now came wavering thoughts: “What if God might help my pain? If He ever favoured a knight, or if sword and shield might win His favour--if to-day is His day of help, let Him help me if He can. If God’s craft can show the way to man and horse, I’ll honour Him. Go then according to God’s choosing.”

He flung the bridle on his horse’s neck, spurring him forward; and the horse carried him straight to the hermitage of holy Trevrizent, who fasted there to fit himself for heaven, his chastity warring with the devil. Parzival recognized the place where he had sworn the oath to Orilus, to clear Jesute’s honour. The hermit, seeing him, exclaimed: “Alas! sir, that you ride equipped in this holy season. Were you sore pressed? Another garb were fitter, did your pride permit. Come by the fire. If you follow love’s adventure, think of that afterward, and this day seek the love which this day gives.”

Dismounting, Parzival stood respectfully before the hermit: “Sir, advise me; I am a man of sin.”

His host promised counsel and asked how he came there. Parzival told of meeting the old knight, and inquired whether his host felt no fear at seeing him ride up. “Believe me, no,” answered the hermit; “I fear no man. I would not boast, but in my day my heart never quailed in the fight. I was a knight as you are, and had many sinful thoughts.”

Having placed the horse in shelter beneath a cliff, the hermit led the knight into his cell. There was a fire of coals, before which Parzival was glad to warm himself and exchange his steel armour for a cloak; he seemed forest-weary. A door opened to an inner cell, where stood an altar, bearing the very reliquary on which Parzival had laid his hand in making oath. He told his host of this, and of the lance which he had found there and taken. “A friend of mine left it there, and chided with me afterwards. It is four years, six months, and three days since you took that spear; I will prove it to you from this Psalter.”

“I did not know how long I had journeyed, lost and unhappy. I carry sorrow’s weight. Sir, I will tell you more: from that time no man has seen me in church or minster, where they honour God. I have sought battles only. I also bear a hate for God. He is my trouble’s sponsor: had He borne aid, my joy had not been buried living! My heart is sore. In reward of my many fights, sorrow has set on me a crown--of thorns. I bear a grudge against that Lord of aid, that me alone He helps not.”

The host sighed, and looked at him; then spoke: “Sir, be wise. You should trust God well. He will help you, it is His office; He must help us both. Tell me with sober wits, how did your anger against Him arise? Learn from me His guiltlessness before you accuse Him. His aid is never withheld. Even I, a layman, can read the meaning of those unlying books; man must continue steadfast in service of Him who never wearies in His steady aid to sinking souls. Keep troth, for God is troth. Deceit is hateful to Him. We should be grateful; in our behalf His nobility took on the form of man. God is called, and is, truth. He can turn from no one; teach your thoughts never to turn from Him. You can force nothing from Him with your wrath. Whoever sees you carry hate toward Him will deem you sick of wit. Think of Lucifer and all his comrades. Hell was their reward. When Lucifer and his host had taken their hell-journey, a man was made. God made from clay the worthy Adam. From Adam’s flesh He took Eve, who brought us calamity when she listened not to her Creator, and destroyed our joy. Two sons were born to them. One of these in envious anger destroyed his grandmother’s maidenhood, by sin.”

“Sir, how could that be?”

“The earth was Adam’s mother, and was a maiden. Adam was Cain’s father, who slew Abel; and the blood fell on the pure earth; its maidenhood was sped. Thence arose hate among men--and still endures. Nothing in the world is as pure as an innocent maid; God was himself a maiden’s child, and took the image of the first maid’s fruit. With Adam’s seed came sorrow and joy; through him our lineage is from God, but through him, too, we carry sin, for which God took man’s image, and so suffered, battling with troth against untroth. Turn to Him if you would not be lost. Plato, Sibyl the prophetess, foretold Him. With divine love His mighty hand plucked us from hell. The joyful news they tell of Him the True Lover is this: He is radiant light, and wavers not in His love. Men may have either His love or hate. The unrepentant sinner flees the divine faithfulness; he who does penance wins His clemency. God penetrates thought, which is hidden to the sun’s rays and needs no castle’s ward. Yet God’s light passes its dark wall, comes stealing in, and noiselessly departs. No thought so quick but He discovers it before it leaves the heart. The pure in heart He chooses. Woe to the man who harbours evil. What help is there in human craft for him whose deeds put God to shame? You are lost if you act in His despite, who is prepared for either love or hate. Now change your heart; with goodness earn His thanks.”

“Sir,” says Parzival, “I am glad to be taught by you of Him who does not fail to reward both crime and virtue. With pain and struggle I have so borne my young life to this day that through keeping troth I have got sorrow.”

Parzival still feels his innocence; perhaps the host is not so sure: “Prithee, be open with me. I would gladly hear your troubles and your sins. May be I can advise you.”

“The Grail is my chief woe and then my wife--she is beyond compare. For both of these I yearn.”

“Sir, you say well. Your grief is righteous if its cause is yearning for your wife. If you were cast to hell for other sins, but loyal to your wife, God’s hand would lift you out. As for the Grail, you foolish man, pursuit will never win it. ’Tis for him only who is named in heaven. I can say; for I have seen it.”

“Sir, were you there?”

“I was.”

Parzival did not say that he had been there too; but asked about the Grail. His host then told him of the valiant Templars who dwelt on Munsalvaesch, and rode thence on adventures as penance for their sins. “They are nourished by a Stone of marvellous virtue; no sick man seeing it could die that week; it gives youth and strength, and is called the Grail. To-day, as on every Good Friday, a dove flies from heaven and lays a wafer on the Grail, from which the Grail receives its share of every food and every good the earth or Paradise affords. The name of whosoever is chosen for the Grail, be it boy or girl, appears inscribed upon it, suddenly, and when read disappears. They come as children; glad the mother whose child is named; for taken to that company, it will be held from sin and shame, and be received in heaven when this life is past. Further, all those who took neither side in the war between Lucifer and the Trinity, were cast out of heaven to earth, and here must serve the Grail.”

Parzival spoke: “If knighthood might with shield and spear win earth’s prize and Paradise for the soul--why I have fought wherever I found fight; often my hand has touched the prize. If God is wise in conflicts, He should name me, that those people there may learn to know me. My hand never drew back.”

“First you must guard against pride, and practise modesty.” The old man paused and then continued: “There was a Grail king named Anfortas. You and I should pity his sad lot which befell him through pride in youth and riches; he loved in the world’s light way--that also goes not with the Grail. There came once to the castle one unnamed, a simple man; he went away, his sins upon his head; he never asked the host what ailed him. Before that time a prince, Lahelein, approached and fought with a Grail knight, and slew him and took his horse. Sir, are you Lahelein? you rode a Grail steed hither. I know his trappings well, and the dove’s crest which Anfortas gave his knights. The old Titurel also wore that crest, and after him his son Frimutel, till he lost his life. Sir, you resemble him. Who are you?”

Each looked on the other. Parzival spoke: “My father was a knight. He lost his life in combat; sir, include him in your prayers. His name was Gamuhret. I am not Lahelein; yet in my folly once I too robbed the dead. My sinful hand slew Ither. I left him dead upon the sward--and took what was to take.”

“O world! alas for thee! heart’s sorrow is thy pay!” the hermit cried. “My nephew, it was your own flesh and blood you slew; a deed which with God merits death. Ither, the pattern of all knights--how can you atone? My sister too, your mother Herzeloide, you brought her to her death.”

“Oh no! good sir, how say you that? If I am your sister’s child, oh tell me all.”

“Your mother died when you left her. My other sister was Sigune’s mother; our brother is Anfortas, who long has been the Grail’s sad lord. We early lost our father, Frimutel; from him Anfortas, his first-born, inherited the Grail crown, when still a child. As he grew a man, all too eagerly he followed the service set by love of woman, chose him a mistress and broke many a spear for her. He disobeyed the Grail, which forbids its lords love’s service, save as it prescribes. One day, for his lady’s favour, he ran a joust with a heathen knight. He slew him, but the heathen spear struck him, and broke, leaving a poisoned wound. In anguish he returned. No medicine or charm can heal that wound, and yet he cannot die; that is the Grail’s power. I renounced knighthood, flesh, and wine, in prayer that God would heal him. We knelt before the Grail, and on it read that when a knight should come, and, unadmonished, ask what ailed him, he should be sound again. That knight should then be the Grail’s king, in place of Anfortas. Since then a knight did come--I spoke of him to you. He might as well have stayed away for all the honour that he won or aid he brought us. He did not ask: My lord, what brought you to this pass? Stupidity forbade him.”

The two made moan together. It was noon. The host said: “Let us take food now, and tend your horse.” They went out; Parzival broke up some branches for his horse, while the host gathered a repast of herbs. Then they returned to the cell. “Dear nephew,” said the hermit, “do not despise this food. At least, you will not find another host who would more gladly give you better.”

“Sir, may God’s favour pass me by, if ever a host’s care was sweeter to me.”

When they had eaten, they saw to the horse again, whose hungry plight grieved the old man because of the saddle with Anfortas’s crest. Then Parzival spoke:

“Lord and uncle mine, if I dare speak for shame, I should tell you all my unhappiness. My troth takes refuge in you. My misdeeds are so sore, that if you cast me off I shall go all my days unloosed from my remorse. Take pity with good counsel on a fool. He who rode to Munsalvaesch, and saw that pain, and asked no question, that was I, misfortune’s child. Thus have I, sir, misdone.”

“Nephew! Alas! We both may well lament--where were your five senses? Yet I will not refuse thee counsel. You must not grieve overmuch, but, in lament and laying grief aside, follow right measure. Would that I might refresh and hearten you, so that you would push on, and not despair of God. You might still cure your sorrow. God will not forsake you. I counsel thee from Him.”

His host then told Parzival more about Anfortas’s pains, and about the Grail people, then the story of his own life before he renounced knighthood, and also about Ither. “Ither was your kin. If your hand forgot this kinship, God will not. You must do penance for this deadly sin, and also for your mother’s death. Repent of your misdeeds and think of death, so that your labour here below may bring peace to your soul above.”

These two deadly sins of Parzival were done unwittingly, and unwitting was his neglect to ask the question. His guilt was thoughtlessness and stupid ignorance. It is impossible not to think of Oedipus, and compare the Christian mediaeval treatment of unwitting crimes with the classical Greek consideration of the same dark subject. Oedipus sinned as unwittingly as Parzival, and as impulsively. His ruin was complete. Afterwards--in the _Oedipus Coloneus_--his character gathers greatness through submission to the necessary consequences of his acts; here was his spiritual expiation. On the other hand, mercy, repentance, hope, the uplifting of the unwitting sinner, forgiveness and consolation, soften and glorify the Christian mediaeval story.

Parzival stayed some days at the hermitage. At parting the hermit spoke words of comfort to him: “Leave me your sins. I will be your surety with God for your repentance. Perform what I have bidden you, and do not waver.”

The story here turns to Gawain. In the tale of his adventures there comes a glimpse of Parzival. A proud lady, for whose love Gawain is doing perilous deeds, tells him, she has never met a man she could not bend to her will and love, save only one. That one came and overthrew her knights. She offered him her land and her fair self; his answer put her to shame: “The glorious Queen of Pelrapeire is my wife, and I am Parzival. I will have none of your love. The Grail gives me other care.”

Gawain won this lady, and conducted her to Arthur’s Court, whither his rival the haughty King Gramoflanz was summoned to do battle with him. On the morning set for the combat Gawain rode out a little to the bank of a river, to prove his horse and armour. There at the river rode a knight; Gawain deemed it was Gramoflanz. They rush together; man and horse go down in the joust. The knights spring to their feet and fight on with their swords. Meanwhile Gramoflanz, with a splendid company, has arrived at Arthur’s Court. The lists are ready; Gramoflanz stands armed. But where is Gawain? He was not wont to tarry. Squires hurry out in search, to find him just falling before the blows of the stranger. They call, Gawain! and the unknown knight throws away his sword with a great cry: “Wretched and worthless! Accursed is my dishonoured hand. Be mine the shame. My luckless arms ever--and now again--strike down my happiness. That I should raise my hand against noble Gawain! It is myself that I have overthrown.”

Gawain heard him: “Alas, sir, who are you that speak such love towards me? Would you had spoken sooner, before my strength and praise had left me.”

“Cousin, I am your cousin, ready to serve you, Parzival.”

“Then you said true! This fool’s fight of two hearts that love! Your hand has overthrown us both.”

