CHAPTER III.

JULIUS II.--LEO X.

It is happily possible to pass over the succeeding pontificates of Innocent VIII. and Alexander VI. These Popes did little for Rome except, especially the last of them, to associate the name of the central city of Christendom with every depravity. The charitable opinion of later historians who take that pleasure in upsetting all previous notions, which is one of the features of our time, has begun to whisper that even the Borgias were not so black as they were painted. But it will take a great deal of persuasion and of eloquence to convince the world that there is anything to be said for that name. Pope Innocent VIII. continued the embellishment of the Vatican, which was his own palace, and completed the Belvedere, and set Andrea Mantegna to paint its chambers; but this was not more than any Roman nobleman might have done for his palace if he had had money enough for decorations, which were by no means so costly in those days as they would be now, and probably indeed were much cheaper than the more magnificent kinds of arras or other decorative stuffs fit for a Pope's palace. Alexander, too, added a splendid apartment for himself, still known by his name; and provided for possible danger (which did not occur however in his day) by making and decorating another apartment in the castle of St. Angelo, whither he might have retired and still managed to enjoy himself, had Rome risen against him. But Rome, which often before had hunted its best Popes into the strait confinement of that stronghold, left the Borgia at peace. We are glad to pass on to the next Pope, whose footsteps, almost more than those of any other of her monarchs, are still to be seen and recognised through Rome. He gave more to the city than any one who had preceded him, and he destroyed more than any Pope before had permitted himself to do.

Julius II., della Rovere, the nephew of Pope Sixtus, for whom and for his brother and cousin that Pope occupied so much of his busy life, was a violent man of war, whose whole life was occupied in fighting, and who neither had nor pretended to have any reputation for sanctity or devotion. But passionate and unsparing as he was, and fiercely bent on his own way, the aim of his perpetual conflicts was at all events a higher one than that of his uncle, in so far that it was to enrich the Church and not his own family that he toiled and fought. He was the centre of warlike combinations all his life--League of Cambrai, holy League, every kind of concerted fighting to crush those who opposed him and to divide their goods; but the portion of the goods which fell to the share of Pope Julius was for the Church and not for the endowment of a sister's son. He was not insensible altogether to the claims of sister's sons; but he preferred on the whole the patrimony of St. Peter, and fought for that with unfailing energy all round. There are many books in which the history of those wars and of the Renaissance Popes in general may be read in full, but the Julius II. in whom we are here interested is not one who ever led an army or signed an offensive league: it is the employer of Bramante and Michael Angelo and Raphael, the choleric patron who threatened to throw the painter of the Sistine chapel from his scaffolding, the dreadful iconoclast who pulled down St. Peter's and destroyed the tombs of the Popes, the magnificent prince who bound the greatest artists then existing in Italy, which was to say in the world, to his chariot wheels, and drove them about at his will. Most of these things were good things, and give a favourable conception of him; though not that which was the most important of all.

How it was that he came to pull down St. Peter's nobody can say. He had of course the contempt which a man, carried on the highest tide of a new movement, has by nature for all previous waves of impulse. He thought of the ancient building so often restored, the object of so much loving care, with all the anxious expedients employed by past Popes to glorify and embellish the beloved interior, giving it the warmest and most varied historical interest--with much the same feeling as the respectable churchwarden in the eighteenth century looked upon the piece of old Gothic which had fallen into his hands. A church of the fourteenth century built for eternity has always looked to the churchwarden as if it would tumble about his ears--and his Herculean efforts to pull down an arch that without him would have stood till the end of time have always been interpreted as meaning that the ancient erection was about to fall. Julius II. in the same way announced St. Peter's to be in a bad way and greatly in need of repair, so as scarcely to be safe for the faithful; and Bramante was there all ready with the most beautiful plans, and the Pope was not a patient man who would wait, but one who insisted upon results at once. This church had been for many hundreds of years the most famous of Christian shrines; from the ends of the world pilgrims had sought its altars. The tomb of the Apostles was its central point, and many another saint and martyr inhabited its sacred places. It had seen the consecration of Emperors, it had held false Popes and true, and had witnessed the highest climax of triumph for some, and for some the last solemnity of death.[10] But Bramante saw in that venerable temple only the foundations for a new cathedral after the fashion of the great Duomo which was the pride of Florence; and his master beheld in imagination the columns rising, and the vast arches growing, of such an edifice as would be the brag of Christendom, and carry the glory of his own name to the furthest ends of the earth: a temple all-glorious in pagan pride, more classical than the classics, adorned with great statues and blank magnificence of pilasters and tombs rising up to the roof--one tomb at least, that of the della Roveres, of Sixtus IV. and Julius II., which should live as long as history, and which, if that proud and petulant fellow Buonarotti would but complete his work, would be one of the glories of the Eternal City.

