Chapter 36

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR VIII

VIII, 1. THE BALL-AND-FIELD TEST (SCORE 2, INFERIOR PLAN)

PROCEDURE. Draw a circle about two and one half inches in diameter, leaving a small gap in the side next the child. Say: "_Let us suppose that your baseball has been lost in this round field. You have no idea what part of the field it is in. You don't know what direction it came from, how it got there, or with what force it came. All you know is that the ball is lost somewhere in the field. Now, take this pencil and mark out a path to show me how you would hunt for the ball so as to be sure not to miss it. Begin at the gate and show me what path you would take._"[56]

[56] The Stanford record booklet contains the circle ready for use.

Give the instructions always as worded above. Avoid using an expression like, "_Show me how you would walk around in the field_"; the word _around_ might suggest a circular path.

Sometimes the child merely points or tells how he would go. It is then necessary to say: "_No; you must mark out your path with the pencil so I can see it plainly._" Other children trace a path only a little way and stop, saying: "Here it is." We then say: "_But suppose you have not found it yet. Which direction would you go next?_" In this way the child must be kept tracing a path until it is evident whether any plan governs his procedure.

SCORING. The performances secured with this test are conveniently classified into four groups, representing progressively higher types. The first two types represent failures; the third is satisfactory at year VIII, the fourth at year XII. They may be described as follows:--

_Type a_ (failure). The child fails to comprehend the instructions and either does nothing at all or else, perhaps, takes the pencil and makes a few random strokes which could not be said to constitute a search.

_Type b_ (also failure). The child comprehends the instructions and carries out a search, but without any definite plan. Absence of plan is evidenced by the crossing and re-crossing of paths, or by "breaks." A break means that the pencil is lifted up and set down in another part of the field. Sometimes only two or three fragments of paths are drawn, but more usually the field is pretty well filled up with random meanderings which cross each other again and again. Other illustrations of type _b_ are: A single straight or curved line going direct to the ball, short haphazard dashes or curves, bare suggestion of a fan or spiral.

_Type c_ (satisfactory at year VIII). A successful performance at year VIII is characterized by the presence of a plan, but one ill-adapted to the purpose. That some forethought is exercised is evidenced, (1) by fewer crossings, (2) by a tendency either to make the lines more or less parallel or else to give them some kind of symmetry, and (3) by fewer breaks. The possibilities of type _c_ are almost unlimited, and one is continually meeting new forms. We have distinguished more than twenty of these, the most common of which may be described as follows:--

1. Very rough or zigzag circles or similarly imperfect spirals. 2. Segments of curves joined in a more or less symmetrical fashion. 3. Lines going back and forth across the field, joined at the ends and not intended to be parallel. 4. The "wheel plan," showing lines radiating from near the center of the field toward the circumference. 5. The "fan plan," showing a number of lines radiating (usually) from the gate and spreading out over the field. 6. "Fan ellipses" or "fan spirals" radiating from the gate like the lines just described. 7. The "leaf plan," "rib plan," or "tree plan," with lines branching off from a trunk line like ribs, veins of a leaf, or branches of a tree. 8. Parallel lines which cross at right angles and mark off the field like a checkerboard. 9. Paths making one or more fairly symmetrical geometrical figures, like a square, a diamond, a star, a hexagon, etc. 10. A combination of two or more of the above plans.

_Type d_ (satisfactory at year XII). Performances of this type meet perfectly, or almost perfectly, the logical requirements of the problem. The paths are almost or quite parallel, and there are no intersections or breaks. The possibilities of type _d_ are fewer and embrace chiefly the following:--

1. A spiral, perfect or almost perfect, and beginning either at the gate or at the center of the field. 2. Concentric circles. 3. Transverse lines, parallel or almost so, and joined at the ends.

Up to about 4 years most children failed entirely to comprehend the task. By the age of 6 years the task is usually understood, but the search is conducted without plan. Type _c_ is not attained by two thirds before the mental level of 8 years, and score 3 ordinarily not until 11 or 12 years.

Grading presents some difficulties because of occasional border-line performances which have a value almost midway between the types _b_ and _c_ or between _c_ and _d_. Frequent reference to the scoring card will enable the examiner, after a little experience, to score nearly all the doubtful performances satisfactorily.

REMARKS. The ball-and-field problem may be called a test of practical judgment. Unlike a majority of the other tests, it gives the subject a chance to show how well he can meet the demands of a real, rather than an imagined, situation. Tests like this, involving practical adjustments, are valuable in rounding out the scale, which, as left by Binet, placed rather excessive emphasis on abstract reasoning and the comprehension of language. The test requires little time and always arouses the child's interest.

