The measurement of intelligence
Chapter 42
INSTRUCTIONS FOR "SUPERIOR ADULT"
SUPERIOR ADULT, 1: VOCABULARY (SEVENTY-FIVE DEFINITIONS, 13,500 WORDS)
PROCEDURE and SCORING, as in previous vocabulary tests. At the "superior adult" level seventy-five words should be known.
The test is passed by only one third of those at the "average adult" level, but by about 90 per cent of "superior adults." Ability to pass the test is relatively independent of the number of years the subject has attended school, our business men showing even a higher percentage of passes than high-school pupils.
SUPERIOR ADULT, 2: BINET'S PAPER-CUTTING TEST
PROCEDURE. Take a piece of paper about six inches square and say: "_Watch carefully what I do. See, I fold the paper this way_ (folding it once over in the middle), _then I fold it this way_ (folding it again in the middle, but at right angles to the first fold). _Now, I will cut out a notch right here_" (indicating). At this point take scissors and cut out a small notch from the middle of the side which presents but one edge. Throw the fragment which has been cut out into the waste-basket or under the table. Leave the folded paper exposed to view, but pressed flat against the table. Then give the subject a pencil and a second sheet of paper like the one already used and say: "_Take this piece of paper and make a drawing to show how the other sheet of paper would look if it were unfolded. Draw lines to show the creases in the paper and show what results from the cutting._"
The subject is not permitted to fold the second sheet, but must solve the problem by the imagination unaided.
Note that we do not say, "_Draw the holes_," as this would inform the subject that more than one hole is expected.
SCORING. The test is passed _if the creases in the paper are properly represented, if the holes are drawn in the correct number, and if they are located correctly_, that is, both on the same crease and each about halfway between the center of the paper and the side. The shape of the holes is disregarded.
Failure may be due to error as regards the creases or the number and location of the holes, or it may involve any combination of the above errors.
REMARKS. Success seems to depend upon constructive visual imagination. The subject must first be able to construct in imagination the creases which result from the folding, and secondly, to picture the effects of the cutting as regards number of holes and their location. It appears that a solution is seldom arrived at, even in the case of college students, by logical mathematical thinking. Our unschooled subjects even succeeded somewhat better than high-school and college students of the same mental level.
Binet placed this test in year XIII of the 1908 scale, but shifted it to the adult group in the 1911 revision. Goddard retains it in the adult group, while Kuhlmann places it in year XV. There have also been certain variations in the procedure employed. As given in the Stanford revision the test is passed by hardly any subjects below the 14-year level, but by about one third of "average adults" and by the large majority of "superior adults."
SUPERIOR ADULT, 3: REPEATING EIGHT DIGITS
PROCEDURE and SCORING, the same as in previous tests with digits reversed. The series used are: 7-2-5-3-4-8-9-6; 4-9-8-5-3-7-6-2; and 8-3-7-9-5-4-8-2.
Guard against rhythm and grouping in reading the digits and do not give warning as to the number to be given.
The test is passed by about one third of "average adults" and by over two thirds of "superior adults." The test shows no marked difference between educated and uneducated subjects of the same mental level.
SUPERIOR ADULT, 4: REPEATING THOUGHT OF PASSAGE
PROCEDURE. Say: "_I am going to read a little selection of about six or eight lines. When I am through I will ask you to repeat as much of it as you can. It doesn't make any difference whether you remember the exact words or not, but you must listen carefully so that you can tell me everything it says._" Then read the following selections, pausing after each for the subject's report, which should be recorded _verbatim_:--
(a) "_Tests such as we are now making are of value both for the advancement of science and for the information of the person who is tested. It is important for science to learn how people differ and on what factors these differences depend. If we can separate the influence of heredity from the influence of environment, we may be able to apply our knowledge so as to guide human development. We may thus in some cases correct defects and develop abilities which we might otherwise neglect._" (b) "_Many opinions have been given on the value of life. Some call it good, others call it bad. It would be nearer correct to say that it is mediocre; for on the one hand, our happiness is never as great as we should like, and on the other hand, our misfortunes are never as great as our enemies would wish for us. It is this mediocrity of life which prevents it from being radically unjust._"
Sometimes the subject hesitates to begin, thinking, in spite of our wording of the instructions, that a perfect reproduction is expected. Others fall into the opposite misunderstanding and think that they are prohibited from using the words of the text and must give the thought entirely in their own language. In cases of hesitation we should urge the subject a little and remind him that he is to express the thought of the selection in whatever way he prefers; that the main thing is to tell what the selection says.
SCORING. The test is passed if the subject is able to repeat in reasonably consecutive order the main thoughts of at least one of the selections. Neither elegance of expression nor _verbatim_ repetition is expected. We merely want to know whether the leading thoughts in the selection have been grasped and remembered.
All grades of accuracy are found, both in the comprehension of the selection and in the recall, and it is not always easy to draw the line between satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses. The following sample performances will serve as a guide:--
_Selection (a)_
_Satisfactory._ "The tests which we are making are given for the advancement of science and for the information of the person tested. By scientific means we will be able to separate characteristics derived from heredity and environment and to treat each class separately. By doing so we can more accurately correct defects."
"Tests like these are for two purposes. First to develop a science, and second to apply it to the person to help him. The tests are to find out how you differ from another and to measure the difference between your heredity and environment."
"These tests are given to see if we can separate heredity and environment and to see if we can find out how one person differs from another. We can then correct these differences and teach people more effectively."
"The tests that we are now making are valuable along both scientific and personal lines. By using them it can be found out where a person is weak and where he is strong. We can then strengthen his weak points and remedy some things that would otherwise be neglected. They are of great benefit to science and to the person concerned."
"Tests such as we are now making are of great importance because they aim to show in what respects we differ from others and why, and if they do this they will be able to guide us into the right channel and bring success instead of failure."
_Unsatisfactory._ "Tests such as we are now making are of value both for the advancement of science and for the information of the person interested. It is necessary to know this."
