CHAPTER I

WAR PRINCIPLES

(For 1917)

1. The rules of strategy and tactics have not been modified. The mode of fighting alone is different.

2. Violation of the laws of warfare. Influence of science.

3. Fighting units. The Army. The Army Corps. The Division. The Command. The Staff.

=1. Strategy and tactics are unchanged.= _Strategy_ is the art of manœuvring large armies over a great extent of country.

_Tactics_ is the art of handling the troops on the battlefield.

One might be inclined to believe that, in the present war and since the victory of the Marne, the general rules of strategy and tactics have been modified. Not at all. The ways of fighting and the armament only have undergone a transformation.

The opposing lines have buried themselves in mazes of entrenchment. On both sides old methods of warfare and weapons forsaken or forgotten for centuries have again been gradually resorted to. The “Minenwerfers,” the trench guns, are nothing but the old-fashioned mortar much improved upon. The jet of liquid fire driven by compressed air, finds its prototypes in the Greek fire of Constantinople and the hand-thrown combustibles--boiling oil and burning pitch--of the Middle Ages.

STRATEGY. The rules of strategy remain immutable. They still consist in attacking the enemy on one of his wings; in attempting to outflank him on one side; in trying to cut his line in two by a blow in the centre; in organizing a system of transportation so that the necessary forces may be quickly assembled at the points which are to be attacked or protected; in taking advantage of a superiority due to the possession of well-organized interior lines. Such are the ancient basic principles, that, in various combinations, have been applied by contending armies since the dawn of military science.

_Examples._ When the Germans attacked on the Yser front, their purpose was twofold: 1st. To outflank the left wing of the Franco-Anglo-Belgian Army; 2d. To force their way towards Calais and Dunkirk so as to prevent England from using those harbours for the concentration of her armies in France.

After her failure on the Yser front, Germany made use of her superiority in interior lines, composed of the railway lines existing before the war, supplemented by new ones built as they were needed for military operations. Owing to her central geographical position, Germany is able at all times to dispatch forces from the heart of her Empire to the various fronts; from Russia to the French Front, and _vice versa_. To these interior lines is due the facility with which she has quickly concentrated large masses of troops at any desired point, notably on the Roumanian front at the end of 1916.

When she had firmly consolidated her Western Front she rapidly collected all her available forces on the Eastern Front in an effort to crush the Russians.

When, in February, 1916, the Germans launched the gigantic attack against Verdun, it was with a twofold strategic purpose: 1st. To pierce the French line between right wing and centre and resume the march on Paris. 2d. In case of a partial success, to strengthen themselves by the occupation of Verdun, with a view to preventing the French armies from reaching the right bank of the Meuse, while at the same time guarding their own left wing and their communications with Metz, should circumstances ever force them to withdraw behind the Meuse.

During the autumn of 1915 the French attempted to avail themselves of the comparative weakness of the Germans due to their campaign against Russia. A favourable issue would have taken them to Vouziers-Rethel, and very possibly have caused all the German lines to be withdrawn from around Rheims and Soissons.

We might vary these examples. Quite recently, the British troops have resumed the attack planned in 1915 by the French in Artois. They will gradually free the North of France and Flanders.

TACTICS. Let us now consider tactical operations as they are conducted on the battlefield. The formidable field entrenchments constructed by the Germans have compelled both combatants to transform their artillery and to change the armament of their infantry.

The manner in which the different arms are employed on the battlefield has changed but little.

The field artillery has been enormously developed and it has been necessary to constantly increase the power of the cannons and howitzers. We shall later on discuss this subject more fully.

The definition of tactics as given by General Pétain, the French Generalissimo, in the course of his lectures at the “École de Guerre” has not been modified by the creation of these improved weapons. He said: “The Artillery conquers the positions, the Infantry occupies them.”

We will take for example a quite recent military feat which strikingly establishes the distinction between the strategical and the tactical operations.