Our analysis of the responses of nearly 1500 subjects shows that improvement with increasing mental age is steady and fairly rapid. Occasionally, however, one meets a high-grade performance with children of 6 or 7 years, and a low-grade performance with adults of average intelligence. Like all the other tests of the scale, it is unreliable when used alone.

VIII, 2. COUNTING BACKWARDS FROM 20 TO 1

PROCEDURE. Say to the child: "_You can count backwards, can you not? I want you to count backwards for me from 20 to 1. Go ahead._" In the great majority of cases this is sufficient; the child comprehends the task and begins. If he does not comprehend, and is silent, or starts in, perhaps, to count forwards from 1 or 20, say: "_No; I want you to count backwards from 20 to 1, like this: 20-19-18, and clear on down to 1. Now, go ahead._"

Insist upon the child trying it even though he asserts he cannot do it. In many such cases an effort is crowned with success. Say nothing about hurrying, as this confuses some subjects. Prompting is not permissible.

SCORING. The test is passed if the child counts from 20 to 1 _in not over forty seconds and with not more than a single error_ (one omission or one transposition). Errors which the child spontaneously corrects are not counted as errors.

REMARKS. The statistics on this test agree remarkably well. It is plainly too easy for year IX, and no one has found it easy enough for year VII. The main lack of uniformity has been in the adherence to a time limit. Binet required that the task be completed in twenty seconds, and Goddard and most others adhere rather strictly to this rule. Kuhlmann, however, allows thirty seconds if there is no error and twenty seconds if one error is committed. We agree with Bobertag that owing to the nature of this test we should not be pedantic about the time. While a majority of children who are able to count backwards do the task in twenty seconds, there are some intelligent but deliberate subjects who require as much as thirty-five or forty seconds. If the counting is done with assurance and without stumbling, there is no reason why we should not allow even forty seconds. Beyond this, however, our generosity should not go, because of the chance it would give for the use of special devices such as counting forwards each time to the next number wanted.

It may be said that counting backwards is a test of schooling, and to a certain extent this is true. It is reasonable to suppose that special training would enable the child to pass the test a little earlier than he would otherwise be able to do, though it is doubtful whether many children below 7 years of age have had enough of such training to influence the performance very materially. On the other hand, when the child has reached an intelligence level of 8 or at most 9 years, he is ordinarily able to count from 20 to 1 whether he has ever tried it before or not.

What psychological factors are involved in this test? It presupposes, in the first place, the ability to count from 1 to 20. But this alone does not guarantee success in counting backwards. Something more is required than a mere rote memory for the number names in their order from 1 up to 20. The quantitative relationships of the numbers must also be apprehended if the task is to be performed smoothly without a great deal of special training. In addition to being reasonably secure in his knowledge of the number relationships involved, the child must be able to give sustained attention until the task is completed. His mental processes must be dominated by the guiding idea, "count backwards." Associations which do not harmonize with this aim, or which fail to further it, must be inhibited. Even momentary relaxation of attention means a loss of directive force in the guiding idea and the dominance of better known associations which may be suggested by the task, but are out of harmony with it. Thus, if a child momentarily loses sight of the end after counting backwards successfully from 20 to 14, he is likely to be overpowered by the law of habit and begin counting forwards, 14-15-16-17, etc. We may regard the test, therefore, as a test of attention, or prolonged thought control. The ability to exercise unbroken vigilance for a period of twenty or thirty seconds is rarely found below the level of 7- or 8-year intelligence.

VIII, 3. COMPREHENSION, THIRD DEGREE

The questions for this year are:--

(a) "_What's the thing for you to do when you have broken something which belongs to some one else?_" (b) "_What's the thing for you to do when you notice on your way to school that you are in danger of being tardy?_" (c) "_What's the thing for you to do if a playmate hits you without meaning to do it?_"

The procedure is the same as in previous comprehension questions.[57] Each question may be repeated once or twice, but its form must not be changed. No explanations are permissible.

[57] See IV, 5, and VI, 4.

SCORING:--

_Question a (If you have broken something)_

_Satisfactory responses_ are those suggesting either restitution or apology, or both. Confession is not satisfactory unless accompanied by apology. The following are satisfactory: "Buy a new one." "Pay for it." "Give them something instead of it." "Have my father mend it." "Apologize." "Tell them I'm sorry, that I did not mean to break it," etc. Of 92 correct answers, 76 suggested restitution, while 16 suggested apology, or apology and restitution.

_Unsatisfactory._ "Tell them I did it." "Go tell my mother." "Feel sorry." "Be ashamed." "Pick it up," etc. Mere confession accounts for over 20 per cent of all failures.