"Such tests as we are now making show about the human mind and show in what channels we are fitted. It is the testing of each individual between his effects of inheritancy and environment."
"It is very interesting for us to study science for two reasons; first, to test our mental ability, and second for the further development of science."
"Tests such as we are now making help in two ways; it helps the scientists and it gives information to the people."
"Tests are being given to pupils to-day to better them and to aid science for generations to come. If each person knows exactly his own beliefs and ideas and faults he can find out exactly what kind of work he is fitted for by heredity. The tests show that environment doesn't count, for if you are all right you will get along anyway." (Note invention.)
_Selection (b)_
_Satisfactory._ "There are different opinions about life. Some call it good and some bad. It would be more correct to say that it is middling, because we are never as happy as we would like to be and we are never as sad as our enemies want us to be."
"One hears many judgments about life. Some say it is good, while others say it is bad. But it is really neither of the extremes. Life is mediocre. We do not have as much good as we desire, nor do we have as much misfortune as others want us to have. Nevertheless, we have enough good to keep life from being unjust."
"Some people have different views of life from others. Some say it is bad, others say it is good. It is better to class life as mediocre, as it is never as good as we wish it, and on the other hand, it might be worse."
"Some people think differently of life. Some think it good, some bad, others mediocre, which is nearest correct. It brings unhappiness to us, but not as much as our enemies want us to have."
_Unsatisfactory._ "Some say life is good, some say it is mediocre. Even though some say it is mediocre they say it is right."
"There are two sides of life. Some say it is good while others say it is bad. To some, life is happy and they get all they can out of life. For others life is not happy and therefore they fail to get all there is in life."
"One hears many different judgments of life. Some call it good, some call it bad. It brings unhappiness and it does not have enough pleasure. It should be better distributed."
"There are different opinions of the value of life. Some say it is good and some say it is bad. Some say it is mediocrity. Some think it brings happiness while others do not."
"Nowadays there is much said about the value of life. Some say it is good, while others say it is bad. A person should not have an ill feeling toward the value of life, and he should not be unjust to any one. Honesty is the best policy. People who are unjust are more likely to be injured by their enemies." (Note invention.)
REMARKS. Contrary to what the subject is led to expect, the test is less a test of memory than of ability to comprehend the drift of an abstract passage. A subject who fully grasps the meaning of the selection as it is read is not likely to fail because of poor memory. Mere verbal memory improves but little after the age of 14 or 15 years, as is shown by the fact that our adults do little better than eighth-grade children in repeating sentences of twenty-eight syllables. On the other hand, adult intelligence is vastly superior in the comprehension and retention of a logically presented group of abstract ideas.
There is nothing in which stupid persons cut a poorer figure than in grappling with the abstract. Their thinking clings tenaciously to the concrete; their concepts are vague or inaccurate; the interrelations among their concepts are scanty in the extreme; and such poor mental stores as they have are little available for ready use.
A few critics have objected to the use of tests demanding abstract thinking, on the ground that abstract thought is a very special aspect of intelligence and that facility in it depends almost entirely on occupational habits and the accidents of education. Some have even gone so far as to say that we are not justified, on the basis of any number of such tests, in pronouncing a subject backward or defective. It is supposed that a subject who has no capacity in the use of abstract ideas may nevertheless have excellent intelligence "along other lines." In such cases, it is said, we should not penalize the subject for his failures in handling abstractions, but substitute, instead, tests requiring motor coördination and the manipulation of things, tests in which the supposedly dull child often succeeds fairly well.
From the psychological point of view, such a proposal is naïvely unpsychological. It is in the very essence of the higher thought processes to be conceptual and abstract. What the above proposal amounts to is, that if the subject is not capable of the more complex and strictly human type of thinking, we should ignore this fact and estimate his intelligence entirely on the ability he displays to carry on mental operations of a more simple and primitive kind. This would be like asking the physician to ignore the diseased parts of his patient's body and to base his diagnosis on an examination of the organs which are sound!
The present test throws light in an interesting way on the integrity of the critical faculty. Some subjects are unwilling to extend the report in the least beyond what they know to be approximately correct, while others with defective powers of auto-criticism manufacture a report which draws heavily on the imagination, perhaps continuing in garrulous fashion as long as they can think of anything having the remotest connection with any thought in the selection. We have included, for each selection, one illustration of this type in the sample failures given above.
The worst fault of the test is its susceptibility to the influence of schooling. Our uneducated adults of even "superior adult" intelligence often fail, while about two thirds of high-school pupils succeed. The unschooled adults have a marked tendency either to give a summary which is inadequate because of its extreme brevity, or else to give a criticism of the thought which the passage contains.
This test first appeared in Binet's 1911 revision, in the adult group. Binet used only selection (b), and in a slightly more difficult form than we have given above. Goddard gives the test like Binet and retains it in the adult group. Kuhlmann locates it in year XV, using only selection (a). On the basis of over 300 tests of adults we find the test too difficult for the "average adult" level, even on the basis of only one success in two trials and when scored on the rather liberal standard above set forth.
SUPERIOR ADULT, 5: REPEATING SEVEN DIGITS REVERSED
PROCEDURE and SCORING, the same as in previous tests of this kind. The series are: 4-1-6-2-5-9-3; 3-8-2-6-4-7-5; and 9-4-5-2-8-3-7.
We have collected fewer data on this test than on any of the others, as it was added later to the test series. As far as we have used it we have found few "average adults" who pass, while about half the "superior adults" do so.
SUPERIOR ADULT, 6: INGENUITY TEST
PROCEDURE. Problem _a_ is stated as follows:--
_A mother sent her boy to the river and told him to bring back exactly 7 pints of water. She gave him a 3-pint vessel and a 5-pint vessel. Show me how the boy can measure out exactly 7 pints of water, using nothing but these two vessels and not guessing at the amount. You should begin by filling the 5-pint vessel first. Remember, you have a 3-pint vessel and a 5-pint vessel and you must bring back exactly 7 pints._
The problem is given orally, but may be repeated if necessary.