Gawain could no longer stand. Fainting they laid him on the grass. Gramoflanz rides up, and is grieved to find his rival in no condition to fight. Parzival offers to take Gawain’s place; but Gramoflanz declines, and the combat is postponed till the morrow. Parzival is then escorted to Arthur’s Court, where Gawain would have him meet fair ladies; he holds back, thinking of the shame once put on him there by Cundrie. Gawain insists, and ladies greet the knight. Arthur again makes Parzival one of the Round Table. Early the next morning, Parzival, changing his arms, meets Gramoflanz in the lists, before Gawain has arrived; and vanquishes him. Then comes Gawain and offers to postpone the combat as Gramoflanz had done. So the combat is again set for the next day. In the meanwhile, however, various matters come to light and explanations are had; Arthur succeeds in reconciling the rival knights and adjusting their relations to the ladies. So the Court becomes gay with wedding festivals, and all is joy.

Except with Parzival. His heart is torn with pain and yearning for his wife. He muses: “Since I could love, how has love dealt with me! I was born from love; why have I lost love? I must seek the Grail; yet how I yearn for the sweet arms of her from whom I parted--so long ago! It is not fit that I should look on this joyful festival with anguish in my heart.” There lay his armour: “Since I have no part in this joy, and God wills none for me; and the love of Condwiramurs banishes all wish for other happiness--now God grant happiness to all this company. I will go forth.” He put his armour on, saddled his horse, took spear and shield, and fled from the joyous Court, as the day was dawning.

And now he meets a heathen knight, approaching with a splendid following. They rode a great joust; and the heathen wondered to find a knight abide his lance. They fought with swords together, till their horses were blown; they sprang on the ground, and there fought on. Then the heathen thought of his queen; the love-thought brought him strength, and he struck Parzival a blow that brought him to his knee. Now rouse thee, Parzival; why dost thou not think on thy wife? Suddenly he thought of her, and how he won her love, vanquishing Clamide before Pelrapeire. Straight her aid came to him across four kingdoms, and he struck the heathen down; but his sword--once Ither’s--broke.

The foolish evil deed of Parzival in slaying Ither seems atoned for in the breaking of this sword. Had it not broken, great evil had been done. The great-hearted heathen sprang up. “Hero, you would have conquered had that sword not broken. Be peace between us while we rest.”

They sat together on the grass. “Tell me your name,” said the heathen; “I have never met as great a knight.”

“Is it through fear, that I should tell my name?”

“Nay, I will name myself--Feirefiz of Anjou.”

“How of Anjou? that is my heritage. Yet I have heard I had a brother. Let me see your face. I will not attack you with your helmet off.”

“Attack me? it is I that hold the sword; but let neither have the vantage.” He threw his sword far from them.

With joy and tears the brothers recognized each other; and long and loving was their speech. Then they rode back together to the Court. They entered Gawain’s tent. Arthur came to greet them, and with him many knights. At Arthur’s request each of the great brothers told the long list of his knightly victories. The next day Feirefiz was made a knight of the Round Table, and a grand tournament was held. Then the feast followed; and again, as once before, to the great company seated at the table, Cundrie came riding. She greeted the king; then turned to Parzival, and in tears threw herself at his feet and begged a greeting and forgiveness. Parzival forgives her. She rises up and cries: “Hail to thee, son of Gahmuret--Herzeloide’s child. Humble thyself in gladness. The high lot is thine, thou crown of human blessing. Thou shalt be the Grail’s lord; with thee thy wife Condwiramurs, and thy sons Lohengrin and Kardeiz, whom she bore to thee after thy going. Thy mouth shall question Anfortas--unto his joy. Now the planets favour thee; thy grief is spent. The Grail and the Grail’s power shall let thee have no part in evil. When young, thou didst get thee sorrow, which betrayed thy joy as it came;--thou hast won thy soul’s peace, and in sorrow thou hast endured unto thy life’s joy.”

Tears of love sprang from Parzival’s heart and fell from his eyes: “Lady, if this be true, that God’s grace has granted me, sinful man, to have my children and my wife, God has been good to me. Loyally would you make good my losses. Before, had I not done amiss, you would not have been angry. At that time I was yet unblessed. Now tell me, when and how I shall go meet my joy. Oh! let me not be stayed!”

There was no more delay. Parzival was permitted to take one comrade; he chose Feirefiz. Cundrie guided them to the Grail castle. They entered to find Anfortas calling on death to free him of his pain. Weeping, and with prayer to God, Parzival asked what ailed him, and the king was healed. Then Parzival rode again to Trevrizent. The hermit breaks out in wonder at the power of God, which man cannot comprehend; let Parzival obey Him and keep from evil; that any one should win the Grail by striving was unheard of; now this has come to Parzival, let him be humble. The hero yearns for his wife--where is she? He is told; there by the meadow where he once saw the drops of blood he finds her and his sons, asleep in their tent. They are united; Parzival is made Grail king; and the queen Repanse is given in marriage to Feirefiz, who is baptized and departs with her. Lohengrin is named as Parzival’s successor, while Kardeiz receives the kingdoms which had been Gahmuret’s and Herzeloide’s.

END OF VOL. I

_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.

INDEX

_NOTE.--Of several references to the same matter the more important are shown by heavy type._

Abaelard, Peter, career of, ii. 342-5; at Paris, ii. 343, 344, 383; popularity there, ii. 119; love for Heloïse, ii. 4-=5=, 344; love-songs, ii. =13=, 207; Heloïse’s love for, i. 585; ii. =3=, =5=, 8, 9, =15-16=; early relations with Heloïse, ii. 4-5; suggestion of marriage opposed by her, ii. 6-9; marriage, ii. 9; suffers vengeance of Fulbert, ii. 9; becomes a monk at St. Denis, ii. 10; at the Paraclete, ii. 10, 344; at Breton monastery, ii. 10; St. Bernard’s denunciations of, i. 229, 401; ii. =344-5=, =355=; letters to, from Heloïse quoted, ii. 11-15, 17-20, 23, 24; letters from, to Heloïse quoted, ii. 16-17, 21-3, 24-5; closing years at Cluny, ii. 25, =26=, 345; death of, ii. =27=, 345; estimate of, ii. 4, 342; rationalizing temper, i. 229; ii. =298-9=; skill in dialectic, ii. 303, =345-6=, 353; not an Aristotelian, ii. 369; works on theology, ii. 352-5; _De Unitate et Trinitate divina_, ii. 10, =298-9=, 352 _and_ _n. 3_; _Theologia_, ii. =303-4=, 395; _Scito te ipsum_, ii. 350-1; _Sic et non_, i. 17; ii. =304-6=, =352=, 357; _Dialectica_, ii. 346 _and_ _nn._, 349-50; _Dialogue_ between Philosopher, Jew, and Christian, ii. 350, =351=; _Historia calamitatum_, ii. =4-11=, 298-9, =343=; _Carmen ad Astralabium filium_, ii. 192; hymns, ii. 207-9; otherwise mentioned, ii. 134, 283 _and_ _n._

Abbo, Abbot, i. =294 and n.=, 324

Abbots: Armed forces, with, i. 473 Cistercian, position of, i. 362-3 _and_ _n._ Investiture of, lay, i. 244 Social class of, i. 473

Accursius, _Glossa ordinaria_ of, ii. 262, =263=

Adalberon, Abp. of Rheims, i. 240, =282-3=, 287

Adam of Marsh, ii. 389, 400, 487

Adam of St. Victor, editions of hymns of, ii. 87 _n. 1_; examples of the hymns, ii. 87 _seqq._; Latin originals, ii. 206, 209-15

Adamnan cited, i. 134 _n. 2_, 137

Adelard of Bath, ii. 370

Aedh, i. 132

Agobard, Abp. of Lyons, i. 215, =232-3=; cited, ii. 247

Aidan, St., i. 174

Aimoin, _Vita Abbonis_ by, i. 294 _and_ _n._

Aix, Synod of, i. 359

Aix-la-Chapelle: Chapel at, i. 212 _n._ School at, _see_ Carolingian period--Palace school

Alans, i. 113, 116, 119

Alanus de Insulis, career of, ii. 92-4; estimate of, ii. 375-6; works of, ii. 48 _n. 1_, =94=, 375 _n. 5_, 376; _Anticlaudianus_, ii. =94-103=, 192, 377, 539; _De planctu naturae_, ii. =192-3 and n. 1=, 376

Alaric, i. 112

Alaric II., i. =117=; ii. 243

Alberic, Card., i. 252 _n. 2_

Alberic, Markgrave of Camerino, i. 242

Alberic, son of Marozia, i. 242-3

Albertus Magnus, career of, ii. 421; estimate of, ii. 298, 301, =421=; estimate of work of, ii. 393, 395; attitude toward Gilbert de la Porrée, ii. 372; compared with Bacon, ii. 422; with Aquinas, ii. 433, =438=; relations with Aquinas, ii. 434; on logic, ii. 314-15; method of, ii. 315 _n._; edition of works, ii. 424 _n. 1_; _De praedicabilibus_, ii. 314 and _n._, 315, 424-5; work on the rest of Aristotle, ii. 420-1; analysis of this work, ii. 424 _seqq._; attitude toward the original, ii. 422; _Summa theologiae_, ii. 430, 431; _Summa de creaturis_, ii. 430-1; _De adhaerendo Deo_, ii. 432; otherwise mentioned, i. 17; ii. 82 _n. 2_, 283, 312, 402, 541 _n. 2_

Albigenses, i. 49; persecution of, i. 366-7, 461, 481, 572; ii. 168

Alboin the Lombard, i. 115

Alchemy, ii. 496-7

Alcuin of York, career of, i. 214; works of, i. 216-21 _and_ _n. 2_; extracts from letters of, ii. 159; stylelessness of, ii. =159=, 174; verses by, quoted, ii. 136-7; on _urbanitas_, ii. 136; otherwise mentioned, i. 212, 240, 343; ii. 112, 312, 332

Aldhelm, i. 185

Alemanni, i. 9, 121, 122, 145 _n. 2_, 174, 192

Alemannia, Boniface’s work in, i. 199

Alexander the Great, Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Life of, ii. 224, 225, =229-230=; Walter of Lille’s work on, ii. 230 _n. 1_

Alexander II., Pope, i. 262 _n._, 263 _and_ _n. 1_

Alexander de Villa-Dei, _Doctrinale_ of, ii. =125-7=, 163

Alexander of Hales--at Paris, i. 476; ii. =399=; Bacon’s attack on, ii. 494, 497; estimate of work of, ii. 393, 395, 399; Augustinianism of, ii. 403-4

Alfred, King of England, i. 144 _and_ _n. 2_, =187-90=

Allegory (_See also_ Symbolism): Dictionaries of, ii. 47-8 _and_ _n. 1_, 49 Greek examples of, ii. 42, 364 Metaphor distinguished from, ii. 41 _n._ Politics, in, ii. 60-1, 275-=6=, =280= _Roman de la rose_ as exemplifying, ii. 103 Scripture, _see under_ Scriptures Two uses of, ii. 365

Almsgiving, i. 268

Alphanus, i. 253-4

_Amadas_, i. 565

Ambrose, St., Abp. of Milan, on miracles, i. 85-6; attitude toward secular studies, i. 300; ii. 288; _Hexaëmeron_ of, i. 72-4; _De officiis_, i. 96; hymns, i. 347-8; otherwise mentioned, i. 70, 75, 76, 104, 186, 354; ii. 45 _n._, 272

Anacletus II., Pope, i. 394

Anchorites, _see_ Hermits

Andrew the Chaplain, _Flos amoris_ of, i. 575-6

Angels: Aquinas’ discussion of, ii. 324-5, 435, =457 seqq.=, =469=, =473-5= Dante’s views on, ii. 551 Emotionalizing of conception of, i. 348 _n. 4_ Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 68, 69 Symbols, regarded as, ii. 457 Vincent’s _Speculum_ as concerning, ii. 319 Writings regarding, summary of, ii. 457

Angilbert, i. 234-5

Angles, i. 140

Anglo-Saxons: Britain conquered by, i. 141 Characteristics of, i. 142, =196= Christian missions by, i. 196, 197 Christian missions to, i. 172, 174, =180 seqq.= Customs of, i. 141 Poetry of, i. 142-4 Roman influence slight on, i. 32

Aniane monastery, i. 358-9

Annals, i. 234 and _n. 1_

Anselm (at Laon), ii. 343-4

Anselm, St., Abp. of Canterbury, dream of, i. 269-70; early career, i. 270; at Bec, i. 271-2; relations with Rufus, i. 273, 275; journey to Italy, i. 275; estimate of, i. 274, =276-7=; ii. =303=, 330, =338=; style of, i. 276; ii. =166-7=; influence of, on Duns Scotus, ii. 511; works of, i. 275 _seqq._; _Cur Deus homo_, i. 275, 277 _n. 1_, =279=; ii. 395; _Monologion_, i. 275-7; _Proslogion_, i. 276-8; ii. =166=, 395; _Meditationes_, i. 276, =279=; _De grammatico_, i. 277 _n. 2_; otherwise mentioned, i. 16, 19, 301-2; ii. 139, 283, 297, 340