_Question b (In danger of being tardy)_

_Satisfactory._ The expected response is, "Hurry," "Walk faster," or something to that effect. One bright city boy said he would take a car. Of the answers not obviously incorrect, nearly 95 per cent suggest hurrying. The rule ordinarily recommended is to grade all other responses _minus_. But this rule is too sweeping to be followed blindly. One who would use intelligence tests must learn to discriminate. "I would go back home and not go to school that day" is a good answer in those cases (fortunately rare) in which children are forbidden by the teacher to enter the schoolroom if tardy. "Go back home and get mother to write an excuse" would be good policy if by so doing the child might escape the danger of incurring an extreme penalty. When teachers inflict absurd penalties for unexcused tardiness, it is the part of wisdom for children to incur no risks! When such a response is given, it is well to inquire into the school's method of dealing with tardiness and to score the response accordingly.

_Unsatisfactory._ "Go to the principal." "Tell the teacher I couldn't help it." "Have to get an excuse." "Go to school anyway." "Get punished." "Not do it again." "Not play hooky." "Start earlier next time," etc.

Lack of success results oftenest from failure to get the exact shade of meaning conveyed by the question. It is implied, of course, that something is to be done at once to avoid tardiness; but the subject of dull comprehension may suggest a suitable thing to do in case tardiness has been incurred. Hence the response, "I would go to the principal and explain." Answers of this type are always unsatisfactory.

_Question c (Playmate hits you)_

_Satisfactory responses_ are only those which suggest either excusing or overlooking the act. These ideas are variously expressed as follows: "I would excuse him" (about half of all the correct answers). "I would say 'yes' if he asked my pardon." "I would say it was all right." "I would take it for a joke." "I would just be nice to him." "I would go right on playing." "I would take it kind-hearted." "I would not fight or run and tell on him." "I would not blame him for it." "Ask him to be more careful," etc.

_Unsatisfactory responses_ are all those not of the above two types; as: "I would hit them back." "I would not hit them back, but I would get even some other way." "Tell them not to do it again." "Tell them to 'cut it out.'" "Tell him it's a wrong thing to do." "Make him excuse himself." "Make him say he's sorry." "Would not play with him." "Tell my mamma." "I would ask him why he did it." "He'd say 'excuse me' and I'd say 'thank you.'" "He should excuse me." "He is supposed to say 'excuse me.'"

REMARKS. All three comprehension questions of this year were used by Binet, Goddard, Huey, and others in year X; two of them in the "easy series" and one in the "hard series." The Stanford data show that they belong at the 8-year level on the standard of scoring above set forth. The three differ little among themselves in difficulty, but all of them are decidedly easier than the other five used by Binet. It would be absurd to go on using the comprehension questions as Binet bunched them, eight together, ranging in difficulty from one which is easy enough for 6-year intelligence ("What's the thing to do if you miss your train?") to one which is hard for the 12-year level ("Why is a bad act done when one is angry more excusable than the same act done when one is not angry?").

VIII, 4. GIVING SIMILARITIES; TWO THINGS

PROCEDURE. Say to the child: "_I am going to name two things which are alike in some way, and I want you to tell me how they are alike. Wood and coal: in what way are they alike?_" Proceed in the same manner with:--

_An apple and a peach._ _Iron and silver._ _A ship and an automobile._

After the first pair the formula may be abbreviated to "_In what way are ... and ... alike?_" It is often necessary to insist a little if the child is silent or says he does not know, but in doing this we must avoid supplementary questions and suggestions. In giving the first pair, for example, it would not be permissible to ask such additional questions as, "_What do you use wood for? What do you use coal for? And now, how are wood and coal alike?_" This is really putting the answer in the child's mouth. It is only permissible to repeat the original question in a persuasive tone of voice, and perhaps to add: "_I'm sure you can tell me how ... and ... are alike_," or something to that effect.

A very common mistake which the child makes is to give differences instead of similarities. This tendency is particularly strong if test 5, year VII (giving differences), has been given earlier in the sitting, but it happens often enough in other cases also to suggest that finding differences is, to a much greater extent than finding similarities, the child's preferred method of making a comparison. When a difference is given, instead of a similarity, we say: "_No, I want you to tell me how they are alike. In what way are ... and ... alike?_" Unless the child is of rather low intelligence level this is sufficient, but the mentally retarded sometimes continue to give differences persistently in spite of repeated admonitions, or if they cease to do so for one or two comparisons, they are likely to repeat the mistake in the latter part of the test.

SCORING. The test is passed if a likeness is given in _two out of four_ comparisons. We accept as satisfactory any real likeness, whether fundamental or superficial, though, of course, the more essential the resemblance, the better indication it is of intelligence. The following are samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory answers:--[58]

[58] For aid in classifying the responses in this and certain other tests the writer is indebted to Miss Grace Lyman.