The subject is not allowed pencil or paper and is requested to give his solution orally as he works it out. It is then possible to make a complete record of the method employed.
The subject is likely to resort to some such method as to "fill the 3-pint vessel two thirds full," or, "I would mark the inside of the 5-pint vessel so as to show where 4 pints come to," etc. We inform the subject that such a method is not allowable; that this would be guessing, since he could not be sure when the 3-pint vessel was two thirds full (or whether he had marked off his 5-pint vessel accurately). Tell him he must _measure_ out the water without any guesswork. Explain also, that it is a fair problem, not a "catch."
Say nothing about pouring from one vessel to another, but if the subject asks whether this is permissible the answer is "yes."
The time limit for each problem is 5 minutes. If the subject fails on the first problem, we explain the solution in full and then proceed to the next.
The second problem is like the first, except that a 5-pint vessel and a 7-pint vessel are given, to get 8 pints, the subject being told to begin by filling the 5-pint vessel.
In the third problem 4 and 9 are given, to get 7, the instruction being to "begin by filling the 4-pint vessel."
Note that in each problem we instruct the subject how to begin. This is necessary in order to secure uniformity of conditions. It is possible to solve all of the problems by beginning with either of the two vessels, but the solution is made very much more difficult if we begin in the direction opposite from that recommended.
Give no further aid. It is necessary to refrain from comment of every kind.
SCORING. _Two of the three_ problems must be solved correctly within the 5 minutes allotted to each.
REMARKS. We have called this a test of ingenuity. The subject who is given the problem finds himself involved in a difficulty from which he must extricate himself. Means must be found to overcome an obstacle. This requires practical judgement and a certain amount of inventive ingenuity. Various possibilities must be explored and either accepted for trial or rejected. If the amount of invention called for seems to the reader inconsiderable, let it be remembered that the important inventions of history have not as a rule had a Minerva birth, but instead have developed by successive stages, each involving but a small step in advance.
It is unnecessary to emphasize at length the function of invention in the higher thought processes. In one form or another it is present in all intellectual activity; in the creation and use of language, in art, in social adjustments, in religion, and in philosophy, as truly as in the domains of science and practical affairs. Certainly this is true if we accept Mason's broad definition of invention as including "every change in human activity made designedly and systematically."[78] From the psychological point of view, perhaps, Mason is justified in looking upon the great inventor as "an epitome of the genius of the world." To develop a Krag-Joergensen from a bow and arrow, a "velvet-tipped" lucifer match from the primitive fire-stick, or a modern piano from the first crude, stringed, musical instrument has involved much the same intellectual processes as have been operative in transforming fetishism and magic into religion and philosophy, or scattered fragments of knowledge into science.
[78] Otis T. Mason: _The Origins of Inventions_. (London, 1902.)
Psychologically, invention depends upon the constructive imagination; that is, upon the ability to abstract from what is immediately present to the senses and to picture new situations with their possibilities and consequences. Images are united in order to form new combinations.
As we have several times emphasized, the decisive intellectual differences among human beings are not greatly dependent upon mere sense discrimination or native retentiveness. Far more important than the raw mass of sense data is the correct shooting together of the sense elements in memory and imagination. This is but another name for invention. It is the synthetic, or apperceptive, activity of the mind that gives the "seven-league boots" to genius. It is, however, a kind of ability which is possessed by all minds to a greater or less degree. Any test has its value which gives a clue, as this test does, to the subject's ability in this direction.
The test was devised by the writer and used in 1905 in a study of the intellectual processes of bright and dull boys, but it was not at that time standardized. It has been found to belong at a much higher mental level than was at first supposed. Only an insignificant number pass the test below the mental age of 14 years, and about two thirds of "average adults" fail. Of our "superior adults" somewhat more than 75 per cent succeed. Formal education influences the test little or not at all, the unschooled business men making a somewhat better showing than the high-school students.
SELECTED REFERENCES
The following classified lists include only the most important references under each topic. So many investigations have been made with the Binet-Simon tests in the last few years, and so many articles have been written in evaluation of the method, that a complete bibliography of the subject would require thirty or forty pages. Those who desire to make a more thorough study of the literature are referred to the admirable annotated bibliography compiled by Samuel C. Kohs, and published by Warwick & York, Baltimore. Kohs's Bibliography contains 254 references, and is complete to January 1, 1914.
BINET-SIMON TESTS OF NORMAL CHILDREN
1. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants"; in _Année psychologique_ (1908), vol. 14, pp. 1-94.
Exposition of the original 1908 scale with results.
2. Binet, A. "Nouvelles recherches sur la mesure du niveau intellectuel chez les enfants d'école"; in _Année psychologique_ (1911), vol. 17, pp. 145-201.
Presents the 1911 revision.
3. Bobertag, O. "Ueber Intelligenzprüfungen (nach der Methode von Binet und Simon)"; in _Zeitschrift für angewande Psychologie_ (1911), vol. 5, pp. 105-203; and (1912), vol. 6, pp. 495-537.
Analysis of 400 cases and criticism of method and results.
4. Dougherty, M. L. "Report on the Binet-Simon Tests given to Four Hundred and Eighty-three Children in the Public Schools of Kansas City, Kansas"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1913), vol. 4, pp. 338-52.
5. Goddard, H. H. "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence, Revised"; in _Training School Bulletin_ (1911), vol. 8, pp. 56-62.
6. Hoffman, A. "Vergleichende Intelligenzprüfungen an Vorschülern und Volksschülern"; in _Zeitschrift für angewande Psychologie_ (1913), vol. 8, pp. 102-20.
One hundred and fifty-six subjects. Ages seven, nine, and ten.
7. Johnston, Katherine L. "Binet's Method for the Measurement of Intelligence; Some Results"; in _Journal of Experimental Pedagogy_ (1911), vol. 1, pp. 24-31.