Anselm of Besate, i. 259

Anthony, St., i. 365-6; Life of, by Athanasius, i. 47, =52 and n.=

Antique literature, _see_ Greek thought _and_ Latin classics

Antique stories, themes of, in vernacular poetry, ii. 223 _seqq._

Apollinaris Sidonius, ii. 107

Apollonius of Tyana, i. 44

_Apollonius of Tyre_, ii. 224 _and_ _n._

Aquinas, Thomas, family of, ii. 433-4; career, ii. 434-5; relations with Albertus Magnus, ii. 434; translations of Aristotle obtained by, ii. 391; _Vita_ of, by Guilielmus de Thoco, ii. 435 _n._; works of, ii. 435; estimate of, and of his work, i. 17, 18; ii. 301, =436-8=, 484; completeness of his philosophy, ii. 393-5; pivot of his attitude, ii. 440; present position of, ii. 501; style, ii. 180; mastery of dialectic, ii. 352; compared with Eriugena, i. 231 _n. 1_; with Albertus Magnus, ii. 433, =438=; with Bonaventura, ii. 437; with Duns, ii. 517; Dante compared with and influenced by, ii. 541 _n. 2_, =547=, 549, 551, 555; on monarchy, ii. 277; on faith, ii. 288; on difference between philosophy and theology, ii. 290; on logic, ii. 313; _Summa theologiae_, i. 17, 18; ii. =290 seqq.=; style of the work, ii. 180-1; Bacon’s charge against it, ii. 300; Peter Lombard’s work contrasted with it, ii. 307-10; its method, ii. 307; its classification scheme, ii. 324-9; analysis of the work, ii. 438 _seqq._, 447 _seqq._; _Summa philosophica contra Gentiles_, ii. 290, 438, =445-6=; otherwise mentioned, i. 69 _n. 2_; ii. 283, 298, 300, 312, 402

Aquitaine, i. 29, 240, =573=

Arabian philosophy, ii. =389-90=, 400-1

Arabs, Spanish conquest by, i. 9, 118

Archimedes, i. 40

Architecture, Gothic: Evolution of, i. 305; ii. =539= Great period of, i. 346

Argenteuil convent, ii. 9, 10

Arianism: Teutonic acceptance of, i. =120=, 192, 194 Visigothic abandonment of, i. 118 _nn._

Aristotle, estimate of, i. 37-8; works of, i. 37-8; unliterary character of writings of, ii. 118, 119; philosophy as classified by, ii. 312; attitude of, to discussions of final cause, ii. 336; the _Organon_, i. =37=, 71; progressive character of its treatises, ii. 333-4; Boëthius’ translation of the work, i. 71, =91-2=; advanced treatises “lost” till 12th cent., ii. 248 _n._, 334; Porphyry’s _Introduction_ to the _Categories_, i. 45, 92, 102; ii. 312, =314 n.=, 333, =339=; Arabian translations of works, ii. 389-90; introduction of complete works, i. 17; Latin translations made in 13th cent., ii. 391; three stages in scholastic appropriation of the Natural Philosophy and Metaphysics, ii. 393; Paris University study of, ii. 391-2 _and_ _n._; Albertus Magnus’ work on, ii. 420-1, 424 _seqq._; Aquinas’ mastery of, i. 17, 18; Dominican acceptance of system of, ii. 404; Dante’s reverence for, ii. 542

Arithmetic: Abacus, the, i. 299 Boëthius’ work on, i. 72, =90= Music in relation to, ii. 291 Patristic treatment of, i. 72 Scholastic classification of, ii. 313

Arnold of Brescia, i. 401; ii. 171

Arnulf, Abp. of Rheims, i. 283-4

Art, Christian (_For particular arts, see their names_): Demons as depicted in, ii. 540 _n. 2_ Early, i. 345 _n._ Emotionalizing of, i. 345-7 Evolution of, i. 19-20 Germany, in (11th cent.), i. 312 Symbolism the inspiration of, i. 21; ii. 82-6

Arthur, King, story of youth of, i. 568-569; relations with Lancelot and Guinevere, i. 584; with Parzival, i. 592, 599-600, 612

Arthurian romances: Comparison of, with _Chansons de geste_, i. 564-5 German culture influenced by, ii. 28 Origin and authorship of, question as to, i. 565-7 Universal vogue of, i. =565=, 573, 577 otherwise mentioned, i. 531, 538

Arts, the (_See also_ Latin classics): Classifications of, ii. 312 _seqq._ Course of, shortening of, ii. =132=, 384 _Dictamen_, ii. =121=, =129=, 381 Grammar, _see that heading_ Masters in, at Paris and Oxford, ii. 384-5; course for, ii. 388 Seven Liberal, _see that heading_

Asceticism: Christian: Carthusian, i. 384 Early growth of, i. 333-5 Manichean, i. 49 Women’s practice of, i. 444, 462-3 Neo-Platonic, i. 43, 44, 46, 50, =331=, 334

Astralabius, ii. 6, 9, 27; Abaelard’s poem to, ii. 191-2 _and_ _n. 1_

Astrology, i. =44 and n.=; ii. 374: Bacon’s views on, ii. 499-500

Astronomy: Chartres study of, i. 299 Gerbert’s teaching of, i. 288-9 Patristic attitude toward, i. 72

Ataulf, i. 112, 116

Athanasius, St., estimate of work of, i. =54=, 68; Life of St. Anthony by, i. 47, =52 and n.=, 84; _Orationes_, i. 68

Atlantis, i. 36

Attila the Hun, i. 112-13; in legend, i. 145-7

Augustine, Abp. of Canterbury, i. 6, 171, =180-2=; Gregory’s letters to, cited, i. 102

Augustine, St., Bp. of Hippo, Platonism of, i. 55; personal affinity of, with Plotinus, i. 55-7; barbarization of, by Gregory the Great, i. 98, 102; compared with Gregory the Great, i. 98-9; with Anselm, i. 279; with Guigo, i. 385, 390; overwhelming influence of, in Middle Ages, ii. 403; on numbers, i. 72 _and_ _n. 2_, 105; attitude toward physical science, i. 300; on love of God, i. 342, 344; allegorizing of Scripture by, ii. 44-5; modification by, of classical Latin, ii. 152; _Confessions_, i. =63=; ii. 531; _De Trinitate_, i. =64=, =68=, 74, 96; _Civitas Dei_, i. 64-65, 69 _n. 2_, =81-82=; _De moribus Ecclesiae_, i. 65, 67-8; _De doctrina Christiana_, i. 66-7; classification scheme based on the _Doctrina_, ii. 322; _De spiritu et littera_, i. 69; _De cura pro mortuis_, i. 86; _De genesi ad litteram_, ii. 324; Alcuin’s compends of works of, i. 220; otherwise mentioned, i. 5, 53, 71, 75, 82, 87, 89, 104, 186, 225, 340, 354, 366, 370; ii. 107, 269, 297, 312

Augustus, Emp., i. 26, 29

Aurillac monastery, i. 281

Ausonius, i. 126 _n. 2_; ii. 107

Austrasia: Church organization in, i. 199 Feudal disintegration of, i. 240 Irish monasteries founded in, i. 174 Rise of, under Pippin, i. 209

Authority _v._ reason, _see_ Reason

Auxerre, i. 506-7

Averroes, ii. 390

Averroism, ii. 400-1

Averroists, ii. =284 n.=, 296 _n. 1_

Avicenna, ii. 390

Avitus, Bp. of Vienne, i. 126 _n. 2_

Azo, ii. 262-3

Bacon, Roger, career of, ii. 486-7 tragedy of career, ii. 486; relations with Franciscan Order, ii. 299, 486, =488=, 490-1; encouragement to, from Clement IV., ii. 489-90 _and_ _n. 1_; estimate of, ii. 484-6; estimate of work of, ii. 402; style of, ii. 179-80; attitude toward the classics, ii. 120; predilection for physical science, ii. 289, 486-7; Albertus Magnus compared with, ii. 422; on four causes of ignorance, ii. 494-5; on seven errors in theological study, ii. 495-8; on experimental science, ii. 502-8; on logic, ii. 505; on faith, ii. 507; editions of works of, ii. 484 _n._; Greek Grammar by, ii. =128= _and_ _n. 5_, 484 _n._, 487, 498; _Multiplicatio specierum_, ii. 484 _n._, 500; _Opus tertium_, ii. =488=, 490 _and_ _nn._, 491, 492, 498, 499; _Opus majus_, ii. 490-1, 492, =494-5=, 498, =499-500=, =506-8=; _Optics_, ii. 500; _Opus minus_, ii. 490-1, =495-8=; _Vatican fragment_, ii. 490 _and_ _n. 2_, =505 n. 1=; _Compendium studii philosophiae_, ii. 491, 493-4, 507-8; _Compendium theologiae_, ii. 491; otherwise mentioned, ii. 284 _n._, 335 _n._, =389=, 531-2

Bartolomaeus, _De proprietatibus rerum_ of, ii. 316 _n. 2_

Bartolus, ii. 264

Baudri, Abbot of Bourgueil, ii. 192 _n. 1_

Bavaria: Irish monasteries founded in, i. 174 Merovingian rule in, i. 121 Otto’s relations with, i. 241 Reorganization of Church in, 198-9

Bavarians, i. 145 _n. 2_, 209, 210

Beauty, love of, i. 340

Bec monastery, i. 262 _n._, 270-2

Bede, estimate of, i. 185-6; allegorizing of Scripture by, ii. 47 _n. 1_; _Church History of the English People_, i. 172, =186=, 234 _n. 2_; _De arte metrica_, i. 187, =298=; _Liber de temporibus_, 300; otherwise mentioned, i. 184, 212

Beghards of Liége, i. 365

Belgae, i. 126

Belgica, i. 29, 32

Benedict, Prior, i. 258

Benedict, St., of Nursia, i. =85 and n. 2=, 94, 100 _n. 4_; _Regula_ of, _see under_ Monasticism

Benedictus, _Chronicon_ of, ii. 160-1

Benedictus Levita, Deacon, ii. 270

Benoit de St. More, _Roman de Troie_ by, ii. 225, =227-9=

Beowulf, i. 141, =143-4= _and_ _n. 1_

Berengar, King, i. 256

Berengar of Tours, i. 297, 299, =302-3=; ii. 137

Bernard, Bro., of Quintavalle, i. 502

Bernard, disciple of St. Francis, i. 425-6

Bernard of Chartres, ii. 130-2, 370

Bernard, St., Abbot of Clairvaux, at Citeaux, i. 360, 393; inspires Templars’ _regula_, i. 531; denounces and crushes Abaelard, i. 229, 401; ii. =344-5=, =355=; denounces Arnold of Brescia, i. 401; ii. 171; relations with Gilbert de la Porrée, ii. 372; Lives of, i. 392 _n._, 393 _n. 1_; appearance and characteristics of, i. 392-3; estimate of, i. 394; ii. 367-8; love and tenderness of, i. 344, 345, =394 seqq.=; ii. 365; severity of, i. 400-1; his love of Clairvaux, i. 401-2; of his brother, i. 402-4; Latin style of, ii. 169-71; on church corruption, i. 474; on faith, ii. 298; unconcerned with physics, ii. 356; St. Francis compared with, i. 415-16; extracts from letters of, i. 395 _seqq._; ii. 170-1; _Sermons on Canticles_--cited, 337 _n._; quoted, i. =409-13=; ii. =169=, 368-9; _De consideratione_, ii. 368; otherwise mentioned, i. 17, 20, 279, 302, 472, 501; ii. 34, 168

Bernard Morlanensis, _De contemptu mundi_ by, ii. 199 _n. 3_

Bernard Silvestris, _Commentum ..._ of, ii. 116-17 _and_ _n. 2_; _De mundi universitate_, ii. 119, =371 and n.=

Bernardone, Peter, i. 419, 423-4

Bernward, Bp. of Hildesheim, i. 312 _and_ _n. 1_

Bible, _see_ Scriptures

Biscop, Benedict, i. 184

Bishops: Armed forces, with, i. 473 Francis of Assisi’s attitude toward, i. 430 Gallo-Roman and Frankish, position of, i. 191-2, 194 _and_ _nn._, 198, =201 n.= Investiture of, lay, i. 244-5 _and_ _n. 4_; ii. 140 Jurisdiction and privileges of, ii. 266 Papacy’s ascendancy over, i. 304 Reluctance to be consecrated, i. 472 Social class of, i. 473 Vestments of, symbolism of, ii. 77 _n. 2_