(a) _Wood and coal_

_Satisfactory._ "Both burn." "Both keep you warm." "Both are used for fuel." "Both are vegetable matter." "Both come from the ground." "Can use them both for running engines." "Both hard." "Both heavy." "Both cost money."

Of 80 correct answers, 64, or 80 per cent, referred in one way or another to combustibility.

_Unsatisfactory._ Most frequent is the persistent giving of a difference instead of a similarity. This accounts for a little over half of all the failures. About half of the remainder are cases of inability to give any response. Incorrect statements with regard to color are rather common. Sample failures of this type are: "Both are black," or "Both the same color." Other failures are: "Both are dirty on the outside;" "You can't break them;" "Coal burns better;" "Wood is lighter than coal," etc.

(b) _An apple and a peach_

_Satisfactory._ "Both are round." "Both the same shape." "They are about the same color." "Both nearly always have some red on them." "Both good to eat." "Can make pies of both of them." "Both can be cooked." "Both mellow when they are ripe." "Both have a stem" (or seeds, skin, etc.). "Both come from trees." "Can be dried in the same way." "Both are fruits." "Both green (in color) when they are not ripe."

Of 82 correct answers, 25 per cent mention color; 25 per cent, form; 22 per cent, edibility; 20 per cent, having stem, seed, or skin; and 5 per cent, that both grow on trees.

_Unsatisfactory._ "Both taste the same." "Both have a lot of seeds." "Both have a fuzzy skin." "An apple is bigger than a peach." "One is red and one is white," etc.

Again, over 50 per cent of the failures are due to giving differences and about 18 per cent to silence.

(c) _Iron and silver_

_Satisfactory._ "Both are metals" (or mineral). "Both come out of the ground." "Both cost money." "Both are heavy." "Both are hard." "Both can be melted." "Both can be bent." "Both used for utensils." "You manufacture things out of both of them." "Both can be polished."

These are named most frequently in the following order: (1) hardness, (2) origin from the ground, (3) heaviness, (4) use in making things.

_Unsatisfactory._ "Both thin" (or thick). "Sometimes they are the same shape." "Both the same color." "A little silver and lots of iron weigh the same." "Both made by the same company." "They rust the same." "You can't eat them" (!)[59]

[59] One is here reminded of the puzzling conundrum, "Why is a brick like an elephant?" The answer being, "Because neither can climb a tree!" A response of this type states a fact, but because of its bizarre nature should hardly be counted satisfactory.

Of 60 failures, 32 were due to giving differences and 14 to silence or unwillingness to hazard a reply.

(d) _A ship and an automobile_

_Satisfactory._ "Both means of travel." "Both go." "You ride in them." "Both take you fast." "They both use fuel." "Both run by machinery." "Both have a steering gear." "Both have engines in them." "Both have wood in them." "Both can be wrecked." "Both break if they hit a rock."

About 45 per cent of the answers are in terms of running or travel, 37 per cent in terms of machinery or structure, the rest scattered.

_Unsatisfactory._ "Both black" (or some other color). "Both very big." "They are made alike." "Both run on wheels." "Ship is for the water and automobile for the land." "Ship goes on water and an automobile sometimes goes in water." "An auto can go faster." "Ship is run by coal and automobile by gasoline."

Of 51 failures, 32 were due to giving differences and 14 to failure to reply.

REMARKS. The test of finding similarities was first used by Binet in 1905. Our results show that it is fully as satisfactory as the test of giving differences. The test reveals in a most interesting way one of the fundamental weaknesses of the feeble mind. Young normal children, say of 7 or 8 years, often fail to pass, but it is the feeble-minded who give the greatest number of absurd answers and who also find greatest difficulty in resisting the tendency to give differences.[60]

[60] For further discussion of the processes involved, see VII, 5.

VIII, 5. GIVING DEFINITIONS SUPERIOR TO USE

PROCEDURE. The words for this year are _balloon_, _tiger_, _football_, and _soldier_. Ask simply: "_What is a balloon?_" etc.

If it appears that any of the words are not familiar to the child, substitution may be made from the following: _automobile_, _battle-ship_, _potato_, _store_.

Make no comments on the responses until all the words have been given. In case of silence or hesitation in answering, the question may be repeated with a little encouragement; but supplementary questions are never in order. Ordinarily there is no difficulty in securing a response to the definition test of this year. The trouble comes in scoring the response.