Results of 200 tests of school children.
8. Kuhlmann, F. "Some Results of Examining 1000 Public-School Children with a Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests of Intelligence by Untrained Teachers"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1914), vol. 18, pp. 150-79, and 233-69.
9. Phillips, Byron A. "The Binet Tests applied to Colored Children"; in _Psychological Clinic_ (1914), pp. 190-96.
A comparison of 86 colored and 137 white children.
10. Rogers, Agnes L., _and_ McIntyre, J. L. "The Measurement of Intelligence in Children by the Binet-Simon Scale"; in _British Journal of Psychology_ (1914), vol. 7, pp. 265-300.
11. Rowe, E. C. "Five Hundred Forty-Seven White and Two Hundred Sixty-Eight Indian Children tested by the Binet-Simon Tests"; in _Pedagogical Seminary_ (1914), vol. 21, pp. 454-69.
12. Strong, Alice C. "Three Hundred Fifty White and Colored Children measured by the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence"; in _Pedagogical Seminary_ (1913), vol. 20, pp. 485-515.
13. Terman, L. M., _and_ Childs, H. G. "A Tentative Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1912), vol. 3, pp. 61-74, 133-43, 198-208, and 277-89.
Results of 396 tests of California school-children.
14. Terman, Lyman, Ordahl, Galbreath, _and_ Talbert. _The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence._ (1916.)
Detailed analysis of the results secured by testing 1000 unselected school-children within two months of a birthday.
15. Weintrob, J. _and_ R. "The Influence of Environment on Mental Ability as shown by the Binet Tests"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1912), pp. 577-86.
16. Winch, W. H. "Binet's Mental Tests: What They Are, and What We Can Do with Them"; in _Child Study_ (London), 1913, 1914, 1915, and 1916.
An extended series of articles setting forth results of tests with normal children, and giving valuable criticisms and suggestions.
BINET-SIMON TESTS OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED
17. Chotzen, F. "Die Intelligenzprüfungsmethode von Binet-Simon bei schwachsinnigen Kindern"; in _Zeitschrift für angewande Psychologie_ (1912), vol. 6, pp. 411-94.
A critical study of the results of 280 tests.
18. Goddard, H. H. "Four Hundred Feeble-Minded Children classified by the Binet Method"; in _Pedagogical Seminary_ (1910), vol. 17, pp. 387-97; also in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1910), vol. 15, pp. 17-30.
Offers important evidence of the value of the Binet-Simon method.
19. Kuhlmann, F. "The Binet and Simon Tests of Intelligence in Grading Feeble-Minded Children"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1912), vol. 16, pp. 173-93.
Analysis of results from 1300 cases.
BINET-SIMON TESTS OF DELINQUENTS
20. Bluemel, C. S. "Binet Tests on Two Hundred Juvenile Delinquents"; in _Training School Bulletin_ (1915), pp. 187-93.
21. Goddard, H. H. _The Criminal Imbecile._ The Macmillan Company. (1915.) 157 pages.
An analysis of the mentality of three murderers of moron or borderline intelligence.
22. Goddard, H. H. "The Responsibility of Children in the Juvenile Court"; in _Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology_ (September, 1912).
Analysis of 100 tests of juvenile delinquents.
23. Healy, William. _The Individual Delinquent._ Little, Brown & Co. (1915.) 830 pages.
A textbook on delinquents. Gives results of many Binet-Simon tests.
24. Spaulding, Edith R. "The Results of Mental and Physical Examination of Four Hundred Women Offenders"; in _Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology_ (1915), pp. 704-17.
25. Sullivan, W. C. "La mesure du développement intellectuel chez les jeunes délinquantes"; in _Année psychologique_ (1912), vol. 18, pp. 341-61.
26. Williams, J. Harold. _A Study of 150 Delinquent Boys._ Bulletin no. 1, Research Laboratory of the Buckel Foundation. (1915.) 15 pages.
The Stanford revision used. Report of over 400 cases to follow.
BINET-SIMON TESTS OF SUPERIOR CHILDREN
27. Jeronutti, A. "Ricerche psicologiche sperimentali sugli alunni molto intelligenti"; in _Lab. di Psicol. Sperim. della Reg. Univ. Roma_. (1912)
Out of fifteen hundred school and kindergarten children, ages five to twelve, fourteen were selected by the teachers as the brightest. The Binet test showed them to be from one to three years in advance of their chronological ages.
28. Terman, L. M. "The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children"; in _Pedagogical Seminary_ (1915), vol. 22, pp. 529-37.
Data on 31 children testing above 120 I. Q.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR GIVING THE BINET-SIMON TESTS
29. Binet, A., _and_ Simon, Th. _A Method of Measuring the Development of Intelligence in Young Children._ Chicago Medical Book Company. (1915.) 82 pages.
Authorized translation of Binet's final instructions for giving the tests.
30. Goddard, H. H. "A Measuring Scale of Intelligence"; in _Training School Bulletin_ (1910), vol. 6, pp. 146-55.
Condensed translation of Binet's 1908 _Measuring Scale of Intelligence_.
31. Goddard, H. H. "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence, Revised"; in _Training School Bulletin_ (1911), vol. 8, pp. 56-62.
32. Goddard, H. H. "Standard Method for Giving the Binet Test"; in _Training School Bulletin_ (1913), vol. 10, pp. 23-30.
33. Kuhlmann, F. "A Revision of the Binet-Simon System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children"; Monograph Supplement of _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (September, 1912), 41 pages.
34. Wallin, J. E. W. "A Practical Guide for the Administration of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence"; in _The Psychological Clinic_ (1911), vol. 5, pp. 217-38.
CRITICISMS AND EVALUATIONS OF THE BINET-SIMON METHOD
35. Berry, C. S. "A Comparison of the Binet Tests of 1908 and 1911"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1912), vol. 3, pp. 444-51.