_Blancandrin_, i. 565

Bobbio monastery, i. 178, =282-3=

Boëthius, death of, i. =89=, 93; estimate of, i. 89, 92, =102=; Albertus Magnus compared with, ii. 420; works of, i. 90-3; Gerbert’s familiarity with works of, i. 289; works of, studied at Chartres, i. 298-9; their importance, i. 298; _De arithmetica_, i. 72, =90=; _De geometria_, i. 90; commentary on Porphyry’s _Isagoge_, i. =92=; ii. 312; translation of the _Organon_, i. 71, =91-2=; “loss” of advanced works, ii. 248 _n._, 334; _De consolatione philosophiae_, i. =89=, 188, =189-90=, 299; mediaeval study of the work, i. 89; ii. 135-6

Bologna: Clubs and guilds in, ii. 382 Fight of, against Parma, i. 497 Law school at, ii. =121=, 251, =259-62=, 378 Medical school at, ii. 121, 383 _n._ University, Law, inception and character of, ii. 121, =381-3=; affiliated universities, ii. 383 _n._

Bonaventura, St. (John of Fidanza), career of, ii. 403; at Paris, ii. 399, 403; estimate of, ii. 301; style of, ii. 181-2; contrasted with Albertus, ii. 405; compared with Aquinas, ii. 405, 437; with Dante, ii. 547; on faith, ii. 298; on Minorites and Preachers, ii. 396; attitude toward Plato and Aristotle, ii. 404-5; toward Scriptures, ii. 405 _seqq._; _De reductione artium ad theologiam_, ii. 406-8; _Breviloquium_, ii. 408-13; _Itinerarium mentis in Deum_, ii. 413-18; otherwise mentioned, ii. 283, 288

Boniface, _see_ Winifried-Boniface

Boniface VIII., Pope, _Sextus_ of, ii. 272; _Unam sanctam_ bull of, ii. 509

_Books of Sentences_, method of, ii. 307 (_See also under_ Lombard)

Botany, ii. 427-8

Bretons, i. 113

_Breviarium_, i. 117, 239, =243-4=

Britain: Anglo-Saxon conquest of, i. 141 Antique culture in relation to, before Middle Ages, i. 10-11 Celts in, i. 127 _n._ Christianity of, i. 171-2 Romanization of, i. 32

Brude (Bridius), King of Picts, i. 173

Brunhilde, i. 176, 178

Bruno, Abp. of Cologne, i. 309-10, 383-4; Ruotger’s Life of, i. 310; ii. 162 _and_ _n. 1_

Burgundians: Christianizing of, i. 193 Church’s attitude toward, i. 120 Roman law code promulgated by (_Papianus_), ii. 239, =242= Roman subjects of, i. 121 otherwise mentioned, i. 9-10, 113, 145

Burgundy, i. =175=, 243 _n. 1_

Byzantine architecture, 212 _n._

Byzantine Empire, _see_ Eastern Empire

Cædmon, i. 183, 343

Caesar, C. Julius, cited, i. =27-9=, 138, 296

Caesar of Heisterbach, Life of Engelbert by, i. 482-6 _and_ _n._; _Dialogi miraculorum_, cited, i. 488 _n._, 491.

Canon law: Authority of, ii. 274 Basis of, ii. 267-9 Bulk of, ii. 269 Conciliar decrees, collections of, ii. =269= Decretals: Collections of, ii. 269, =271-2=, =275= =n.= False, ii. 270, 273 Gratian’s _Decretum_, ii. 268-9, =270-1=, 306 _Jus naturale_ in, ii. 268-9 _Lex romana canonice compta_, ii. 252 Scope of, ii. 267 Sources of, ii. 269 Supremacy of, ii. 277

Canossa, i. 244

Cantafables, i. 157 _n. 1_

Canticles, i. 350; Origen’s interpretation of, 333; St. Bernard’s Sermons on, i. 337 _n._, =409-13=; ii. =169=, 368-9

Capella, Martianus, _De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii_ of, i. =71 and n. 3=; ii. 553

_Caritas_, ii. 476-8; in relation to faith, ii. 479-81; to wisdom, ii. 481

Carloman, King of Austrasia, i. =199-200 and n.=, 209

Carloman (son of Pippin), i. 209-10

Carnuti, i. 296

Carolingian period: _Breviarium_ epitomes current during, ii. 244, =249= Continuity of, with Merovingian, i. 210-12 Criticism of records non-existent in, i. 234 Definiteness of statement a characteristic of, i. 225, =227= Educational revival in, 218-19, 222, =236=; ii. 122, =158=; palace school, i. =214=, 218, 229, 235 First stage of mediaeval learning represented by, ii. 330, 332 History as compiled in, i. 234-5 King’s law in, ii. 247 Latin poetry of, ii. 188, 194, 197 Latin prose of, ii. 158 Originality in, circumstances evoking, i. 232-3 Restatement of antique and patristic matter in, i. =237=, 342-3

Carthaginians, i. 25

Carthusian Order, origin of, i. 383-4

Cassian’s _Institutes_ and _Conlocations_, i. 335

Cassiodorus, life and works of, i. 93-7; _Chronicon_, i. 94; _Variae epistolae_, i. 94; _De anima_, 94-5; _Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum_, i. =95-6=; ii. 357 _n. 2_; otherwise mentioned, i. 6, 88-9, 115; ii. 312

Cathari, i. 49; ii. 283 _n._

Catullus, i. 25

Cavallini, i. 347

Celsus cited, ii. 235, 237

Celtic language, date of disuse of, i. 31 _and_ _n._

Celts: Gaul, in, i. =125 and n.=, =126-7=, 129 _n. 1_ Goidelic and Brythonic, i. 127 _n._ Ireland, in, _see_ Irish Italy invaded by (3rd cent. B.C.), i. 24 Latinized, i. 124 Teutons compared with, i. 125

Champagne, i. 240, =573=

Chandos, Sir John, i. 554-5

_Chanson de Roland_, i. 12 _n._, 528 _and_ _n. 2_, =559-62=

_Chansons de geste_, i. =558 seqq.=; ii. 222

Charlemagne, age of, _see_ Carolingian period; estimate of, i. 213; relations of, with the Church, i. =201=, 239; ii. 273; relations with Angilbert, i. 234-5; educational revival by, i. =213-14=; ii. 110, 122, =158=, 332; book of Germanic poems compiled by order of, ii. 220; Capitularies of, ii. 110, =248=; open letters of, i. 213 _n._; Einhard’s Life of, ii. 158-9; poetic fame of, i. 210; false Capitularies ascribed to, ii. 270; empire of, non-enduring, i. 238; otherwise mentioned, i. 9, 115, 153, 562; ii. 8

Charles Martel, i. 197, =198=, =209=; ii. 273

Charles II. (the Bald), King of France, i. 228, 235

Charles III. (the Simple), King of France, i. 239-40

Charles IV., King of France, i. 551

Chartres Cathedral, sculpture of, i. =20=, 297; ii. =82-5=

Chartres Schools: Classics the study of, i. 298; ii. 119 Fulbert’s work at, i. 296-7, 299 Grammar as studied at, ii. 129-30 Medicine studied at, ii. 372 Orleans the rival of, ii. 119 _n. 2_ Trivium and quadrivium at, i. =298-9=; ii. 163 mentioned, i. 287, 293

Chartreuse, La Grande, founding of, i. 384 (_See also_ Carthusian)

Chaucer, ii. 95

Childeric, King, i. 119, 122

Chivalry: Literature of: Arthurian romances, _see that heading_ Aube (alba) poetry, i. =571=; ii. 30 _Chansons de geste_, i. 558 _seqq._ Nature of, i. 20 _Pastorelle_, i. 571 Pietistic ideal recognized in, ii. 288, 533 Poems of various nations cited, i. 570 =n.= Religious phraseology in love poems, i. 350 _n. 2_ _Romans d’aventure_, i. =564-5=, 571 _n. 2_ Three branches of, i. 558 Nature of, i. 522, =570 n.= Order of, evolution of, i. 524 _seqq._ (_See also_ Knighthood)

Chrétien de Troies, romances by, i. 566-=7=; _Tristan_, i. 567; _Perceval_, i. 567, =588-9=; _Erec_ (Geraint), i. 567, 586; ii. 29 _n._; _Lancelot_ or _Le Conte de la charrette_, i. 567, 569-70, =582-5=; _Cligés_, i. 567, =586 n. 2=; _Ivain_, i. =571 n. 2=, 586 _n. 3_; ii. 29 _n._; translation of Ovid’s _Ars amatoria_, i. 574

Christianity: Appropriation of, by mediaeval peoples, stages in, i. 17-18 Aquinas’ _Summa_ as concerning, ii. 324 Art, in, _see_ Art Atonement doctrine, Anselm’s views on, i. 279 Basis of, ii. 268 Britain, in, i. 171-2 Buddhism contrasted with, i. 390 Catholic Church, _see_ Church Completeness of scheme of, ii. 394-5 Dualistic element in, i. 59 Eleventh century, position in, i. 16 Emotional elements in: Fear, i. 103, 339, 342, 383 Hate, i. 332, 339 Love, i. 331, =345= Synthetic treatment of, i. 333 Emotionalizing of, angels as regarded in, i. 348 _n. 4_ Eternal punishment doctrine of, i. =65=, =339=, 486 Faith of, _see_ Faith Feudalism in relation to, i. 524, 527-=9 and n. 2=, =530= Fifth century, position in, i. 15 Gallo-Roman, i. 191-2 German language affected by, i. 202 Greek Fathers’ contribution to, i. 5 Greek philosophic admixture in, i. 33-4 Hell-fear in, i. 103, =339=, 342, =383= Hymns, _see that heading_ Ideal _v._ actual, i. 354-5 Incarnation doctrine of, ii. 369 Irish missionaries of, _see under_ Irish Latin as modified for expression of, ii. 152, =154=, 156, 164, 171 Marriage as regarded by, ii. 8, 529 Martyrs for, _see_ Martyrs Mediaeval development in relation to, i. 11, 170 Mediation doctrine of, i. 54, 59-60 Militant character of, in early centuries, i. =69-70=, 75 Miracles, attitude toward, i. 50-1 Monasticism, _see that heading_ Neo-Platonism compared with, i. 51 Pagan ethics inconsistent with, i. 66 Pessimism of, toward mortal life, i. 64 Saints, _see that heading_ Salvation: Master motive, as, i. 59, =61=, 79, 89 Scholasticism’s main interest, as, ii. =296-7=, 300, 311 Standard of discrimination, as, ii. =530=, =533=, 559 Scriptures, _see that heading_ Teutonic acceptance of, _see under_ Teutons Trinity doctrine of: Abaelard’s works on, ii. 10, =298-9=, 352-3, 355 Aquinas on, ii. 449-50, 456 Bonaventura on, ii. 416-17 Dante’s vision, ii. 551 Peter Lombard’s Book on, ii. 323 Roscellin on, ii. 340 Vernacular presentation of, ii. 221 Visions, _see that heading_

Chronicles, mediaeval, ii. 175

Chrysostom, i. 53

Church, Roman Catholic: Authority of, Duns’ views on, ii. 516 Bishops, _see that heading_ British Church’s divergencies from, 171-2 Canon Law, _see that heading_ Charlemagne’s relations with, i. =201=, 239; ii. 273 Classical study as regarded by, i. 260; ii. =110 seqq.=, 396-7 Clergy, _see that heading_ Confession doctrine of, i. 489 Constantine’s relations with, ii. 266 Creation of, i. 11, 68, =86-7= Decretals, etc., _see under_ Canon Law Denunciations of, i. 474-5; ii. 34-5 Diocesan organization of, among Germans, i. 196 Doctrinal literature of, i. 68-70 Duns’ attitude towards, ii. 513 East and West, solidarity of development of, i. 55 Empire’s relations with, _see under_ Papacy Eternal punishment doctrine of, i. =65=, =339=, 486; ii. 550 Eucharistic controversy, _see that heading_ Fathers of the, _see_ Greek thought, patristic; Latin Fathers; _and chiefly_ Patristic thought Feudalism as affected by, i. 524, 527-=9 and n. 2=, =530= Feudalism as affecting, i. 244, 473 Frankish, _see under_ Franks Gallo-Roman, i. 191-2, 194 Hildegard’s visions regarding, i. 457 Intolerance of, _see subheading_ Persecutions Investiture controversy, _see under_ Bishops Irish Church’s relations with, i. 172-4 _and_ =n. 1= Isidore’s treatise on liturgical practices of, i. 106 Knights’ vow of obedience to, i. 530 Mass, the: Alleluia chant and Sequence-hymn, ii. 196, =201 seqq.= Symbolism of, ii. 77-8 Nicene Creed, i. 69 Papacy, Popes, _see those headings_ Paschal controversy, _see_ Eucharistic Penance doctrine of, i. =101=, 195 Persecutions by, i. 339; of Albigenses, i. 366-7, 461, 481, 572; ii. 168; of Jews, i. 118, 332; of Montanists, i. 332 Popes, _see that heading_ Predestination, attitude toward, i. 228 Property of, enactments regarding, ii. 266 Rationalists in, i. 305 Reforms in (11th cent.), i. 304 Roman law for, ii. 265 _and_ _n. 2_ Sacraments: Definition of the word, ii. 72 _and_ _n. 1_ Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 64, 66, 68-9, 71, =72-4=, 90 _n. 2_ Origin of, Bonaventura on, ii. 411-13 Pagan analogy with, i. 53, 59-60 Secularization of dignities of, i. 472 Simony in, i. =244=, 475 Spain, in, _see under_ Spain Standards set by, ii. 528-9 Suspects to, estimate of, ii. 532 Synod of Aix (817), i. 359 Theodosian Code as concerning, ii. 266-7 _and_ _n. 1_ Transubstantiation doctrine of, i. 226-227 “Truce of God” promulgated by, i. 529 _n. 2_