The ancient St. Peter's would not seem to have had anything of the poetic splendour and mystery of a Gothic building as understood in northern countries: the rounded arches of its façade did not spring upwards with the lofty lightness and soaring grace of the great cathedrals of France and Germany. But the irregular front was full of interest and life, picturesque if not splendid. It had character and meaning in every line, it was a series of erections, carrying the method of one century into another, with that art which makes one great building into an animated and varied history of the times and ages through which it has passed, taking something from each, and giving shelter and the sense of continuance to all. There is no such charm as this in the most perfect of architectural triumphs executed by a single impulse. But this was the last quality in the world likely to deter a magnificent Pope of the fifteenth century, to whom unity of conception and correctness of form were of much more concern than any such imaginative interest. However Julius II. must not have greater guilt laid upon him than was his due. His operations concerned only the eastern part of the great church: the façade, and the external effect of the building remained unchanged for more than a hundred years; while the plan as now believed, was that of Pope Nicolas V., only carried out by instalments by his successors, of whom Julius was one of the boldest.

It is, however, in the fame of his three servants, sublime slaves, whose names are more potent still than those of any Pontiff, that this Pope has become chiefly illustrious. His triumphs of fighting are lost from memory in the pages of the historians, where we read and forget, the struggle he maintained in Italy, and the transformations through which that much troubled country passed under his sway--to change again the morrow after, as it had changed the day before the beginning of his career. To be sure it was he who finally identified and secured the Patrimony of St. Peter--so that the States of the Church were not henceforward lost and won by a natural succession of events once at least in the life of every Pope. But we forget that fact, and all that secured it, the tumultuous chaos of European affairs being as yet too dark to be penetrated by any certainty of consolidation. The course of events was in large what the history of the fortunes of St. John Lateran, for example, was in small. From the days of Pope Martin V. until those of Sixtus IV. a change of the clergy there was made in almost each pontificate. Eugenius IV. restored the canons regular, or monks: who were driven forth by Calixtus III., again restored by Paul II., and so forth, until at length Sixtus, bringing back the secular priests for the third time, satisfied the monks by the gift of his new church of Sta. Maria della Pace. The revolution of affairs in Italy was almost as regular, and it is only with an effort of the mind that the reader can follow the endless shifting of the scenes, the combinations that disperse and reassemble, the whirl of events for ever coming round again to the point from which they started. But when we put aside the Popes and the Princes and the stamping and tumult of mail-clad warriors--and the crowd opening on every side gives us to see a patient, yet high-tempered artisan mounting day by day his lofty platform, swung up close to the roof, where sometimes lying on his back, sometimes crouched upon his knees, he made roof and architrave eloquent with a vision which centuries cannot fade, nor any revolution, either of external affairs or of modes of thought, lessen in interest, a very different feeling fills the mind, and the thoughts, which were sick and weary with the purposeless and dizzy whirl of fact, come back relieved to the consoling permanence of art. The Pope who mounted imperious, a master of the world, on to those dizzy planks, admired, and blasphemed and threatened in a breath; but with no power to move the sturdy painter, who, it was well known, was a man impossible to replace. "When will you have done?" said the Pope. "When I can," replied the other. The Pontiff might rage and threaten, but the Florentine painted on steadily; and Pope Julius, on the tremulous scaffolding up against the roof of his uncle's chapel, is better known to the world by that scene than by all his victories. Uncle and nephew, both men of might, warlike souls and strong, that room in the Vatican has more share in their fame than anything else which they achieved in the world.