36. Bobertag, O. "Ueber Intelligenzprüfungen (nach der Methode von Binet und Simon)"; in _Zeitschrift für angewande Psychologie_. (A, 1911), vol. 5, pp. 105-203; (B, 1912), vol. 6, pp. 495-537.
Accepts the method and gives valuable suggestions for improvement.
37. Brigham, Carl C. "An Experimental Critique of the Binet-Simon Scale"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1914), pp. 439-48.
Finds the scale 96% efficient.
38. Goddard, H. H. "The Reliability of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence"; in _Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of School Hygiene_ (1913), vol. 5, pp. 693-99.
Application of the theory of probability to the results proves the extremely small liability of error.
39. Kohs, Samuel C. "The Practicability of the Binet Scale and the Question of the Borderline Case"; in _Training School Bulletin_ (1916), pp. 211-23.
Analysis of cases showing the reliability of the scale.
40. Kuhlmann, F. "Binet and Simon's System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1911), vol. 15, pp. 79-92.
Finds the method of the greatest value.
41. Kuhlmann, F. "A Reply to Dr. L. P. Ayres's Criticism of the Binet and Simon System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1911), vol. 16, pp. 58-67.
Many of the Ayres criticisms are shown to be unfounded.
42. Meumann, E. _Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Experimentelle Pädagogik_ (1913), vol. 2, pp. 130-300.
Summary of the literature on Binet tests up to 1913. Accepts the method but gives suggestions for improvement. This summary and other writings of Meumann on the psychology of endowment are reviewed by Lewis M. Terman in a series of four articles in the _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ for 1915.
43. Otis, A. S. "Some Logical and Mathematical Aspects of the Measurement of Intelligence by the Binet-Simon Method"; in _The Psychological Review_ (April and June, 1916).
Considers the Binet-Simon method imperfect from the mathematical point of view.
44. Schmitt, Clara. _Standardization of Tests for Defective Children._ Psychological Monographs (1915), no. 83, 181 pages.
Contains (pp. 52-67) a discussion of the "Fallacies and Inadequacies of the Binet-Simon Series." Most of the criticisms here given are either superficial or unfair, some of them apparently being due to a lack of acquaintance with Binet's writings.
45. Stern, W. _The Psychological Methods of Measuring Intelligence._ Translated by G. M. Whipple. (1913.) 160 pages.
A splendid critical discussion of the Binet-Simon method. Should be read by every one who would use the scale.
46. Terman, L. M. "Suggestions for Revising, Extending, and Supplementing the Binet Intelligence Tests"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1913), vol. 18, pp. 20-33.
47. Terman, L. M. "Psychological Principles Underlying the Binet-Simon Scale and Some Practical Considerations for its Correct Use"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (1913), vol. 18, pp. 93-104.
48. Terman, L. M. "A Report of the Buffalo Conference on the Binet-Simon Tests of Intelligence"; in _Pedagogical Seminary_ (1913), vol. 20, pp. 549-54.
Abstracts of papers presented at the above conference.
49. Terman, Lyman, Ordahl, Galbreath, _and_ Talbert. _The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence._ (1916.)
Contains a chapter on the validity of the individual tests and on considerations relating to the formation of an intelligence scale.
50. Terman _and_ Knollin. "The Detection of Borderline Deficiency by the Binet-Simon Method"; in _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_ (June, 1916).
A comparison of the accuracy of the Stanford and other revisions with borderline cases.
51. Trèves _and_ Saffiotti. "L'échelle métrique de l'intelligence modifiée selon la méthode Trèves-Saffiotti"; in _Année Psychologique_ (1912), pp. 327-40.
Criticize the age-grade method of measuring intelligence and propose a substitute.
52. Wallin, J. E. W. _Experimental Studies of Mental Defectives. A Critique of the Binet-Simon Tests._ Warwick & York. (1912.)
Criticism based on the use of the scale with epileptics.
53. Yerkes _and_ Bridges. _A Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability._ Warwick & York.
Authors think the point scale preferable to the Binet-Simon method.
BOOKS ON MENTAL DEFICIENCY
54. Binet, A., _and_ Simon, Th. _Mentally Defective Children._ Translated from the French by W. B. Drummond. Longmans, Green & Co. (1914.) 171 pages.
Discusses the psychology, pedagogy, and medical examination of defectives.
55. Goddard, H. H. _Feeble-Mindedness; Its Causes and Consequences._ The Macmillan Company. (1913.) 599 pages.
The most important single volume on the subject. Extensive data on the causes of feeble-mindedness and excellent clinical pictures of all grades of mental defects.
56. Goddard, H. H. _The Kallikak Family._ The Macmillan Company. (1914.) 121 pages.
An epoch-making study of the hereditary transmission of mental deficiency in a degenerate family.
57. Holmes, Arthur. _The Conservation of the Child._ J. B. Lippincott Company. (1912.) 345 pages.
Methods of examination and treatment of defective children.
58. Holmes, Arthur. _The Backward Child._ Bobbs-Merrill Company. (1915.)
A popular treatment of the handling of backward children.
59. Huey, E. B. _Backward and Feeble-Minded Children._ Warwick & York. (1912.) 221 pages.
Devoted mainly to clinical accounts of borderline cases.
60. Lapage, C. P. _Feeble-Mindedness in Children of School Age._ The University Press, Manchester, England. (1911.) 359 pages.
61. Sherlock, E. B. _The Feeble-Minded; A Guide to Study and Practice._ The Macmillan Company. (1911.) 327 pages.
62. Tredgold, A. F. _Mental Deficiency (Amentia)._ Baillière, Tindall, and Cox. London, England. (2d ed. 1914.) 491 pages.
The best medical treatment of the subject.
STUDIES OF THE PROGRESS OF CHILDREN THROUGH THE GRADES
63. Ayres, Leonard P. _Laggards in our Schools._ The Russell Sage Foundation. (1909.) 236 pages.
Interesting and instructive discussion of school retardation and its causes.