Churches: Building of, symbolism in, ii. 78-82 Dedication of, sequence designed for, ii. 210-11

Cicero, i. 26 _n. 3_, 39, 78, =219=

Cino, ii. 264

Cistercian Order: _Charta charitatis_, i. 361-3 Clairvaux founded, i. 393 Cluniac controversies with, i. 360

Citeaux monastery: Bernard at, i. 360, 393 Foundation and rise of, i. 360-3

Cities and towns: Growth of, in 12th cent., i. 305; ii. =379-80= Italian, _see under_ Italy

Cities (_civitates_) of Roman provinces, i. 29-30

Clairvaux (Clara Vallis): Founding of, i. 360, 393 Position of, i. 362 St. Bernard’s love of, i. 401-2

Classics, _see_ Latin classics

Claudius, Bp. of Turin, i. 215, 231-2 _and_ _n. 1_

Claudius, Emp., i. 30

Clement II., Pope, i. 243

Clement IV., Pope, ii. 489-91

Clement V., Pope, _Decretales Clementinae_ of, ii. 272

Clement of Alexandria, ii. 64

Clergy: Accusations against, false, penalty for, ii. 266 Legal status of, ii. 382 Regular, _see_ Monasticism Secular: Concubinage of, i. 244 Francis of Assisi’s attitude toward, i. 430, 440 Marriage of, i. 472 _n. 1_ Reforms of, i. 359 Standard of conduct for, i. 471; ii. 529 Term, scope of, i. 356

Clerval, Abbé, cited, i. 300 _n. 1_

Clopinel, Jean, _see_ De Meun

Clovis (Chlodoweg), i. 114, 117, =119-21=, 122, 138, =193-4=; ii. 245

Cluny monastery: Abaelard at, ii. 25, =26=, 345 Characteristics of, i. 359-60 Monastic reforms accomplished by, i. =293=, 304

Cologne, i. 29, 31

Columba, St., of Iona, i. =133-7=, 173

Columbanus, St., of Luxeuil and Bobbio, i. 6, 133, =174-9=, 196; Life and works of, 174 _n. 2_

Combat, trial by, i. 232

Commentaries, mediaeval: Boëthius’, i. 93 Excerpts as characteristic of, i. 104 General addiction to, ii. 390, 553 _n. 4_ Originals supplanted by, ii. 390 Raban’s, i. 222-3

Compends: Fourteenth century use of, ii. 523 Mediaeval preference for, i. 94 Medical, in Italy, i. 251 Saints’ lives, of (_Legenda aurea_), ii. 184

Conrad, Duke of Franconia, i. 241

Conrad II., Emp., i. 243

Constantine, Emp., ii. 266; “Donation” of, ii. =35=, 265, 270

Constantinus Africanus, i. =251= _and_ _n._; ii. 372

Cordova, i. 25

Cornelius Nepos, i. 25

_Cornificiani_, ii. =132=, 373

Cosmogony: Aquinas’ theory of, ii. 456 Mediaeval allegorizing of, ii. 65 _seqq._ Patristic attitude toward, i. 72-4

Cosmology, Alan’s, in _Anticlaudianus_, ii. 377

Cremona, i. 24

Cross, Christian: Magic safeguard, as, i. 294-5 Mediaeval feeling for, ii. 197

Crusades: Constantinople, capture of, as affecting Western learning, ii. 391 First: _Chansons_ concerning, i. 537-8 Character of, i. 535-7 Guibert’s account of, ii. 175 Hymn concerning, quoted, i. 349 _and_ _n._ Italians little concerned in, ii. 189 Joinville’s account of, quoted, i. 546-9 Language of, i. 531 Results of, i. 305 Second, i. 394 Spirit of, i. 535-7

Cuchulain, i. 129 _and_ _nn. 2, 3_

Cynewulf’s _Christ_, i. 183

Cyprian quoted, i. 337 _n._

Cyril of Alexandria, i. 227

Cyril of Jerusalem, i. 53

Da Romano, Alberic, i. 515-16

Da Romano, Eccelino, i. =505-6=, 516

Dacia, Visigoths in, i. 112

Damiani, St. Peter, Card. Bp. of Ostia, career of, i. 262-4; attitude of, to the classics, i. 260; ii. 112, 165; on the hermit life, i. 369-70; on tears, i. 371 _and_ _n._; extract illustrating Latin style of, ii. 165 _and_ _n. 3_; works of, i. 263 _n. 1_; writings quoted, i. 263-7; _Liber Gomorrhianus_, i. 265, 474; _Vita Romualdi_, i. 372 _seqq._; biography of Dominicus Loricatus, i. 381-2; _De parentelae gradibus_, ii. 252; otherwise mentioned, i. 17, 19, 20, 260, 343, 345, 391; ii. 34

Damianus, i. 262, 265

Danes, i. 142, =153=

Dante, estimate of, ii. 534-5; scholarship of, ii. 541 _n. 2_; possessed by spirit of allegory, ii. 552-5; compared with Aquinas and influenced by him, ii. 541 _n. 2_, 547, 549, 551, 555; compared with Bonaventura, ii. 547; attitude to Beatrice, ii. 555-8; on love, ii. 555-6; on monarchy, ii. 278; _De monarchia_, ii. 535; _De vulgari eloquentia_, ii. 219, =536=; _Vita nuova_, ii. =556=, 559; _Convito_, ii. =537-8=, 553; _Divina Commedia_, i. 12 _n._; ii. 86, 99 _n. 1_, =103=, 219; commentaries on this work, ii. 553-4; estimate of it, ii. 538, 540-1, 544, 553-4; _Inferno_ cited, ii. 42, 541-3, =545-7=; _Purgatorio_ cited, ii. 535, 542-3, =548-9=, 554, 558; _Paradiso_ cited, i. 395; ii. 542-3, =549-51=, 558

Dares the Phrygian, ii. 116 _and_ _n. 3_, 224-=5 and nn.=, 226-7

_De bello et excidio urbis Comensis_, ii. 189-90

De Boron, Robert, i. 567

_De casu Diaboli_, i. 279

_De consolatione philosophiae_, _see under_ Boëthius

De Lorris, Guillaume, _Roman de la rose_ by, i. =586-7=; ii. 103 _and_ _n. 1_, 104

De Meun, Jean (Clopinel), _Roman de la rose_ by, ii. 103 _and_ _n. 1_, 104, =223=

Denis, St., i. 230

Dermot (Diarmaid, Diarmuid), High-King of Ireland, i. =132=-3, 135, =136=

Desiderius, Bp. of Vienne, i. 99

Desiderius, Pope, i. =253=, 263

Devil, the: Mediaeval beliefs and stories as to, i. 487 _seqq._ Romuald’s conflicts with, i. =374=, 379-80

Dialectic (_See also_ Logic): Abaelard’s skill in, ii. 118, 119, =345-6=, 353; his subjection of dogma to, ii. 304; his _Dialectica_, ii. 346 _and_ _nn._, 349-50 Chartres study of, i. 298 Duns Scotus’ mastery of, ii. 510, 514 Grammar penetrated by, ii. 127 _seqq._ Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 67 Raban’s view of, i. 222 Thirteenth century study of, ii. 118-20

Diarmaid (Diarmuid), _see_ Dermot

_Dictamen_, ii. =121=, =129=, 381

Dictys the Cretan, ii. 224, 225 _and_ _n. 1_

_Dies irae_, i. 348

Dionysius the Areopagite, ii. 10, 102, =344=

_Divina Commedia_, _see under_ Dante

Divination, ii. 374

Dominic, St., i. =366-7=, 497; ii. 396

Dominican Order: Aristotelianism of, ii. 404 Founding of, i. =366=; ii. 396 Growth of, i. 498; ii. =398= Object of, ii. 396 Oxford University, at, ii. 387 Papacy, relations with, ii. =398=, 509 Paris University, position in, ii. =386=, 399

Dominicus Loricatus, i. 263, =381-3=

Donatus, i. 71, 297; _Ars minor_ and _Barbarismus_ of, ii. 123-=4=

Donizo of Canossa, ii. 189 _and_ _n. 2_

Druids: Gallic, i. =28=, 296 Irish, i. 133

Du Guesclin, Bertrand, Constable of France, i. 554-6, 557 _n._

Duns Scotus, education of, ii. 511; career of, ii. 513; estimate of, ii. 513; intricacy of style of, ii. 510, 514, =516 n. 2=; on logic, ii. 504 _n. 2_; Occam’s attitude toward, ii. 518 _seqq._; editions of works of, ii. 511 _n. 1_; estimate of his work, ii. 509-10, 514

Dunstan, St., Abp. of Canterbury, i. 323-4

Durandus, Guilelmus, _Rationale divinorum officiorum_ of, ii. 76 _seqq._

Eadmer, i. 269, 273, 277

Eastern Empire: Frankish relations with, i. 123 Huns’ relations with, i. 112-13 Norse mercenaries of, i. 153 Ostrogoths’ relations with, i. 114 Roman restoration by, i. 115

Ebroin, i. 209

Eckbert, Abbot of Schönau, i. 444

Ecstasy: Bernard’s views on, ii. 368 Examples of, i. 444, 446

Eddas, ii. 220

Education: Carolingian period, in, i. =213-14=, 218-19, 222, =236=; ii. 110, 122, =158=, 332 Chartres method of, ii. 130-1 Grammar a chief study in, ii. 122 _seqq._, 331-2 Italy, in, _see under_ Italy Latin culture the means and method of, i. 12; ii. =109= Schools, clerical and monastic, i. =250 n. 2=, 293 Schools, lay, i. 249-51 Seven Liberal Arts, _see that heading_ Shortening of academic course, advocates of, ii. =132=, 373

Edward II., King of England, i. 551

Edward III., King of England, i. 550-1

Edward the Black Prince, i. 554-6

Einhard the Frank, i. 234 _n. 1_; _Life of Charlemagne_ by, i. 215; ii. 158-9

Ekkehart family, i. 309

Ekkehart of St. Gall, _Waltarius_ (_Waltharilied_) by, ii. 188

El-Farabi, ii. 390

Eleventh century: Characteristics of, i. 301; in France, i. 301, 304, 328; in Germany, i. 307-9; in England, i. 324; in Italy, i. 327 Christianity in, position of, i. 16

Elias, Minister-General of the Minorites, i. 499

Elizabeth, St., of Hungary, i. 391, =465 n. 1=

Elizabeth, St., of Schönau, visions of, i. 444-6

Emotional development, secular, i. 349-50 _and_ _n. 2_

Empire, the, _see_ Holy Roman Empire

Encyclopaedias, mediaeval, ii. 316 _n. 2_; Vincent’s _Speculum majus_, ii. 315-22

_Eneas_, ii. 225, =226=

Engelbert, Abp. of Cologne, i. 481-6; estimate of, i. 482

England (_See also_ Britain): Danish Viking invasion of, i. 153 Eleventh century conditions in, i. 324 Law in, principles of, i. 141-2; Roman law almost non-existent in Middle Ages, ii. 248 Norman conquest of, linguistic result of, i. 324

English language, character of, i. 324

Epicureanism, i. =41=, 70; ii. 296, 312

Eriugena, John Scotus, estimate of, i. 215, =228-9=, =231=; ii. 330; on reason _v._ authority, ii. 298, 302; works of, studied at Chartres, i. 299; _De divisione naturae_, i. =230-1=; ii. 302; otherwise mentioned, i. 16; ii. 282 _n._, 312