SCORING. The test is passed if two of the four words are defined in terms superior to use. "Superior to use" includes chiefly: (a) Definitions which describe the object or tell something of its nature (form, size, color, appearance, etc.); (b) definitions which give the substance or the materials or parts composing it; and (c) those which tell what class the object belongs to or what relation it bears to other classes of objects.

It is possible to distinguish different grades of definitions in each of the above classes. A definition by description (type _a_) may be brief and partial, mentioning only one or two qualities or characteristics, or it may be relatively rich and complete. Likewise with definitions of type _b_. Classificatory definitions (type _c_) are of particularly uneven value, the lowest order being those which subsume the object to be defined under a remote class and give few if any characteristics to distinguish it from other members of the same class; as, for example, "A football is a thing you can have fun with," or, "A soldier is a person." The best classificatory definitions are those which subsume the object under the next higher class and give the more essential traits (perhaps a number of them) which distinguish the object from others of the class named; as, for example, "A tiger is a large animal like a cat; it lives in the jungle and eats men and other animals," or, "A soldier is a man who goes to war." These shades of distinction give interesting and valuable clues to the maturity and richness of the apperceptive processes, but for purposes of scoring it is necessary merely to decide whether the definition is given in terms superior to use.

The following are samples of satisfactory definitions, those for each word being arranged roughly in the order of their value from excellent to barely passing:--

(a) _Balloon_

_Satisfactory._ "A balloon is a means of traveling through the air." "It is a kind of airship, made of cloth and filled with air so it can go up." "It is big and made of cloth. It has gas in it and carries people up in a basket that's fastened on to the bottom." "It is a thing you hold by a string and it goes up." "It is like a big bag with air in it." "It is a big thing that goes up."

_Unsatisfactory._ "To go up in the air." "What you go up in." "When you go up." "They go up in it." "It's full of gas." "To carry you up." "A balloon is a balloon," etc. "It is big." "They go up," etc.

(b) _Tiger_

_Satisfactory._ "It is a wild animal of the cat family." "It is an animal that's a cousin to the lion." "It is an animal that lives in the jungle." "It is a wild animal." "It looks like a big cat." "It lives in the woods and eats flesh." "Something that eats people."

_Unsatisfactory._ "To eat you up." "To kill people." "To travel in the circus." "What eats people." "It is a tiger," etc. "You run from it," etc.

(c) _Football_

_Satisfactory._ "It is a leather bag filled with air and made for kicking." "It is a ball you kick." "It is a thing you play with." "It is made of leather and is stuffed with air." "It is a thing you kick." "It is brown and filled with air." "It is a thing shaped like a watermelon."

_Unsatisfactory._ "To kick." "To play with." "What they play with." "Boys play with it." "It's filled with air." "It is a football." "It is a basket ball." "It is round." "You kick it."

(d) _Soldier_

_Satisfactory._ "A man who goes to war." "A brave man." "A man that walks up and down and carries a gun." "It is a man who minds his captain and stands still and walks straight." "It is a man who goes to war and shoots." "It is a man who stands straight and marches."

_Unsatisfactory._ "To shoot." "To go to war." "It is a soldier." "A soldier that marches." "He fights." "He shoots." "What fights," etc. "When you march and shoot."

Silence accounts for only a small proportion of the failures with children of 8, 9, and 10 years.

REMARKS. The "use definitions" sometimes given at this age are usually of slightly better quality than those given in year V. Younger children more often use the infinitive form, "to play with" (doll), "to drive" (horse), "to eat on" (table), etc. Use definitions of this year more often begin with "they," or "what"; as, "they go up in it" (balloon), "they kick it" (football), etc.

Why, it may be asked, is the use definition regarded as inferior to the descriptive or the classificatory definition? Is not the use to which an object may be put the most essential thing about it, for the child at least? Is it not more important to know that a fork is to eat with than to be able to name the material it is made of? Is not the use primary and does it not determine most of the physical characteristics of the object?

The above questions may sound reasonable, but they are based on poor psychology. We must rest our case upon the facts. The first lesson which the student of child psychology must learn is that it is unsafe to set up criteria of intelligence, of maturity, or of any other mental trait on the basis of theoretical considerations. Experiment teaches that normal children of 5 or 6 years, also older feeble-minded persons of the 5-year intelligence level, define objects in terms of use; also that normal children of 8 or 9 years and older feeble-minded persons of this mental level have for the most part developed beyond the stage of use definitions into the descriptive or classificatory stage. An ounce of fact is worth a ton of theory.

The test has usually been located in year IX, with the requirement of three successes out of five trials and with somewhat more rigid scoring of the individual definitions. When only two successes are required in four trials, and when scored leniently, the test belongs at the 8-year level.