64. Blan, Louis B. _A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation._ Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, no. 40. (1911.) 111 pages.
Review of the literature and a statistical study of the progress of 4579 children.
65. Keyes, C. H. _Progress Through the Grades of City Schools._ Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, no. 42. (1911.) 79 pages.
Important study of the progress of several thousand children.
66. Strayer, George D. _Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges._ Bulletin no. 451, U.S. Bureau of Education. (1911.) 144 pages.
Statistics of the age-grade status of the children in 318 cities.
67. See also the _Reports_ of leading school surveys, such as those of New York, Salt Lake City, Butte, Springfield (Mass.), Denver, Cleveland, etc.
REFERENCES ON THE SPECIAL CLASS FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
68. Huey, E. B. "The Education of Defectives and the Training of Teachers for Special Classes"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1913), pp. 545-50.
69. Goddard, H. H. _School Training of Defective Children._ World Book Company. (1914.) 97 pages.
Based on his survey of the treatment of backward children in the schools of New York City.
70. Holmes, W. H. _School Organization and the Individual Child._ The Davis Press, Worcester, Massachusetts. (1912.) 211 pages.
A comprehensive account of the efforts which have been made to adjust the school to the capacities of individual children.
71. Maennel, B. _Auxiliary Education._ Translated from the German by Emma Sylvester. Doubleday, Page & Co. (1909.) 267 pages.
72. Van Sickle, J. H., Witmer, L., _and_ Ayres, L. P. _Provision for Exceptional Children in Public Schools._ Bulletin no. 461, U.S. Bureau of Education. (1911.) 92 pages.
73. Shaer, I. "Special Classes for Bright Children in an English Elementary School"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1913), pp. 209-22.
74. Stern, W. "The Supernormal Child"; in _Journal of Educational Psychology_ (1911), pp. 143-48 and 181-90.
A strong plea for special classes for superior children.
75. Vaney, V. _Les classes pour enfants arrières._ Bulletin de la Société libre pour l'étude psychologique de l'enfant (1911), pp. 53-152.
Report of the French National Commission appointed to investigate methods of treatment and training.
76. Witmer, L. _The Special Class for Backward Children._ The Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia. (1911.) 275 pages.
An account of the special class conducted in connection with the University of Pennsylvania Summer School.
LIST OF BINET'S MOST IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
77. Binet, A. _L'Étude experimentale de l'intelligence._ Paris: Schleicher frères. (1903.)
78. Binet, A. "A Propos de la mesure de l'intelligence"; in _Année psychologique_ (1905), vol. 11, pp. 69-82.
79. Binet, A. _Les enfants anormaux; guide pour l'admission des enfants anormaux dans les classes de perfectionnement._ Paris: Colin (1907.)
80. Binet, A. _Comment les instituteurs jugent-ils l'intelligence d'un ecolier?_ Bulletin de la Société libre pour l'étude psychologique de l'enfant (1910), no. 10, pp. 172-82.
81. Binet, A. "Nouvelles recherches sur la mesure du niveau intellectuel chez les enfants d'école"; in _Année psychologique_ (1911), vol. 17, pp. 145-201.
82. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Sur la nécessité d'établir un diagnostique scientifique des états inférieurs de l'intelligence"; in _Année psychologique_ (1905), vol. 11, pp. 163-90.
83. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostique du niveau intellectuel des anormaux"; in _Année psychologique_ (1905), vol. 11, pp. 191-244.
84. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Application des Méthodes nouvelles au diagnostique du niveau intellectuel chez des enfants normaux et anormaux d'hospice et d'école primaire"; in _Année psychologique_ (1905), vol. 11, pp. 245-336.
85. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants"; in _Année psychologique_ (1908), vol. 14, pp. 1-94.
86. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Langage et pensée"; in _Année psychologique_ (1908), vol. 14, pp. 284-339.
87. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "L'intelligence des imbeciles"; in _Année psychologique_ (1909), vol. 15, pp. 1-147.
88. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. "Nouvelle théorie psychologique et clinique de la démence"; in _Année psychologique_ (1909), vol. 15, pp. 168-272.
89. Binet, A., _et_ Simon, Th. _La mesure du développement de l'intelligence chez les jeunes enfants._ Bulletin de la Société libre pour l'étude psychologique de l'enfant (1911), no. 11, pp. 187-256.
SUGGESTIONS FOR A TEACHER'S PRIVATE LIBRARY
ON EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Ayres, L. P. _Laggards in our Schools._ The Russell Sage Foundation. (1909.) 236 pages.
Treats the amount and causes of school retardation.
Binet, A., _and_ Simon, Th. _Mentally Defective Children._ Translated from the French by W. B. Drummond. Longmans, Green & Co. (1914.) 171 pages.
Discusses the psychology, pedagogy and medical examination of defectives.
Binet, A., _and_ Simon, Th. _A Method of Measuring the Development of Intelligence in Young Children._ Chicago Medical Book Company. (1915.) 82 pages.
Authorized translation of Binet's final instructions for giving the tests.
Goddard, H. H. _Feeble-Mindedness; Its Causes and Consequences._ The Macmillan Company. (1913.) 599 pages.
The most important single volume on the subject.
Goddard, H. H. _The Kallikak Family._ The Macmillan Company. (1914.) 121 pages.
A study of the hereditary transmission of mental deficiency in one family.
Goddard, H. H. _School Training of Defective Children._ World Book Company. (1914.) 97 pages.
Admirable treatment of the entire subject.
Goddard, H. H. _The Criminal Imbecile._ The Macmillan Company. (1915.) 157 pages.
An analysis of three murderers of borderline intelligence.
Holmes, Arthur. _The Conservation of the Child._ J. B. Lippincott Company. (1912.) 345 pages.
Methods of examination and treatment of defective children.
Holmes, Arthur. _The Backward Child._ The Bobbs-Merrill Co. (1915.)