Another and a gentler spirit comes in at the same time to glorify this fortunate Pope. His predecessors for some time back had each done something for the splendour of the dwelling which was their chief residence, even the least interested adding at least a _loggia_, a corridor, a villa in the garden, as has been seen, to make the Vatican glorious. Alexander VI. had been the last to embellish and extend the more than regal lodging of the Pontiffs; but Julius II. had a hatred of his predecessor which all honest men have a right to share, and would not live in the rooms upon which the Borgias had left the horror of their name. He went back to the cleaner if simpler apartments which Nicolas V. had built and decorated by the hands of the elder painters. Upon one of these he set young Raphael to work, a young man with whom there was likely to be no such trouble as that he had with the gnarled and crabbed Florentine, who was as wilful as himself. Almost as soon as the young painter had begun his gracious work the delighted Pope perceived what a treasury of glory he had got in this new servant. What matter that the new painter's master, Perugino, had been there before him with other men of the highest claims? The only thing to do was to break up these old-fashioned masters, to clear them away from the walls, to leave it all to Raphael. We shiver and wonder at such a proof of enthusiasm. Was the young man willing to get space for his smooth ethereal pictures with all their heavenly grace, at such a price? But if he made any remonstrance--which probably he did, for we see him afterwards in much trouble over St. Peter's, and the destruction carried on there--his imperious master took little notice. Julius was one of the men who had to be obeyed, and he was always as ready to pull down as to build up. The destruction of St. Peter's on one hand, and all those pictures on the other, prove the reckless and masterful nature of the man, standing at nothing in a matter on which he had set his heart. In later days the pictures of Perugino on the wall of the Sistine chapel were demolished, as has been said, to make place for the Last Judgment of Michael Angelo; but Pope Julius by that time had passed into another sphere.

Most people will remember the famous portrait of this Pope by Raphael, one of the best known pictures in the world. He sits in his chair, an old man, his head slightly bowed, musing, in a pause of the endless occupations and energy which made his life so full. The portrait is quite simple, but full of dignity and a brooding power. We feel that it would not be well to rouse the old lion, though at the moment his repose is perfect. Raphael was at his ease in the peacefulness of his own soul to observe and to record the powerful master whose fame he was to have so great a share in making. It would have been curious to have had also the Julius whom Michael Angelo knew.

He died in the midst of all this great work, while yet the dust of the downfall of St. Peter's was in the air. Had it been possible that he could have lived to see the new and splendid temple risen in its place, we could better understand the wonderful hardihood of the act; but it would be almost inconceivable how even the most impious of men could have executed such an impulse, leaving nothing but a partial ruin behind him of the great Shrine of Christendom, did we not know that a whole line of able rulers had carried on the plan to gradual completion. It was not till a hundred and fifty years later that the new St. Peter's in its present form, vast and splendid, but apparently framed to look, to the first glance, as little so as possible, stood complete, to the admiration of the world. In the violence of destruction a great number of the tombs of the Popes perished, by means of that cynical carelessness and profanity which is more cruel than any hostile impulse. Julius preserved the grave of his uncle Sixtus, where he was himself afterwards laid, not in his own splendid tomb which had been in the making for many years, and which is now to be seen in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli from which he took his Cardinal's title. He had therefore little good of that work of art as he well deserved, and it was itself sadly diminished, cut down, and completed by various secondary hands; but it is kept within the ken of the spectator by Michael Angelo's Moses and some other portions of his original work, though it neither enshrines the body nor marks the resting place of its imperious master. Julius died in 1513, "more illustrious in military glory than a Pope ought to be." Panvinio says: "He was of great soul and constancy, and a powerful defender of all ecclesiastical things: he would not suffer any offence, and was implacable with rebels and contumacious persons. He was such a one as could not but be praised for having with so much strength and fidelity preserved and increased the possessions of the Church, although there are a few to whom it appears that he was more given to arms than was becoming a holy Pope." "On the 21st of February 1513, died Pope Julius, at nine hours of the night," says another chronicler, Sebastiano Branca; "he held the papacy nine years, three months, and twenty-five days. He was from Savona: he acquired many lands for the Church: no Pope had ever done what Pope Julius did. The first was Faenza, the others Forli, Cervia, Ravenna, Rimini, Parma, Piacenza, and Arezzo. He gained them all for the Church, nor ever thought of giving them to his own family. Pesaro he gave to the Duke of Urbino, his nephew, but no other. Thirty-three cardinals died in his time. And he caused the death in war of more than a hundred thousand people." There could not be a more grim summary.

It is curious to remark that the men who originated the splendour of modern Rome, who built its noblest churches and palaces, and emblazoned its walls with the noblest works of art, and filled its libraries with the highest luxury of books, were men of the humblest race, of peasant origin, born to poverty and toil. Thomas of Sarzana, Pope Nicolas V., Francesco and Giuliano of Savona, Popes Sixtus IV. and Julius II.: these men were born without even the distinction of a surname, in the huts where poor men lie, or more humbly still in some room hung high against the rocky foundations of a village, perched upon a cliff, after the fashion of Italy. It was they who set the fashion of a magnificence beyond the dreams of the greatest princes of their time.