VIII, 6. VOCABULARY; TWENTY DEFINITIONS, 3600 WORDS

PROCEDURE. Use the list of words given in the record booklet. Say to the child: "_I want to find out how many words you know. Listen; and when I say a word you tell me what it means._" If the child can read, give him a printed copy of the word list and let him look at each word as you pronounce it.

The words are arranged approximately (though not exactly) in the order of their difficulty, and it is best to begin with the easier words and proceed to the harder. With children under 9 or 10 years, begin with the first. Apparently normal children of 10 years may safely be credited with the first ten words without being asked to define them. Apparently normal children of 12 may begin with word 16, and 15-year-olds with word 21. Except with subjects of almost adult intelligence there is no need to give the last ten or fifteen words, as these are almost never correctly defined by school children. A safe rule to follow is to continue until eight or ten successive words have been missed and to score the remainder _minus_ without giving them.

The formula is as follows: "What is an _orange_?" "What is a _bonfire_?" "_Roar_; what does _roar_ mean?" "_Gown_; what is a _gown_?" "What does _tap_ mean?" "What does _scorch_ mean?" "What is a _puddle_?" etc.

Some children at first show a little hesitation about answering, thinking that a strictly formal definition is expected. In such cases a little encouragement is necessary; as: "_You know what a bonfire is. You have seen a bonfire. Now, what is a bonfire?_" If the child still hesitates, say: "_Just tell me in your own words; say it any way you please. All I want is to find out whether you know what a bonfire is._" Do not torture the child, however, by undue insistence. If he persists in his refusal to define a word which he would ordinarily be expected to know, it is better to pass on to the next one and to return to the troublesome word later. Above all, avoid helping the child by illustrating the use of a word in a sentence. Adhere strictly to the formula given above. If the definition as given does not make it clear whether the child has the correct idea, say: "_Explain_," or, "_I don't understand; explain what you mean._"

Encourage the child frequently by saying: "That's fine. You are doing beautifully. You know lots of words," etc. Never tell the child his definition is not correct, and never ask for a different definition.

Avoid saying anything which would suggest a model form of definition, as the type of definition which the child spontaneously chooses throws interesting light on the degree of maturity of the apperceptive processes. Record all definitions _verbatim_ if possible, or at least those which are exceptionally good, poor, or doubtful.

SCORING. Credit a response in full if it gives one correct meaning for the word, regardless of whether that meaning is the most common one, and regardless of whether it is the original or a derived meaning. Occasionally half credit may be given, but this should be avoided as far as possible.

To find the entire vocabulary, multiply the number of words known by 180. (This list is made up of 100 words selected by rule from a dictionary containing 18,000 words.) Thus, the child who defines 20 words correctly has a vocabulary of 20 × 180 = 3600 words; 50 correct definitions would mean a vocabulary of 9000 words, etc. The following are the standards for different years, as determined by the vocabulary reached by 60 to 65 per cent of the subjects of the various mental levels:--

8 years 20 words vocabulary 3,600 10 years 30 words vocabulary 5,400 12 years 40 words vocabulary 7,200 14 years 50 words vocabulary 9,000 Average adult 65 words vocabulary 11,700 Superior adult 75 words vocabulary 13,500

Although the form of the definition is significant, it is not taken into consideration in scoring. The test is intended to explore the range of ideas rather than the evolution of thought forms. When it is evident that the child has one fairly correct meaning for a word, he is given full credit for it, however poorly the definition may have been stated.

While there is naturally some difficulty now and then in deciding whether a given definition is correct, this happens much less frequently than one would expect. In order to get a definite idea of the extent of error due to the individual differences among examiners, we have had the definitions of 25 subjects graded independently by 10 different persons. The result showed an average difference below 3 in the number of definitions scored _plus_. Since these subjects attempted on an average about 60 words, the average number of doubtful definitions per subject was below 5 per cent of the number attempted.

An idea of the degree of leniency to be exercised may be had from the following examples of definitions, which are mostly of low grade, but acceptable unless otherwise indicated:--

1. _Orange._ "An orange is to eat." "It is yellow and grows on a tree." (Both full credit.)

2. _Bonfire._ "You burn it outdoors." "You burn some leaves or things." "It's a big fire." (All full credit.)

3. _Roar._ "A lion roars." "You holler loud." (Full credit.)

4. _Gown._ "To sleep in." "It's a nightie." "It's a nice gown that ladies wear." (All full credit.)

7. _Puddle._ "You splash in it." "It's just a puddle of water." (Both full credit.)

9. _Straw._ "It grows in the field." "It means wheat-straw." "The horses eat it." (All full credit.)