On the 22d day of last October (1917), the French Army in the North, east of Soissons, scored one of the most important successes of the year. This operation, carried out on a nine-mile front, was essentially tactical. It had for object the capture of very important positions forming a salient in the French lines, which furnished the Germans with facilities for an offensive return to Soissons. The capture by the French of _Vaudesson-Allemant_ and the _Malmaison fort_ eliminated the salient, opened the road to Laon, and exposed the German lines on the Ailette to an enfilading fire.

This tactical operation was evidently a part of a vast strategical plan matured by the French and British Commanders-in-Chief. The general purpose of these operations aims at forcing the Germans to abandon the North of Belgium and to retreat in France. All the tactical operations being carried on in Flanders, on the Aisne, in Champagne and Lorraine, are parts of this single plan and have the same object in view.

The rapid campaign just conducted by Marshal von Mackensen against the Italians in the Julian Alps, like that he led in 1916 in the Dobrutcha and Roumania, are evidences that the old principles of war, and especially those practised by Napoleon, are still fully adhered to by the German armies.

=2. Violation of the laws of warfare. Influence of science.= We must acknowledge that, although the Germans had hoped in 1914 for a quick victory gained by a few overwhelming blows, they had also, during their forty-four years military preparation, provided for the possibility of a check, and had equipped themselves with a mighty artillery which enabled them to hold the Western Front while fighting against Russia.

France had to make great efforts to complete her armament in 1915. Germany had already accomplished this in a great measure before the war commenced.

It was reserved for German science, if not to render war more bloody (the weapons used in 1914 sufficiently fulfilled this purpose), to violate all the laws of warfare enacted by all the Governments, even by the German Government itself.

German science has given birth to gigantic cannon which no law forbids (we shall speak of these further on), but German science will bear, in the judgment of History, the responsibility of having added to the horrors of war an unprecedented ferocity and savagery by the introduction of asphyxiating gases, tear-producing gases, and burning liquids.

But we may add that Germany in her turn already suffers greatly herself from her inventions; the Allies having been compelled to adopt and use similar and often much improved weapons.

=3. Fighting units.= The fighting units are composed of a variable number of tactical units. The tactical unit is the Division, the composition of which will hereafter be described. It includes infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers. It ought to possess also, and we hope it will soon, a special service of aviation.

A group of two or three and sometimes four Divisions constitutes an Army Corps. The union of three, four, or five Army Corps forms an Army. In this war, two or three armies placed under one Command form an Army Group. Four or five of these Army Groups exist on the French Front. The general organization of the British differs but little from that of the French armies. Whatever difference there may be exists rather in the organization of the rear than in that of the front. The British occupying a much shorter front, dispose of a proportionately larger number of men. Though the bulk of their forces have been but a short time in France, they have received from their women workers very intelligent and valuable assistance, and, having at their disposal larger appropriations of money, have been able to do much more than France towards perfecting the organization at the rear.

The Army Corps and the Division must be organized so as to be entirely and under all circumstances self-sufficient. They may, however, rely upon any reserve forces that the surrounding armies may place at their disposal, according to the work assigned to them.

A GLANCE AT THE NORMAL COMPOSITION OF A DIVISION

The real fighting unit is the Division. We purposely do not call it a Division of infantry. The Division forms a whole by itself. It is composed of all the different arms in the proportions that have been deemed necessary to the efficiency of the whole body.

INFANTRY. Besides its Staff, which is the voice of the Command, a Division normally includes two brigades of infantry of two regiments each. The necessities of the present war have compelled the belligerents to reduce to three regiments many of their Divisions, and only the crack Divisions selected for attack have been kept up to four regiments.

ARTILLERY. Each Division includes, under the command of a colonel: 1st. One regiment of field artillery with three groups, each of three batteries each of four 75 mm. cannon;

2d. One regiment of heavy artillery with one group of 155 mm. quick-firing cannon;

3d. One battery of trench guns, the number and the size of which vary.

ENGINEERS. A French Division includes one half battalion of sappers and miners, which is not sufficient; two battalions at least ought to be attached to it. The rapidity and solidity with which the German entrenchments are constructed is due to the great number of engineer battalions which our enemy possesses.