It was not so, however, with the successor of Julius II., the Pope in whose name all the grandeur and magnificence of Rome is concentrated, and of whom we think most immediately when the golden age of ecclesiastical luxury and the splendour of art is named. Leo X. was as true a son of luxury as they were of the soil. The race of Medici has always been fortunate in its records. The greatest painters of the world have been at its feet, encouraged and cherished and tyrannised over. Literature such as was in the highest esteem in those days flattered and caressed and fawned upon them. Lorenzo, somewhat foolishly styled in history the Magnificent,--in forgetfulness of the fact that il Magnifico was the common title of a Florentine official,--is by many supposed to be the most conspicuous and splendid character in the history of Florence. And Leo X. bears the same renown in the records of Papal Rome. We will not say that he was a modern Nero fiddling while Rome was burning, for he showed himself in many ways an unusually astute politician, and as little disposed to let slip any temporal advantage as his fighting predecessors--but the spectacle is still a curious one of a man expending his life and his wealth (or that of other people) in what was even the most exquisite and splendid of decorations, such wonders of ornamentation as Raphael's frescoes--while the Papacy itself was being assailed by the greatest rebellion ever raised against it. To go on painting the walls while the foundations of the building are being ruined under your feet and at any moment may fall about your ears, reducing your splendid ornaments to powder, is a thing which gives the most curious sensation to the looker on. The world did not know in those days that even to an institution so corrupt superficially as the Church of Rome the ancient promise stood fast, and not only the gates of hell, but those more like of heaven, should not prevail against her. Out of Italy it was believed that the Church which had but lately been ruled over by a Borgia, and which was admittedly full of wickedness in high places, must go down altogether under the tremendous blow. A great part of the world indeed went on believing so for a century or two. But in the midst of that almost universal conviction nothing can be more curious than to see the life of Papal Rome going on as if nothing had happened, and young Raphael and all his disciples coming and going, cheerful as the day, about the great empty chambers which they were making into a wonder of the earth. Michael Angelo, it is true, in grim discontent hewed at those huge slaves of his in Florence, working wonderful thoughts into their great limbs; but all that Roman world flowed on in brightness and in glory under skies untouched by any threatening of catastrophe.

The Italian chroniclers scarcely so much as mention the beginnings of the Reformation. "At that time in the furthest part of Germany the abominable and infamous name of Martin Luther began to be heard," says one. The elephant which Emmanuel of Portugal sent to his Holiness, and which was supposed to be a thousand years old, takes up as much space. The sun shone on in Rome. The painters sang and whistled at their work, and their sublime patron went and came, and capped verses with Venetian Bembo, and the unique Aretino. They were not, it would seem, in the least afraid of Luther, nor even cognisant of him except in a faint and far-off way. He was so absurd as to object to the sale of indulgences. Now the sale of indulgences was not to be defended in theory, as all these philosophers knew. But to buy off the penances which otherwise they would at all events have been obliged to pretend to do, was a relief grateful to many persons who were not bad Christians, besides being good Catholics. Perhaps, indeed, in the gross popular imagination these indulgences might have come to look like permissions to sin, as that monster in Germany asserted them to be; but this did not really alter their true character, any more than other popular mistakes affected doctrine generally. And how to get on with that huge building of St. Peter's, at which innumerable workmen were labouring year after year, and which was the most terrible burden upon the Papal funds, without that method of wringing stone and mortar and gilding and mosaic out of the common people? Pope Leo took it very easily. Notwithstanding the acquisitions of Pope Julius, and the certainty with which the historians assure us that from his time the Patrimony of St. Peter was well established in the possession of Rome, some portion of it had been lost again, and had again to be recovered in the days of his successor. That was doubtless more important than the name, _nefando_, _execrabile_ of the German monk. And so the wars went on, though not with the spirit and relish which Julius II. had brought into them. Leo X. had no desire to kill anybody. When he was compelled to do it he did it quite calmly and inexorably as became a Medici; but he took no pleasure in the act. If Luther had fallen into his hands the Curia would no doubt have found some means of letting the pestilent fellow off. A walk round the _loggie_ or the _stanze_ where the painters were so busy, and where Raphael, a born gentleman, would not grumble as that savage Buonarotti did, at being interrupted, but would pause and smile and explain, put the thought of all troublesome Germans easily out of the genial potentate's head. It was the Golden Age; and Rome was the centre of the world as was meet, and genius toiled untiringly for the embellishment of everything; and such clever remarks had never been made in any court, such witty suggestions, such fine language used and subtle arguments held, as those of all the scholars and all the wits who vied with each other for the ear and the glance of Pope Leo. The calm enjoyment of life over a volcano was never exhibited in such perfection before.