10. _Rule._ "The teacher makes rules." "It means you can't do something." "You make marks with it," i.e., a ruler, often called a _rule_ by school children. (All full credit.)

11. _Afloat._ "To float on the water." "A ship floats." (Both full credit.)

12. _Eyelash._ If the child says, "It's over the eye," tell him to point to it, as often the word is confused with _eyebrow_.

14. _Copper._ "It's a penny." "It means some copper wire." (Both full credit.)

15. _Health._ "It means good health or bad health." "It means strong." (Both full credit.)

17. _Guitar._ "You play on it." (Full credit.)

18. _Mellow._ If the child says, "It means a mellow apple," ask what kind of apple that would be. For full credit the answer must be "soft," "mushy," etc.

19. _Pork._ If the answer is "meat," ask what animal it comes from. Half credit if wrong animal is named.

21. _Plumbing._ "You fix pipes." (Full credit.)

25. _Southern._ If the answer is "Southern States," or "Southern California," say: "_Yes; but what does 'southern' mean?_" Do not credit unless explanation is forthcoming.

26. _Noticeable._ "You notice a thing." (Full credit.)

29. _Civil._ "Civil War." (Failure unless explained.) "It means to be nice." (Full credit.)

30. _Treasury._ Give half credit for definitions like "Valuables," "Lots of money," etc.; i.e., if the word is confused with _treasure._

32. _Ramble._ "To go about fast." (Half credit.)

38. _Nerve._ Half credit if the slang use is defined, "You've got nerve," etc.

41. _Majesty._ "What you say to a king." (Full credit.)

45. _Sportive._ "To like sports." (Half credit.) "Playful" or "happy." (Full credit.)

46. _Hysterics._ "You laugh and cry at the same time." "A kind of sickness." "A kind of fit." (All full credit.)

48. _Repose._ "You pose again." (Failure.)

52. _Coinage._ "A place where they make money." (Half credit.)

56. _Dilapidated._ "Something that's very old." (Half credit.)

58. _Conscientious._ "You're careful how you do your work." (Full credit.)

60. _Artless._ "No art." (Failure unless correctly explained.)

61. _Priceless._ "It has no price." (Failure.)

66. _Promontory._ "Something prominent." (Failure unless child can explain what it refers to.)

68. _Milksop._ "You sop up milk." (Failure.)

73. _Harpy._ "A kind of bird." (Full credit.)

80. _Exaltation._ "You feel good." (Full credit.)

85. _Retroactive._ "Acting backward." (Full credit.)

92. _Theosophy._ "A religion." (Full credit.)

It is seen from the above examples that a very liberal standard has been used. Leniency in judging definitions is necessary because the child's power of expression lags farther behind his understanding than is true of adults, and also because for the young subject the word has a relatively less unitary existence.

REMARKS. Our vocabulary test was derived by selecting the last word of every sixth column in a dictionary containing approximately 18,000 words, presumably the 18,000 most common words in the language. The test is based on the assumption that 100 words selected according to some arbitrary rule will be a large enough sampling to afford a fairly reliable index of a subject's entire vocabulary. Rather extensive experimentation with this list and others chosen in a similar manner has proved that the assumption is justified. Tests of the same 75 individuals with five different vocabulary tests of this type showed that the average difference between two tests of the same person was less than 5 per cent. This means that any one of the five tests used is reliable enough for all practical purposes. It is of no special importance that a given child's vocabulary is 8000 rather than 7600; the significance lies in the fact that it is approximately 8000 and not 4000, 12,000, or some other widely different number.

It may seem to the reader almost incredible that so small a sampling of words would give a reliable index of an individual's vocabulary. That it does so is due to the operation of the ordinary laws of chance. It is analogous to predicting the results of an election when only a small proportion of the ballots have been counted. It is known that a ballot box contains 600 votes, and if when only 30 have been counted it is found that they are divided between two candidates in the proportion of 20 and 10, it is safe to predict that a complete count will give the two candidates approximately 400 and 200 respectively.[61] In 1914 about 1,000,000 votes were cast for governor in California, and when only 10,000 votes had been counted, or a hundredth of all, it was announced and conceded that Governor Johnson had been reëlected by the 150,000 plurality. The completed count gave him 188,505 plurality. The error was less than 4 per cent of the total vote.

[61] Supposing the ballots to have been shuffled.

The vocabulary test has a far higher value than any other single test of the scale. Used with children of English-speaking parents (with children whose home language is not English it is of course unreliable), it probably has a higher value than any three other tests in the scale. Our statistics show that in a large majority of cases the vocabulary test alone will give us an intelligence quotient within 10 per cent of that secured by the entire scale. Out of hundreds of English-speaking children we have not found one testing significantly above age who had a significantly low vocabulary; and correspondingly, those who test much below age never have a high vocabulary.