Essenes, i. 334

Ethelbert, King of Kent, i. 180-1

_Etymologies_ of Isidore, i. 33, 105 _and_ _n. 1_, =107-9=; ii. 318; law codes glossed from, ii. 250

Eucharistic (Paschal) controversy: Berengar’s contribution to, i. 302-3 Paschasius’ contribution to, i. 225-7

Eucherius, Bp. of Lyons, ii. 48 _n. 1_

Euclid, i. 40

Eudemus of Rhodes, i. 38

Eunapius, i. 47, 52

Euric, King of the Visigoths, i. 117 _and_ _n. 1_

Eusebius, i. 81 _n. 2_

Evil or sin: Abaelard’s views concerning, ii. 350 Eriugena’s views concerning, i. 228 Original sin, realism in relation to, ii. 340 _n._ Peter Lombard and Aquinas contrasted as to, ii. 308-10

Experimental science, Bacon on, ii. 502-8

_Fabliaux_, i. =521 n. 2=; ii. 222

Facts, unlimited actuality of, i. 79-80

Faith: Abaelard’s definition of, ii. 354 Bacon’s views on, ii. 507 Bernard of Clairvaux’s attitude toward, ii. 355 _Caritas_ in relation to, ii. 479-81 Cognition through, Aquinas’ views on, ii. 446 Occam’s views on, ii. 519 Proof of matters of, Aquinas on, ii. 450 Will as functioning in, ii. 479

_False Decretals_, i. 104 _n._, =118 n. 1=

Fathers of the Church (_See also_ Patristic thought): Greek, _see_ Greek thought, patristic Latin, _see_ Latin Fathers

Faustus, ii. 44

Felix, St., i. 86

Feudalism (_See also_ Knighthood): Anarchy of, modification of, i. 304 Austrasian disintegration by, i. 240 _Chansons_ regarding, i. 559 _seqq._, 569 Christianity in relation to, i. 524, 527-=9 and n. 2=, =530= Church affected by, i. 244, 473 Italy not greatly under, i. 241 Marriage as affected by, i. 571, 586 Obligations of, i. 533-4 Origin of, 522-3 Principle and practice of, at variance, i. 522

Fibonacci, Leonardo, ii. 501

Finnian, i. 136

_Flamenca_, i. 565

_Flore et Blanchefleur_, i. 565

Florus, Deacon, of Lyons, i. 229 _and_ _n._

Fonte Avellana hermitage, i. =262-3=, 381

Forms, new, creation of, _see_ Mediaeval thought--Restatement

Fortunatus, Hymns by, ii. 196-7

Fourteenth century: Academic decadence in, ii. 523 Papal position in, ii. 509-10

France (_For particular districts, towns, etc., see their names_): Antique, the, in relation to, before Middle Ages, i. 9-10 Arthurian romances developed in, i. 566 Cathedrals of, ii. 539, 554-5 Church in, secularization of, i. 472-3 Eleventh century conditions in, i. 301, 304, 328 History of, in 11th century, i. 300 Hundred Years’ War, i. 550 _seqq._ Jacquerie in (1358), i. 556 Language modifications in, ii. 155 Literary celebrities in (12th cent.), ii. 168 Monarchy of, advance of, i. 305 North and South, characteristics of, i. 328 Rise of, in 14th century, ii. 509 Town-dwellers of, i. =495=, 508

Francis, St., of Assisi, birth of, i. 415; parentage, i. 419; youth, i. 420-3; breach with his father, i. 423-4; monastic career, i. 427 _seqq._; French songs sung by, i. =419 and n. 2=, 427, 432; _Lives_ of, i. 415 _n._; style of Thomas of Celano’s _Life_, ii. 182-3; _Speculum perfectionis_, i. 415 _n._, 416 _n._, =438 n. 3=; ii. =183=; literal acceptance of Scripture by, i. 365, 406-=7=; on Scripture interpretation, i. 427 _n. 1_; ii. 183; universality of outlook, i. 417; mediaevalism, i. 417; Christ-influence, i. 417, =418=, =432=-3; inspiration, i. =419 n. 1=, 441; gaiety of spirit, i. 421, 427-8, 431-2; poetic temperament, i. 422, 435; love of God, man, and nature, i. 366, 428, =432-3=, =435=-7; simplicity, i. 429; obedience and humility, i. 365 _n._, =429-30=; humanism, i. 495; St. Bernard compared with, i. 415-16; St. Dominic contrasted with, ii. 396; _Fioretti_, ii. 184; Canticle of Brother Sun, i. 433-4, =439-40=; last testament of, i. 440-1; otherwise mentioned, i. 20, 21, 279, 344, 345, 355-6; ii. 302

Franciscan Order: Attractiveness of, i. 498 Augustinianism of, ii. 404 Bacon’s relations with, ii. 486, =488=, 490-=1= Characteristics of, i. 366 Founding of, i. =427=; ii. 396 Grosseteste’s relations, ii. =487=, 511 Object of, ii. 396 Oxford University, at, ii. 387, 400 Papacy, relations with, ii. =398=, 509 Paris University, in, ii. 386, 399 Rise of, ii. 398

Franconia, i. 241

Franks (_See also_ Germans): Christianity as accepted by, i. 193 Church among: Bishops, position of, i. =194 and nn.=, 198, 201 _n._ Charlemagne’s relations with, i. =201=, 239; ii. 273 Clovis, under, i. 194 Lands held by, i. 194, 199-200; immunities of, i. 201 _and_ _n._ Organization of, i. 199 Reform of, by Boniface, i. =196=; ii. 273 Roman character of, i. 201 Division of the kingdom a custom of, i. 238-9 Gallo-Roman relations with, i. 123 Language of, i. 145 _n. 2_ Law of, ii. 245-6 _Missi dominici_, i. 211 Ripuarian, i. 119, 121; ii. 246 Romanizing of, partial, i. 9-10 Salian, i. 113, =119=; Code, ii. 245-6 Saracens defeated by, i. 209-10 _n. 1_ Trojan origin of, belief as to, ii. 225 _and_ _n. 1_

Frederic, Count of Isenburg, i. 483-6

Frederick I. (Barbarossa), Emp., i. 448

Frederick II., Emp., under Innocent’s guardianship, ii. 32-3; crowned, ii. 33; estimate of, i. 497; otherwise mentioned, i. 250 _n. 4_, 417, 481, 505, 510, 517

Free, meaning of term, i. 526 _n. 3_

Free Companies, i. 556

Free will: Angelic, ii. 473 Duns Scotus on, ii. 515 Human, ii. 475 Richard of Middleton on, ii. 512

Freidank, i. 475; ii. =35=

Frescoes, i. 346-7

Friendship, chivalric, i. 561-2, 569-70, 583

Frisians, i. 169, 174; missionary work among, i. =197=, 200, 209

Froissart, Sir John, _Chronicles_ of, i. 549 _seqq._; estimate of the work, i. 557

Froumund of Tegernsee, i. =312-13=; ii. 110

Fulbert, Bp. of Chartres, i. 287, =296-7=, 299

Fulbert, Canon, ii. 4-6, 9

Fulco, Bp. of Toulouse, i. 461

Fulda monastery, i. =198=, 221 _n. 2_

Fulk of Anjou, ii. 138

Gaius, _Institutes_ of, ii. 241, 243

Galahad, i. 569-70, 583, 584 _and_ _n. 2_

Galen of Pergamos, i. =40=, 251

Gall, St., i. 6, 178, =196=

Gallo-Romans: Feudal system among, i. 523 Frankish rule over, i. 120, 123 Literature of, i. 126 _n. 2_

Gandersheim cloister, i. 311

Gaul (_For particular districts, towns, etc., see their names_): Celtic inhabitants of, i. =125 and n.=, =126=-7, 129 _n. 1_ Druidism in, i. =28=, 296 Ethnology of, i. 126 Heathenism in, late survival of, i. 191 _n. 1_ Latinization of, i. 9-10, =29-32= Visigothic kingdom in south of, i. 112, 116, 117, 121

Gauls, characteristics and customs of, i. 27-8

Geoffrey of Beaulieu, Life of St. Louis by, i. 539-42

Gepidae, i. 113, 115

Geraldus, St., i. 281

Gerard, brother of St. Bernard, i. 402-4

Gerbert of Aurillac, _see_ Sylvester II.

German language: Christianity as affecting, i. 202 High and Low, separation of, i. 145 _n. 2_ Middle High German literature, ii. 168, 221 Old High German poetry, ii. =194=, 220

Germans (Saxons) (_See also_ Franks): Characteristics of, i. 138-40, 147, 151-2 Language of, _see_ German language Latin as studied by, i. =307-9=; ii. =123=, 155 Literature of, ii. 220-1 (_See also subheading_ Poetry) Marriage as regarded by, ii. 30 Nationalism of, in 13th cent., ii. 28 Poetry of: _Hildebrandslied_, i. 145-7 _Kudrun_ (_Gudrun_), i. 148, =149=-52; ii. 220 _Nibelungenlied_, i. 145-6, =148-9=, 152, 193, 203 _n. 2_; ii. 220 _Waltarius_, i. 147 _and_ _n._, 148 otherwise mentioned, i. 113, 115, 119, 174, 209, 210

Germany: Antique, the, in relation to, before Middle Ages, i. 10-11 Art in (11th cent.), i. 312 Church in, secularization of, i. 472 Italy contrasted with, as to culture, i. 249-50 Merovingian supremacy in, i. 121 Papacy as regarded by, ii. 28, 33, =34-5= Sequence-composition in, ii. 215

Gertrude of Hackeborn, Abbess, i. 466

Gilbert de la Porrée, Bp. of Poictiers, ii. 132, =372=

Gilduin, Abbot of St. Victor, ii. =62= _and_ _n. 2_

Giraldus Cambrensis, ii. 135 _and_ _n._

Girard, Bro., of Modena, i. 498

Glaber, Radulphus, _Histories_ of, i. 488 _n._

Glass-painting, ii. 82-6

Gnosticism, i. 51 _n. 1_

Gnostics, Eriugena compared with, i. 231 _and_ _n. 1_

Godehard, Bp. of Hildesheim, i. 312

Godfrey of Bouillon, i. 535-8

Godfrey of Viterbo, ii. 190 _and_ _n. 4_

Gondebaud, King of the Burgundians, ii. 242

Good and the true compared, ii. 441, 512

Goths (_See also_ Visigoths): Christianity of, i. 192, 194 Roman Empire invaded by, i. 111 _seqq._

Gottfried von Strassburg, i. 567; ii. 223; _Tristan_ of, i. 577-82

Gottschalk, i. 215, 221 _n. 2_, 224-5, 227-=8=; verses by, ii. 197-9

Government: Church _v._ State controversy, ii. 276-7 (_See also_ Papacy--Empire) Ecclesiastical, _see_ Canon Law Monarchical, ii. 277-8 Natural law in relation to, ii. 278-=9= Representative assemblies, ii. 278

Grace, Aquinas’ definition of, ii. 478-9

Grail, the, i. 589, =596-7=, =607=, 608, 613

Grammar: Chartres studies in, i. =298=; ii. 129-30 Current usage followed by, ii. 163 _and_ _n. 1_ Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 67 Importance and predominance of, in Middle Ages, i. 109 _and_ _n._, =292=; ii. =331-2= Italian study of, ii. =129=, 381 Language continuity preserved by, ii. =122-3=, 151, 155 Law studies in relation to, ii. 121 Logic in relation to, ii. 127 _seqq._, 333-4; in Abaelard’s work, ii. 346 Raban’s view of, i. 222 Scholastic classification of, ii. 313 Syntax, connotation of term, ii. 125 Works on--Donatus, Priscian, Alexander, ii. 123 =seqq.=

Grammarian, meaning of term, i. 250

Gratianus, _Decretum_ of, ii. 268-9, =270-1=, 306, 380-2; _dicta_, ii. 271

Greek classics, _see_ Greek thought, pagan

Greek language: Oxford studies in, ii. 120, 391, =487= Translations from, direct, in 13th cent., ii. 391

Greek legends, mediaeval allegorizing of, ii. 52, 56-9

Greek novels, ii. 224 _and_ _n._

Greek thought, pagan: Bacon’s attitude toward, ii. 492-3 Breadth of interest of, ii. 109 Christian standpoint contrasted with, i. 390; ii. 295-6 Church Fathers permeated by, i. 33-4 Completeness of schemes presented by, ii. 394 Limitless, the, abhorrent to, i. 353-4 Love as regarded by, i. 575 Metaphysics in, ii. 335-7 Scholasticism contrasted with, ii. 296 _Summa moralium philosophorum_, ii. 373 Symbolism in, ii. 42, =56= Transmutation of, through Latin medium, i. 4