A popular treatment of the subject.
Holmes, W. H. _School Organization and the Individual Child._ The Davis Press, Worcester, Massachusetts. (1912) 211 pages.
A comprehensive account of methods of adjusting school work to the capacity of the individual child.
Huey, E. B. _Backward and Feeble-Minded Children._ Warwick & York. (1912.) 221 pages.
Clinical studies of borderline cases.
Kelynack, T. N. (_Editor_). _Defective Children._ John Bale, Sons, and Daniellson, London. (1915.) 447 pages.
Written by many authors and devoted to all kinds of physical and mental defects.
Kuhlmann, F. "A Revision of the Binet-Simon System for Measuring the Intelligence of Children." Monograph Supplement of _Journal of Psycho-Asthenics_. (1912.) 41 pages.
Contains instructions for use of the Kuhlmann revision.
Stern, W. _The Psychological Method of Measuring Intelligence._ Translated from the German by G. M. Whipple. Warwick & York. (1913.) 160 pages.
Terman, Lyman, Ordahl, Galbreath, _and_ Talbert. _The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence._ (1916.)
Extended analysis of 1000 tests. Data on the relation of intelligence to school success, social status, etc.
Terman, Lewis M. _The Hygiene of the School Child._ Houghton Mifflin Company. (1914.) 417 pages.
Devoted to the physical defects of school children.
Tredgold, A. F. _Mental Deficiency (Amentia)._ Baillière, Tindall & Cox, London. (1914.) 491 pages.
The best medical treatment of the subject.
Whipple, G. M. _Manual of Mental and Physical Tests._ Warwick & York. Vol. I (1914), 365 pages; vol. II (1915), 336 pages.
The best treatment of mental tests other than those of the Binet system.
Witmer, L. _The Special Class for Backward Children._ The Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia. (1911.) 275 pages.
Problems encountered in connection with the special class.
MAGAZINES
_The Training School Bulletin._ Published monthly by the Training School, Vineland, New Jersey. Edited by H. H. Goddard and E. R. Johnstone.
_The Psychological Clinic._ Published monthly by the Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia. Edited by Lightner Witmer.
_The Journal of Delinquency._ Published bi-monthly by the Whittier State School, Whittier, California. Edited by Williams, Goddard, Terman, and others.
_The Journal of Psycho-Asthenics._ Published quarterly at Faribault, Minnesota. Organ of the American Association for the Study of the Feeble-Minded. Edited by A. C. Rogers and F. Kuhlmann.
_The Journal of Educational Psychology._ Published by Warwick & York, Baltimore. Edited by J. Carleton Bell.
INDEX
Abstract thought, tests of, 344.
Absurdities, 255 _ff._
Adolescence, and variability in intelligence, 67.
Adult intelligence, 54.
Adults, how to find I Q of adults, 140.
Æsthetic comparison, 165 _ff._
Age, test of giving age, 173 _ff._
Age standards, 40.
Alternative tests, 136.
Amateur testing, 107 _ff._
Apperception, 169.
Arithmetical reasoning, 319 _ff._
Association processes, 274.
Attention, during the test, 121.
Attitude of the subject, 109.
Auto-criticism, 156, 171, 195.
Average intelligence, 94 _ff._
Ball and field test, 210 _ff._, 286.
Berry, C. S., 114.
Binet, on how teachers judge intelligence, 28 _ff._; Binet's conception of intelligence, 44 _ff._, 123, 149, 151, 154, 156, 159, 165, 171, 173, 180, 181, 183, 185, 186, 190, 196, 203, 205, 217, 231, 232, 234, 247, 251, 252, 254, 258, 260, 261, 264, 276, 285, 289, 315, 322, 327, 333, 339, 345.
Binet-Simon method, nature and derivation of the scale, 36 _ff._, 47 _ff._; limitations of, 48 _ff._
Bloch, 203.
Bluemel, C. S., 107.
Bobertag, Otto, 106, 113, 176, 178, 180, 181, 185, 188, 190, 203, 206, 232, 237, 240, 252, 275, 285, 318.
Borderline intelligence, 79, 87 _ff._
Bow-knot, test of tying, 196 _ff._
Brigham, 165, 166.
Change, test of making change, 240 _ff._
Childs, H. G., 231, 298.
Coaching, 110 _ff._
Code test, 330 _ff._
Color naming, 163 _ff._
Combination method, 171. _See also_ Completion test.
Commissions, 172 _ff._
Comparison of lines, 151 _ff._
Completion test, 179, 246, 289.
Comprehension questions, 157 _ff._, 181 _ff._, 215 _ff._, 268 _ff._
Conditions favorable to testing, 121 _ff._
Counting, four pennies, 154; thirteen pennies, 180; counting backwards, 213.
Crime, relation to feeble-mindedness, 8 _ff._; cost of, 12.
Cuneo, Irene, 51.
Davenport, C. B., 10.
Definitions, in terms of use, 167; superior to use, 221; of abstract words, 281 _ff._, and 324 _ff._ _See also_ Vocabulary tests.
"Degenerate" families, 9 _ff._
Delinquency, relation to feeble-mindedness, 7 _ff._
Diamond, test of copying diamond, 204.
Differences, test of finding, 199, 313 _ff._
Digits. _See_ Memory for digits.
Discrimination of forms, 152 _ff._
Dissected sentences, 286 _ff._
Distribution of intelligence, 65 _ff._, 78 _ff._
Dougherty, 165, 166, 203.
Drawing, 156, 204, 260.
Dull normals, 92 _ff._
Dumville, 165, 166.
Ebbinghaus, 289, 318.
Emotion, 49.
Enclosed boxes, 327 _ff._
Endowment, 4, 19 _ff._
Environment, influence on test, 114 _ff._
Eugenics, 9 _ff._
Examination, duration of, 127 _ff._
Examiner, qualifications of, 124 _ff._
Fables, interpretation of, 290 _ff._
Fatigue, influence of, on test, 126 _ff._
Feeble-minded, proportion of school-children feeble-minded, 6.