CAVALRY. A Division also includes two squadrons of cavalry. In the trenches they are dismounted and used as connection-agents (_agents de liaison_). Their duties will be considered at another point.

AVIATORS. A Division ought to possess its own aviation corps; planes for reconnoitring, planes for directing the fire of artillery and the movements of infantry, and swift battle-planes without the protection of which all other flying-machines are exposed to great dangers.

We cannot insist enough on the necessity for the American Army to be uncompromising concerning the perfect organization of its aviation. Reasons which we lack space to discuss have so far prevented the French section of aviation from having the complete general organization it ought to have.

SUPPLY. All the services for the supply of munitions, and for the repair and renewal of material, are centralized in a divisional Park. To the supply of munitions we shall devote a special chapter.

The supply of provisions is entrusted in a Division to a sub-commissary of stores. The Commissariat Department is part of the general service at the Army base, and its study would lead us beyond the limits assigned to this exposé.

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. Every Division has its own medical department. On this point, too, we shall abstain from entering into details. Let us however remark that the medical service is still susceptible of much improvement. In spite of continuous improvements in its organization, in spite of the generous assistance of our Allies, of neutral countries, and particularly of our American friends, the recent engagements have proven:

1st. The insufficiency of the means at hand for rapidly collecting the wounded on the battlefield;

2d. The insufficiency, near the battlefield, of large field hospitals for the operations that cannot be delayed;

3d. The lack of special hospitals just out of range of the enemy’s guns, where the severely wounded (_grands blessés_), and particularly the abdominal cases, can remain as long as necessary. It is generally acknowledged that those who have been wounded in the abdomen require immediate surgical aid, and cannot be removed to a distance without undue risk. Such dangerously injured men should therefore be provided with “Rest hospitals,” where they can remain until able to be transported to the base.

The transportation of the wounded should be the object of a very close study. The trains for the transfer of the grave cases should be further improved, their speed increased, and their appointments so arranged as to allow the wounds to be dressed during the trip. Many cases of gangrene would thus be avoided.

This is said without prejudice to the wonderful improvements which have been made during the last three years. The devoted service rendered to France by her military Medical Corps cannot be too highly praised.

American army surgeons, who have benefited by the vast experience and wonderful skill of Dr. Alexis Carrel at the War Demonstration Hospital in New York, will be able to do more for the relief of suffering and the saving of life than their ablest French confrères could accomplish three years ago.

THE COMMAND. The characteristic qualities of a “Chief” in the present war must be:

1st. A very great physical endurance to render possible a great activity. The General commanding a Division must actually see with his own eyes every detail of the enemy’s positions. He must acquaint himself with the nature of the ground occupied by his adversary as well as with the strength of the latter’s defences. Such inspections will often take him to the trenches, where his presence will keep up the spirits of his men better than any exhortation written at a distance.

2d. The Chief must take in the situation at a glance. He must be composed, and a man of prompt decision. Only on a thorough knowledge of all the facts will he base his final dispositions for a fight. We are of opinion that, especially in the present war, when a decision has been taken or an order given, it is always advisable not to modify these except in details of execution which cannot interfere with the operation as a whole.

3d. During the battle, the Division General should establish his post of command at a spot whence he may, if possible, see the ground where his troops are engaged. He should, in any case, be where he can keep in touch as long as possible with the generals or colonels of the infantry under his command, and with his artillery and his information section.

4th. The Chief of any unit in war time is responsible for the physical and moral condition of his troops. He will keep their spirit at a high level if he proves to be as strict with himself as with his subordinates. In all circumstances, he should treat them with justice and kindness, but should be pitiless to bad soldiers.

He should by frequent personal inspections make sure that his troops have good food, shoes, and clothing, and that their small arms and artillery are perfectly kept, whatever the weather may be.