Greek thought, patristic (_See also_ Patristic thought): Comparison of, with Latin, i. 68 Pagan philosophic thought contrasted with, ii. 295-6 Symbolism in, ii. 43 Transmutation of, through Latin medium, i. 5, 34 _and_ _n._

Gregorianus, ii. =240=, 243

Gregory, Bp. of Tours, i. 121; _Historia Francorum_ by, i. 234 _n. 2_; ii. 155

Gregory I. (the Great), Pope, family and education of, i. 97; Augustine of Hippo compared with, i. 98-9; Augustinianism barbarized by, i. 98, 102; sends mission to England, i. 6, 33, =180-1 and n. 1=; estimate of, i. =56=, 89, =102-3=, =342=; estimate of his writings, i. 354; on miracles, i. 100, 182; on secular studies, ii. 288; letter to Theoctista cited, i. 102 _n. 1_; editions of works of, i. 97 _n._; works of, translated by King Alfred, i. 187; _Dialogues on the Lives and Miracles of the Italian Saints_, i. 85 and _n. 2_, 100; _Moralia_, i. =97=, 100; ii. 57; Odo’s epitome of this work, ii. 161; _Commentary on Kings_, i. 100 _n. 1_; _Pastoral Rule_, i. =102=, 187-8; otherwise mentioned, i. 16 _and_ _n. 4_, 65, 87, 104, 116

Gregory II., Pope, i. 197-8; ii. 273

Gregory III., Pope, i. 198; ii. 273

Gregory VII., Pope (Hildebrand), claims of, i. =244-5=; ii. 274; relations with Damiani, i. 263; exile of, i. 244, 253; estimate of, i. 261; otherwise mentioned, i. 17, 174 _n. 1_, 243, 304

Gregory IX., Pope, codification by, of Canon law, ii. 272; efforts of, to improve education of the Church, ii. 398; mentioned, i. 476; ii. 33

Gregory of Nyssa, i. 53, 80, 87, 340

Grosseteste, Robert, Chancellor of Oxford University and Bp. of Lincoln, Greek studies promoted by, ii. =120=, =391=, 487; estimate of, ii. 511-12; Augustinianism of, ii. 403-4; attitude toward the classics, ii. 120, 389; relations with Franciscan Order, ii. =487=, 511; Bacon’s relations with, ii. 487

_Gudrun_ (_Kudrun_), i. 148, =149=-52; ii. 220

Guigo, Prior, estimate of, i. 390-1; relations with St. Bernard, i. 405; _Consuetudines Carthusiae_ by, i. 384; _Meditationes_ of, i. 385-90

Guinevere, i. 569, =584= _and_ _n. 1_, 585

Guiot de Provens, “Bible” of, i. 475-6 _and_ _n. 1_

Guiscard, Robert, ii. 189 _n. 2_

Gumpoldus, Bp. of Mantua, _Life of Wenceslaus_ by, ii. 162 _n. 1_

Gundissalinus, Archdeacon of Segovia, ii. 312 _and_ _n. 4_, 313

Gunther, _Ligurinus_ of, ii. 192 _and_ _n. 4_

Gunzo of Novara, i. 257-8

Harding, Stephen, Abbot of Citeaux, i. =360=, =361=, 393

Harold Fairhair, i. 153

_Hartmann von Aue_, i. =348-9 and n.=, 567; ii. 29 _n._

Harun al Raschid, Caliph, i. 210

Heinrich von Veldeke, i. 567; ii. 29 _n._

_Heliand_, i. =203 and nn.=, 308

Helias, Count of Maine, ii. 138

Hell: Dante’s descriptions of, ii. 546-7 Fear of, i. 103, =339=, 342, =383= Visions of, i. 454-5, 456 _n._

Heloïse, Abaelard’s love for, ii. 4-5, 344; his love-songs to, ii. =13=, 207; love of, for Abaelard, i. 585; ii. =3=, =5=, 8, 9, =15-16=; birth of Astralabius, ii. 6; opposes marriage with Abaelard, ii. 6-9; marriage, ii. 9; at Argenteuil, ii. 9, 10; takes the veil, ii. 10; at the Paraclete, ii. 10 _seqq._; letters of, to Abaelard quoted, ii. 11-15, 17-20, 23, 24; Abaelard’s letters to, quoted, ii. 16-17, 21-3, 24-5; Peter the Venerable’s letter, ii. 25-7; letter of, to Peter the Venerable, ii. 27; death of, ii. 27; intellectual capacity of, ii. 3

Henry the Fowler, i. 241

Henry II., Emp., i. 243; dirge on death of, ii. 216

Henry IV., Emp., i. 244; ii. =167=

Henry VI., Emp., ii. 32, 190

Henry I., King of England, ii. 139, 146, 176-8

Henry II., King of England, ii. 133, 135, 372

Henry of Brabant, ii. 391

Henry of Ghent, ii. 512

Henry of Huntington cited, i. 525

Henry of Septimella, ii. 190 _and_ _n. 3_

Heretics (_For particular sects, see their names_): Abaelard’s views on coercion of, ii. 350, 354 Insignificance of, in relation to mediaeval thought, ii. 283 _and_ _n._ Theodosian enactments against, ii. 266 Twelfth century, in, i. 305

Herluin, Abbot of Bec, i. 271

Hermann, Landgraf of Thüringen, i. 589; ii. 29

Hermann Contractus, i. 314-15 _and_ _n. 1_

Hermits: Irish, i. 133 Motives of, i. 335, 363 Temper of, i. 368 _seqq._

Hermogenianus, ii. 240, 243

Herodotus, i. 77

Hesse, Boniface’s work in, i. 197-8

Hilarion, St., i. 86

Hilary, Bp. of Poictiers, i. =63=, 68, 70

Hildebert of Lavardin, Bp. of Le Mans and Abp. of Tours, career of, ii. 137-40; love of the classics, ii. =141-2=, =146=, 531; letters of, quoted, ii. 140, 143, 144-5, 146-7; Latin text of letter, ii. 172; Latin elegy by, ii. 191; otherwise mentioned, ii. 61, 134, 373 _n. 2_

Hildebrand, _see_ Gregory VII.

_Hildebrandslied_, ii. 220

Hildegard, St., Abbess of Bingen, dedication of, i. 447; visions of, i. 267, =449-59=; affinity of, with Dante, ii. 539; correspondence of, i. 448; works of, i. 446 _n._; _Book of the Rewards of Life_, i. 452-6; _Scivias_, i. 457-9; otherwise mentioned, i. 20, 345, 443; ii. 302, 365

Hildesheim, bishops of (11th cent.), i. 312

Hilduin, Abbot, i. 230

Hincmar, i. 215, 230, =233 n. 1=

Hipparchus, i. 40

Hippocrates, i. 40

History: Carolingian treatment of, i. 234-5 Classical attitude toward, i. 77-8 Eleventh century treatment of, i. 300 _Historia tripartita_ of Cassiodorus, i. 96-7 Patristic attitude toward, i. 80-4 _Seven Books of Histories adversum paganos_ by Orosius, i. 82-3

Holy Roman Empire: Burgundy added to, i. 243 _n. 1_ German character of, ii. 32 Papacy, relations with, _see under_ Papacy Refounding of, by Otto, i. 243 Rise of, under Charlemagne, i. 212

Honorius II., Pope, i. 531

Honorius III., Pope, i. 366, 482, 497; ii. 33, 385 _n._, =398=

Honorius of Autun--on classical study, ii. 110, =112-13=; _Speculum ecclesiae_ of, ii. 50 _seqq._; _Gemma animae_, ii. 77 _n. 1_

Hosius, Bp. of Cordova, i. 118 _n. 1_

Hospitallers, i. 531

Hrotsvitha, i. 311 _and_ _n. 2_, ii. 215 _n. 2_

Huesca (Osca), i. 25

Hugh, Abbot of Cluny, ii. 137

Hugh Capet, i. 239-=40= _and_ _n._

Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, i. 241

Hugh of Payns, i. 531

Hugo, Archdeacon of Halberstadt, ii. 62

Hugo, Bro., of Montpellier, i. 510-14

Hugo, King, i. 242

Hugo of St. Victor, estimate of, ii. =63=, =111=, 118, 301, =356=; allegorizing by, ii. 367; on classical study, ii. 110-11; on logic, ii. 333; pupils of, ii. 87; works of, ii. 61 _n. 2_; _Didascalicon_, ii. 48 _n. 2_, =63=, =111=, 312, =357 and nn. 2-5=; _De sacramentis Christianae fidei_, ii. 48 _n. 2_, =64 seqq.=, 365, =395=, 540; _Expositio in regulam beati Augustini_, ii. 62 _n. 2_; _De arca Noë morali_, ii. 75 _n._, =365-7=; _De arca Noë mystica_, ii. 367; _De vanitate mundi_, ii. 75 _n._, =111-12=; _Summa sententiarum_, ii. 356; _Sermons on Ecclesiastes_, ii. 358-9; otherwise mentioned, i. 17, 20, 457; ii. 404

Humanists, ii. 126

_Humiliati_ of Lombardy, i. 365

Hungarians, i. 241-=2=

Huns, i. 112, 119, 193

_Huon de Bordeaux_, i. 564

Hy (Iona) Island, i. 136, =173=

Hymns, Christian: Abaelard, by, ii. 25, =207-9= Estimate of, i. 21 Evolution of, i. 347-9 _and_ _n._; ii. 196, =200 seqq.= Hildegard’s visions regarding, i. 459 Hugo of St. Victor, by, ii. 86 _seqq._ Sequences, development of, ii. 196, =201-6=; Adam of St. Victor’s, ii. 209-15

Iamblicus, i. 42, =47=, 51, 56-7; ii. 295

Iceland, Norse settlement in, i. 153

Icelanders, characteristics and customs of, i. 154

Icelandic Sagas, _see_ Sagas

Ideal _v._ actual, i. 353 _seqq._

Innocent II., Pope, i. =394=; ii. 10

Innocent III., Pope, i. 417, 481, 497; ii. =32=, =274=, 384, =398=

Innocent IV., Pope, i. 506

_Intellectus agens_, ii. 464, =507 n. 2=

Iona (Hy) Island, i. 136, =173=

Ireland: Celts in, _see_ Irish Church of, missionary zeal of, i. 133, 136, 172 _seqq._ Danish settlements in, i. 153 Monasteries in, i. =153 n. 1=, 173 Norse invasion of, i. 134 Scholarship in, i. =180 n.=, 184-5

Irenaeus, Bp. of Lyons, i. 225

Irish: Art of, i. 128 _n. 1_ Characteristics of, i. =128=, 130, 133, 179 History of, i. 127 _and_ _n._ Influence of, on mediaeval feeling, i. 179 _and_ _n._ Literature of, i. =128 and n. 2=, =129 seqq.=, 134; poetry, ii. 194 Missionary labours of, i. 133, 136, 172 _seqq._; defect of, i. 179, 196 Norse harryings of, i. 133-4; intercourse with, i. 152 _n. 3_ Oxford University, at, ii. 387

Irnerius, ii. 121, =260=, 380-1; _Summa codicis_ of, ii. 255-9

Irrationality (_See also_ Miracles): Neo-Platonic teaching as to, i. 42-4, 48, 52 Patristic doctrine as to, i. 51-3

Isabella, Queen, wife of Edward II., i. 550-1

Isidore, Abp. of Seville, estimate of, i. 89, 103, 118 _n. 1_; Bede compared with, i. 185-7; _False Decretals_ attributed to, i. 118 _n. 1_; ii. =270=, 273; works of, i. 104-9; _Etymologiae_, _see_ Etymologies of Isidore; _Origines_, i. 236, 300; otherwise mentioned, i. 6, 88; ii. 46, 312

Italian people in relation to the antique, i. 7-8

Italy (_For particular districts, towns, etc., see their names_): Celtic inroads into (3rd cent. B.C.), i. 24 Church in, secularization of, i. 472 Cities in: Continuity of, through dark ages, i. 248, =494-5=; ii. 381 Fighting amongst, i. 497-8 Importance of, i. 241, 326, =494-5= Continuity of culture and character in, i. =326=, 495; ii. =120-2= Dante as influenced by, ii. 534-5 Education in--lay, persistence of, i. 249-51; clerical and monastic, i. 250 _n. 2_ Eleventh-century conditions in, i. 327 Feudalism not widely fixed in, i. 241 Feuds in, i. 515-16 Grammar as studied in, i. 250 _and_ _n. 2_; ii. 129 Irish monasteries founded in, i. 174 Literature of, mediaeval, lack of originality in, ii. 189; eleventh-century verse, i. 251 _seqq._; ii. 165 _n. 1_, 186 Lombard kingdom of (6th cent.), i. 115-16 Medicine studied in, i. 250 _and_ _n. 4_, =251=; ii. 121 Unification of, under Rome, i. 23