Occasionally, however, a subject tests somewhat higher or lower in vocabulary than the mental age would lead us to expect. This is often the case with dull children in cultured homes and with very intelligent children whose home environment has not stimulated language development. But even in these cases we are not seriously misled, for the dull child of fortunate home surroundings shows his dullness in the quality of his definitions if not in their quantity; while the bright child of illiterate parents shows his intelligence in the aptness and accuracy of his definitions.

We have not worked out a satisfactory method of scoring the quality of definitions in our vocabulary test, but these differences will be readily observed by the trained examiner. Definitions in terms of use and definitions which are slightly inaccurate or hazy are quite characteristic of the lower mental ages. Children of the lower mental age have also a tendency to venture wild guesses at words they do not know. This is especially characteristic of retarded subjects and is another example of their weakness of auto-criticism. One feeble-minded boy of 12 years, with a mental age of 8 years, glibly and confidently gave definitions for every one of the hundred words. About 70 of the definitions were pure nonsense.

This vocabulary test was arranged and partially standardized by Mr. H. G. Childs and the writer in 1911. Many experiments since then have proved its value as a test of intelligence.

VIII, ALTERNATIVE TEST 1: NAMING SIX COINS

PROCEDURE is exactly as in VI, 5 (naming four coins). The dollar should be shown before the half-dollar.

SCORING. _All six coins must be correctly named._ If a response is changed the rule is to count the second answer and ignore the first.

REMARKS. Binet used nine pieces and required knowledge of all at year X (1908), but at year IX in the 1911 revision. Most other workers have used the same method, with the test located in either year IX or year X.

VIII, ALTERNATIVE TEST 2: WRITING FROM DICTATION

PROCEDURE. Give the child pen, ink, and paper, place him in a comfortable position for writing, and say: "_I want you to write something for me as nicely as you can. Write these words: 'See the little boy.' Be sure to write it all: 'See the little boy.'_"

Do not dictate the words separately, but give the sentence as a whole. Further repetition of the sentence is not permissible, as ability to remember what has been dictated is a part of the test. Copy, of course, must not be shown.

SCORING. Passed if the sentence is written legibly enough to be easily recognized, and if no word has been omitted. Ordinary mistakes of spelling are disregarded. The rule is that the mistake in spelling must not mutilate the word beyond easy recognition. The performance may be graded by the use of Thorndike's handwriting scale. The handwriting of 8-year-old children who have been in school not less than one year or more than two usually falls between quality 7 and quality 9 on this scale, but we shall, perhaps, not be too liberal if we consider a performance satisfactory which does not grade below quality 6, provided it is not seriously mutilated by errors, omissions, etc.[62]

[62] See scoring card for samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory performances.

REMARKS. This test found a place in year VIII of Binet's 1908 scale, but has been omitted from all the other revisions, including Binet's own. Bobertag did not even regard the test as worthy of a trial. The universal criticism has been that it is a test of schooling rather than of intelligence. That the performance depends, in a certain sense, upon special instruction is self-evident. Without such instruction no child of 8 years, however intelligent, would be able to pass the test. Nature does not give us a conventionalized language, either written or spoken. It must be acquired. It is also true that a high-grade feeble-minded child, say 8 years of age and of 6-year intelligence, is sometimes (though not always) able to pass the test after two years of school instruction. It is exceedingly improbable, however, that a feeble-minded subject with less than 6-year intelligence will ever be able to pass this test, however long he remains in school.

The conclusions to be drawn from these facts are as follows: (1) Inability to pass the test should not be counted against the child unless it is known that he has had at least a full year of the usual school instruction. (2) Ability to pass the test after only two years of school instruction is almost certain proof that the child has reached a mental level of at least 6 years. (3) Failure to pass the test must be regarded as a grave symptom in the case of the child 9 or more years of age who is known to have attended school as much as two years. (4) For mental levels higher than 8 years the test has hardly any diagnostic value, since feeble-minded persons of 8- or 9-year intelligence can usually be taught to write quite legibly.

If the limitations above set forth are kept in mind, the test is by no means without value, and is always worth giving as a supplementary test. Learning to write simple sentences from dictation is no mean accomplishment. It demands, in the first place, a fairly complete mastery of rather difficult muscular coördinations. Moreover, these coördinations must be firmly associated with the corresponding letters and words, for if the writing coördinations are not fairly automatic, so much attention will be required to carry them out that the child will not be able to remember what he has been told to write. The necessity of remembering the passage acts as a distraction, and writing from dictation is therefore a more difficult task than writing from copy.