Some commanders of infantry Divisions, during the present war, have neglected to take as good care of their artillery as of their infantry. This is a mistake to be avoided. There are no more infantry Divisions. Our Divisions are composed of all arms, each having a special utility, and all must, without any discrimination, receive the care and supervision of their Chief.

THE STAFFS. The unit commanders need the assistance of officers thoroughly imbued with their thoughts, able to express and transmit them faithfully.

_Chief of Staff._ In every unit we have a general or superior officer, called “Chief of Staff.” In a Division taken as a unit, this officer is entrusted with the direction of all the divisional services and the services at headquarters. He is responsible to his commander for the perfect working of all these services, and also for the wording and prompt transmission of all orders.

While the task of inspecting the troops (especially the fighting troops) rests with the General, the Chief of Staff should more particularly inspect the non-combatant services and personnel, namely, the Health, Supply, Treasury, and Post Office Departments.

_Staff-Officers._ It would be a great mistake to divide the staff-officers otherwise than into two very distinct classes:

1st. Staff-Officers proper, who are the direct assistants of the Chief;

2d. Office Staff, entrusted with all the clerical work, except that concerning the preparation and conduct of the operations, and the report thereon.

The latter need not possess military science. They can efficiently fulfil their duties if, as civilians, they have been trained to prepare written reports, and they need not possess the physical endurance necessary to the staff-officers proper.

To be efficient, a staff-officer needs to possess military science, judgment, tact, physical strength, great activity, bravery, and self-abnegation.

By adhering to the above classification, the American Army will have no trouble in forming excellent staffs. In fact, it will not have to triumph over a routine that three years of war has not entirely eliminated from our old European armies. Too often we injudiciously employ for tasks unfamiliar or unsuited to them officers capable of rendering much greater services elsewhere.

The staff-officer will be efficient if he performs the following briefly stated duties:

The staff-officer must complete by a minute reconnoitring the inspections previously made by the General himself. He should never hesitate to go to the very first lines, and it will be often necessary for him to go under the protection of patrols of infantry, and ascertain in person to what extent the first lines of the enemy have been destroyed, how much damage has been done to the wire entanglements and defences, etc.

The staff-officer must be a perfectly trained aërial observer. He should also be competent to detect on the different photographs furnished by the aviators the least damage done to the enemy’s works by the successive projectiles. This task, which must be accomplished most conscientiously, requires excellent eyesight.

We do not hesitate to say that, in the present war, it would be criminal insanity to deliver an attack without being sure that the enemy’s wire defences have been sufficiently damaged; at least to such an extent as will allow the infantry to pass through them. A staff-officer should not at this most important juncture trust implicitly to the information furnished him in reports from the first lines or found in the photographs taken by the aviation, but he ought to go and see for himself and report minutely to his Chief.

These are dangerous missions: hence the need of having staff-officers in reserve. It has been repeatedly proved that officers who have not been trained at the Ecole d’Etat Major (staff school), but are experienced and efficient men, quickly become excellent substitute staff-officers.

Their principal duties may be summed up as follows:

Keep their Chief informed before, during, and after an operation.

Their office work ought to be limited to the writing of orders and reports concerning the operations. This is easy of accomplishment when the commander has a comprehensive grasp of the situation, and gives his staff clear and concise orders, which they have only to put into effect in due form.

The staff-officer must also act as an intelligence officer. As close to the General’s headquarters as possible, a staff-officer must establish a centre of information, where he will keep a force of men and all the equipment that will enable him to keep in constant communication with his General, with the infantry, the artillery, the captive balloons, all the services of the aviation, etc. When a reconnoitring aviator returns with some important information, unless he has been able to communicate it by wireless, he lands as near as possible to the intelligence bureau, gives to the staff-officer in charge an account of what he has seen, and flies off. The staff-officer transmits immediately to the proper quarter the information he has just received, and it is his duty in all important cases to make sure that his message has reached its proper destination. If telephonic communication has been interrupted by any accident of battle, he must despatch some of the estafettes, dispatch-runners, or carrier-pigeons at his disposal.