Jacobus à Voragine, _Legenda aurea_ by, ii. 184

Jacques de Vitry, Bp. and Card. of Tusculum, i. 461 and n.; Exempla of, i. 488 _n._, 490

Jerome, St., estimate of, i. 344, 354; letter of, on asceticism, i. 335 _and_ =n. 1=; love of the classics, ii. 107, 112, 531; modification by, of classical Latin, ii. 152, 171; two styles of, ii. 171 _and_ _n. 4_; Life of Paulus by, i. 84, 86; Life of Hilarion, i. 86; _Contra Vigilantium_, i. 86; otherwise mentioned, i. 56, 75, 76, 104

Jerome of Ascoli (Pope Nicholas IV.), ii. 491

Jews: Agobard’s tracts against, i. 232-=3= Gregory the Great’s attitude toward, i. 102 Louis IX.’s attitude toward, i. 545 Persecution of, i. 118, 332

Joachim, Abbot of Flora, _Evangelicum eternum_ of, 502 _n._, =510=, =512-13=, 517

John, Bro., of Vicenza, i. 503-4

John X., Pope, i. 242

John XI., Pope, i. 242

John XII., Pope, i. 243; ii. =160-1=

John XIII., Pope, i. 282

John XXII., Pope, _Decretales extravaganes_ of, ii. 272

John of Damascus, ii. 439 _n. 1_

John of Fidanza, _see_ Bonaventura

John of Parma, Minister-General of Franciscans, i. 507, 508, =510-11=

John of Salisbury, estimate of, ii. 118, 373-4; Chartres studies described by, ii. 130-2; attitude of, to the classics, ii. 114, 164, =173=, 531; Latin style of, ii. 173-4; _Polycraticus_, ii. 114-15, 174-5; _Metalogicus_, ii. 173-4; _Entheticus_, ii. 192; _De septem septenis_, ii. 375

John the Deacon, _Chronicon Venetum_ by, i. 325-6

Joinville, Sire de, _Histories_ of St. Louis by, i. 539, =542-9=

Jordanes, compend of Gothic history by, i. 94

Jordanes of Osnabrück cited, ii. 276 _n. 2_

Joseph of Exeter, ii. 225 _n. 2_

Jotsaldus, Life of Odilo by, i. 295-6

Judaism, emotional elements in, i. 331-2

Julianus, _Epitome_ of, ii. 242, =249=, 254

Jumièges cloister, ii. 201

Jurisprudence (_See also_ Roman law): Irnerius an exponent of, ii. 256, 259 Mediaeval renaissance of, ii. 265 Roman law, in, beginnings of, ii. 232

Justinian, _Codex_, _Institutes_, _Novellae_ of, _see under_ Roman law; _Digest of_, _see_ Roman law--Pandects

Jutes, i. 140

Jutta, i. 447

Keating quoted, i. 136

Kilwardby, Richard, Abp. of Canterbury, _De ortu et divisione philosophiae_ of, ii. 313

Kilwardby, Robert, ii. 128

Knighthood, order of: Admission to, persons eligible for, i. 527 Code of, i. 524 Hospitallers, i. 531 Investiture ceremony, i. 525-8 Love the service of, i. 568, =573= Templars, i. 531-5 Virtues and ideals of, i. 529-31, 567-8

Knowledge: Cogitation, meditation, contemplation (Hugo’s scheme), ii. 358 _seqq._ Forms and modes of, Aquinas on--divine, ii. 451-5; angelic, ii. 459-62; human, ii. 463 _seqq._ Grades of, Aquinas on, ii. 461, 467 Primacy of, over will maintained by Aquinas, ii. 440-1

La Ferté Monastery, i. 362

Lambert of Hersfeld, _Annals_ of, i. 313; ii. 167

Lambertus Audomarensis, _Liber Floridus_ of, ii. 316 _n. 2_

_Lancelot of the Lake_, i. 567, 569-70, =582-5=; Old French prose version of, i. 583 _seqq._

Land tenure, feudal, i. 523-4

Lanfranc, Primate of England, i. 174 _n. 1_, =261 n.=, 273

_Langue d’oc_, ii. 222, 248

_Langue d’oil_, ii. 222, 248

Languedoc, chivalric society of (11th and 12th centuries), i. 572

Latin classics: Abaelard’s reference to, ii. 353 Alexandrian antecedents of the verse, ii. 152 _n. 1_ Artificial character of the prose, ii. 151 _n._ Breadth of interest of, ii. 109 Characteristics of, ii. 153 Chartres a home of, i. 298; ii. 119 Common elements in, ii. 149, 157 Dante’s attitude toward, ii. 541, 544; his quotations from, ii. 543 _n. 1_ Ecclesiastical attitude toward, i. 260; ii. 110 _seqq._, 396-7 Familiarity with, of Damiani, i. 260; ii. 165; Gerbert, i. 287-8; ii. 110; John of Salisbury, ii. 114, 164, =173=, 531; Bernard of Chartres, ii. 132-3; Peter of Blois, ii. 133-4; Hildebert, ii. =141-2=, =146=, 531 Knowledge-storehouses for the Middle Ages, as, ii. 108 Mastery of, complete, as affecting mediaeval writings, ii. 164 Reverential attitude of mediaevals toward, ii. 107-9 Scripture study as aided by study of, ii. 110, 112, 120 Suggestions of new ideas from, for Northern peoples, ii. 136 Themes of, in vernacular poetry, ii. 223 _seqq._ Twelfth-century study of, ii. 117-18

Latin Fathers (_See also their names and_ Patristic thought): Comparison of, with Greek, i. 68 Style and diction of, ii. 150, 152 _seqq._ Symbolism in, ii. 43-6 Transmutation by, of Greek thought, i. 5, 34 _and_ _n._

Latin language: Britain, position in, i. 10, 32 Children’s letters in, ii. 123 _n._ Christianity as modifying, ii. 152, =154=, 156, 164, 171 Continuity of, preserved by universal study of grammar, ii. =122-3=, 151, 155 “Cornificiani” in regard to, ii. =132=, 373 Educational medium as, ii. 109 Genius of, susceptible of change, ii. 149 German acquisition of, i. 10, 32, =307-8=, =313=; ii. =123=, 155 Grammar of, _see_ Grammar Mediaeval modifications in, ii. 125, 164 Patristic modifications of, ii. 150, 152 _seqq._; Jerome’s, ii. 152, 171 Spelling of, mediaeval, i. 219 Sphere of, ii. 219-20 Supremacy of (during Roman conquest period), i. 4, =23-4 and n. 1=, 25, =30-1= Translations from, scanty nature of, ii. 331 _n. 2_ Translations into, difficulties of, ii. 498 Universality of, as language of scholars, ii. 219, 331 _n. 2_ Vernacular, developments of, ii. 151 Vitality of, in relation to vernacular tongues, ii. 219

Latin prose, mediaeval: Antecedents of, ii. 151 _seqq._ Best period of, ii. 167-8 Bulk of, ii. 157 _n._ Carolingian, ii. 158-60 Characteristics of, ii. 156 Estimation of, difficulties of, ii. 157 _and_ _n._ Influences upon, summary of, ii. 156 Prolixity and inconsequence of, ii. 154 Range of, ii. 154 Simplicity of word-order in, ii. 163 _n. 1_ Stages of development of, ii. 157 _seqq._ Style in, beginnings of, ii. 164 Stylelessness of, in Carolingian period, ii. 158-60 Thirteenth-century styles, ii. 179 Value of, as expressing the mediaeval mind, ii. 156, 164

Latin verse, mediaeval: Accentual and rhyming compositions, ii. 194; two kinds of, ii. 196 Antecedents of, ii. 187 _n. 1_ Carmina Burana (Goliardic poetry), ii. 203, =217-19 and n.= Development of, stages in, ii. 187 Leonine hexameters, ii. 199 _and_ _n. 3_ Metrical composition, ii. 187 _seqq._; elegiac verse, ii. 190-2 _and_ _n. 1_; hexameters, ii. 192; Sapphics, ii. 192-3 _and_ _n. 1_ Modi, ii. 215-16 Rhyme, development of, ii. 195, =206=

Law: Barbarian, Latin codes of, ii. 244 _seqq._ Barbaric conception of, ii. 245, 248-9 _Breviarium_, _see under_ Roman law Canon, _see_ Canon law English, principles of, i. 141-2 Grammar in relation to, ii. 121 Lombard codes, i. =115=; ii. 242, =246=, 248, 253; _Concordia_, ii. 259 Natural: Gratian on, ii. 268-9 _Jus gentium_ in relation to, ii. =234 and n.=, 268 Occam on, ii. 519 Sacraments of, ii. 74 _and_ _n. 1_ Supremacy of, ii. 269, 279 Roman, _see_ Roman law Salic, ii. 245-6 Territorial basis of, i. 123; ii. 247 Tribal basis of, i. 123; ii. =245-7= Visigothic codification of, in Spain, i. 118

Leander, Bp. of Seville, i. 118 _n. 1_

Légonais, Chrétien, ii. 230 _and_ _n. 2_

Leo, Brother, _Speculum perfectionis_ by, ii. 183-4

Leo I. (the Great), Pope, i. 113, 116

Leo IX., Pope, i. 243

Leon, Sir Guy de, i. 552-3

Leon, Sir Hervé de, i. 552-3

Leowigild, i. 117 _n. 2_, 118 _n. 1_

Lerins monastery, i. 195

Lewis, Lord, of Spain, i. 552-3

Liberal arts, _see_ Seven Liberal Arts

Liutgard of Tongern, i. 463-5

Liutprand, Bp. of Cremona i. =256-7=; ii. 161 _n. 1_

Liutprand, King of Lombards, i. 115-16

Logic (_See also_ Dialectic): Albertus Magnus on, ii. =313-15=, 504, 506 Aristotelian, mediaeval apprehension of, ii. 329 (_See also_ Aristotle--_Organon_) Bacon’s attitude toward, ii. 505 Gerbert’s preoccupation with, i. 282, 289, =292= Grammar in relation to, ii. 127 _seqq._, 333-4; in Abaelard’s work, ii. 346 Importance of, in Middle Ages, i. 236; ii. 297 Nature of, ii. 333; schoolmen’s views on, ii. 313-15, 333 Occam’s views on, ii. 522 Patristic attitude toward, i. 71 Raban’s view of, i. 222 Scholastic classification of, ii. 313 _seqq._ Scholastic decay in relation to, ii. 523 Second stage of mediaeval development represented by, ii. 332-4 Specialisation of, in 12th cent., ii. 119 Theology in relation to, ii. =340 n.=, 346 Twofold interpretation of, ii. 333 Universals, problem of, ii. 339 _seqq._; Abaelard’s treatment of, ii. 342, =348=

Lombard, Peter, estimate of, ii. 370; Gratian compared with, ii. 270; Bacon’s attitude toward, ii. 497; _Books of Sentences_ by, i. 17, 18; ii. 134, 370; method of the work, ii. 306; Aquinas’ _Summa_ contrasted with it, ii. 307-10; its classification scheme, ii. 322-4; Bonaventura’s commentary on it, ii. 408

Lombards: Italian kingdom of (6th cent.), i. 115-16 Italian influence on, i. 7, 249 Law codes of, _see under_ Law

Louis of Bavaria, Emp., ii. 518

Louis I. (the Pious), King of France, i. 233, 239, =359=; false capitularies ascribed to, ii. 270

Louis VI. (the Fat), King of France, i. 304-5, 394, 400; ii. 62; Hildebert’s letter on encroachments of, ii. 140, 172

Louis IX. (the Saint), King of France, Geoffrey’s _Vita_ of, i. 539-42; Joinville’s _Histoire of_, i. 542-9; Testament of, i. 540 _n. 1_; otherwise mentioned, i. 476, 507-=9=, 515

Love, Aquinas on distinguishing definitions of, ii. 475-6

Love, chivalric: Antique conception of love contrasted with, i. 575 _Chansons de geste_ as concerned with, i. 564 Code of, by Andrew the Chaplain, i. 575-6 Dante’s exposition of, ii. 555-6 Estimate of, mediaeval, i. 568, 570 Literature of, _see_ Chivalry--Literature Marriage in relation to, i. 571 _and_ _n. 2_ _Minnelieder_ as depicting, ii. 30 Nature of, i. 572-5, 582-7 Stories exemplifying--_Tristan_, i. 577 _seqq._; _Lancelot_, 582 _seqq._

Love, spiritual: Aquinas’ discussion of, ii. 472-3, 476 Bernard of Clairvaux as exemplifying, i. 394 _seqq._

Lupus, Servatus, Abbot of Ferrières, i. 215;