Feeble-mindedness, value of tests for, 5 _ff._; psychological analysis, 23; definition, 80; examples, 82 _ff._
Fernald, G. G., 8.
Fernald, Grace, 56, 278, 280, 332.
Fingers, test of giving number of, 189 _ff._
Freeman, Frank N., 280.
Functions, tested by Binet scale, 42 _ff._
Galbreath, Neva, 51.
Galton, 328.
General intelligence, 42 _ff._
Generalization, tests of, 298.
Genius. _See_ Superior intelligence.
Goddard, H. H., 8, 106, 112, 154, 156, 165, 173, 185, 190, 196, 203, 206, 213, 234, 245, 251, 252, 259, 264, 276, 285, 289, 319, 322, 323, 332, 333, 339, 345.
Grading, value of intelligence tests in, 16.
Hall, Gertrude, 280.
Healy-Fernald, 56, 278, 280, 332.
Heredity, use of tests in the study of, 19.
Hill folk, 10.
Hollingworth, Leta S., 71.
Huey, E. B., 197, 217, 234.
Imagery, 195, 209, 321, 339.
Induction test, 310 _ff._
Ingenuity test, 346.
Intelligence, analysis of, _see_ remarks under instructions for each test; superior, 12 _ff._, 95 _ff._, teachers' estimates of, 13, 24, 26, 28, 75; general, 42 _ff._; definitions of, 44 _ff._
Intelligence quotient, 53, 55, 63, 65 _ff._; validity of, 68; classification and significance, 79 _ff._, 140 _ff._
Jukes family, 10.
Kallikak family, 9.
Knollin, H. E., 18, 51, 54, 63.
Kohs, S. C., 107 _ff._
Kuhlmann, F., 56, 105, 153, 154, 156, 165, 173, 185, 190, 193, 196, 206, 214, 217, 234, 247, 251, 252, 259, 264, 276, 280, 285, 289, 315, 319, 322, 323, 327, 333, 339, 345.
Language comprehension, 143, 144.
Limitations of the Binet scale, 48 _ff._
Lombroso, 7.
Lyman, Grace, 51.
Mason, Otis, 347.
Masselon, 245.
Material used in the tests, 141.
Memory, for sentences, 149 _ff._, 160, 185, 332; for passages, 340; for designs, 260; for digits, 150, 159, 193, 207, 242, 277, 301, 322, 329, 340, 345.
Mental age, 39 _ff._; effect of Stanford revision on, 62; how to calculate, 137 _ff._
Mental deficiency. _See_ Feeble-mindedness.
Meumann, Ernst, 46, 106, 245, 318.
Moral development, dependence of, on intelligence, 11 _ff._
Nam family, 10.
Name, test of giving name, 147 _ff._
Naming coins, 184 _ff._, 231.
Naming familiar objects, 143 _ff._
Normals, dull, 92 _ff._
Ordahl, Dr. George, 8.
Ordahl, Louise Ellison, 8.
Paper-cutting test, 338.
Physical defects, effects of, on intelligence, 19.
Physical relations, comprehension of, 333 _ff._
Physicians, as Binet testers, 34.
Pictures, enumeration of objects in, 145; description of, 190 _ff._; interpretation of, 302; finding omissions in, 178.
Pointing to parts of body, 142 _ff._
Practical judgment, 212.
President and king, giving differences between, 313.
Problem questions, 315 _ff._
Procedure, necessity of uniformity in, 32 _ff._, 131 _ff._
Promotions, on basis of intelligence tests, 16 _ff._
Race differences, 91.
Range of testing, 129.
Rapport, 124 _ff._
Reading, test of reading for memories, 262.
Record booklet, 128.
Recording responses, 133 _ff._
Reliability of the scale, 76 _ff._, 105 _ff._
Repeated tests, 112 _ff._
Retardation, cost of, 1, 13 _ff._; training of retarded children, 4 _ff._, 24 _ff._, 73 _ff._
Reversing hands of clock, 321 _ff._
Rhymes, test of finding, 248.
Right and left, 175 _ff._
Rowe, E. P., 165, 166, 277.
Rowland, Eleanor, 18.
Scattering of successes, 134 _ff._
School success and intelligence, 73 _ff._
Scoring, 132. _See also_ instructions for scoring each test.
Seclusion during test, 122.
Sex, test of giving, 146 _ff._
Sex differences in intelligence, 68 _ff._
Similarities, test of finding, 217 _ff._, 306 _ff._
Sixty words, 272 _ff._
Social class and intelligence, 72 _ff._, 114 _ff._
Spearman, C., definition of intelligence, 46.
Special classes, 5.
Square, test of copying, 155 _ff._
Stamps, test of counting value of, 252.
Standardization, value of, 30.
Stanford revision of the Binet scale, 51 _ff._
Stereotypy, 203.
Stern, W., 46, 106, 118.
Stigmata, 7.
Structural psychology, 43.
Superior intelligence, tests of superior children, 12 _ff._, 95 _ff._
Supplementary information, 135.
Teachers' estimates of intelligence, 13, 24, 26, 28, 75.
Terman, Lewis M., 63, 267, 298.
Three words, test of using, in a sentence, 242 _ff._
Time orientation, forenoon and afternoon, 187 _ff._; days of the week, 205 _ff._; giving date, 234 _ff._; naming months, 251 _ff._
Unemployment, relation of, to intelligence, 18.
Validity of the tests, 76 _ff._
Vocabulary tests, 224, 255, 281, 310, 324, 338.
Vocational guidance, use of intelligence tests in, 17, 49.
Volition, 49.
Waddle, Charles, 52.
Wallin, 237.
Weights, comparison of, 161, 236 _ff._
Williams, Dr. J. Harold, 9, 54.
Winch, W. H., 165, 166.
Writing from dictation, 231 _ff._
Yerkes, R. M., 70.