We need not pause here to enumerate or describe those works which every visitor to Rome hastens to see, in which the benign and lovely art of Raphael has lighted up the splendid rooms of the Vatican with something of the light that never was on sea or shore. We confess that for ourselves one little picture from the same hand, to be met with here and there, and often far from the spot where it was painted, outvalues all those works of art; but no one can dispute their beauty or importance. Pope Leo did not by so much as the touch of a pencil contribute to their perfection, yet they are the chief glory of his time, and the chief element in his fame. He made them in so far that he provided the means, the noble situation as well as the more vulgar provision which was quite as necessary, and he has therefore a right to his share of the applause--by which he is well rewarded for all he did; for doubtless the payment of the moment, the pleasure which he sincerely took in them, and the pride of so nobly taking his share in the lasting illumination of Rome were a very great recompense in themselves, without the harvest he has since reaped in the applause of posterity. Nowadays we do not perhaps so honour the patron of art as people were apt to do in the last century. And there are, no doubt, many now who worship Raphael in the Vatican without a thought of Leo. Still he is worthy to be honoured. He gave the young painter a free hand, believing in his genius and probably attracted by his more genial nature, while holding Michael Angelo, for whom he seems always to have felt a certain repugnance, at arm's length.

We will not attempt to point out in Raphael's great mural paintings the flattering allusions to Leo's history and triumph which critics find there, nor yet the high purpose with which others hold the painter to have been moved in those great works. Bishop Creighton finds a lesson in them, which is highly edifying, but rather beyond what we should be disposed to look for. "The life of Raphael," he says, "expresses the best quality of the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, its belief in the power of culture to restore unity to life and implant serenity in the soul. It is clear that Raphael did not live for mere enjoyment, but that his time was spent in ceaseless activity animated by high hopes for the future." How this may be we do not know: but lean rather to the opinion that Raphael, like other men of great and spontaneous genius, did what was in him and did his best, with little ulterior purpose and small thought about the power of culture. It was his, we think, to show how art might best illustrate and with the most perfect effect the space given him to beautify, with a meaning not unworthy of the gracious work, but no didactic impulse. It was his to make these fine rooms, and the airy lightness of the brilliant _loggie_ beautiful, with triumphant exposition of a theme full of pictorial possibilities. But what it should have to do with Luther, or how the one should counterbalance the other, it is difficult to perceive. Goethe on the other hand declares that going to Raphael's _loggie_ from the Sistine chapel "we could scarcely bear to look at them. The eye was so educated and enlarged by those grand forms and the glorious completeness of all the parts that it could take no pleasure" in works so much less important. Such are the differences of opinion in all ages. It is the glory of this period of Roman history that at a time when the Apostolic See had lost so much, and when all its great purposes, its noble ideals, its reign of holiness and inspired wisdom had perished like the flower of the fields--when all that Gregory and Innocent had struggled their lives long to attain had dissolved like a bubble: when the Popes were no longer holy men, nor distinguished by any great and universal aim, but Italian princes like others, worse rather than better in some cases: there should have arisen, with a mantle of glory to hide the failure and the horror and the scorn, these two great brethren of Art--the one rugged, mournful, self-conscious, bowed down by the evil of the time, the other all sweetness and gladness, an angel of light, divining in his gracious simplicity the secrets of the skies.

Leo the Pope was no such noble soul. He was only an urbane and skilful Medici, great to take every advantage of the divine slaves that were ready for his service--using them not badly, encouraging them to do their best, if not for higher motives yet to please him, the Sommo Pontefice, surely the best thing that they could hope for; and to win such share of the ducats which came to him from the sale of the offices of the Vatican, the cardinals' hats, the papal knighthoods, and other trumpery, as might suffice for all their wants. He sold these and other things, indulgences for instance, sown broadcast over the face of the earth and raising crops of a quite different kind. But on the other hand he never sold a benefice. He remitted the tax on salt; and he gave liberally to whoever asked him, and enjoyed life with all his heart, in itself no bad quality.

"The pontificate of Leo was the most gay and the most happy that Rome ever saw," says the chronicler. "Being much enamoured of building he took up with a great soul the making of San Pietro, which Julius, with marvellous art, had begun. He ennobled the palace of the Vatican with triple porticoes, ample and long, of the most beautiful fabrication, with gilded roofs and ornamented by excellent pictures. He rebuilt almost from the foundations the church of our Lady of the Monte Coelio, from which he had his title as cardinal, and adorned it with mosaics. Finally there was nothing which during all his life he had more at heart or more ardently desired than the excellent name of liberal, although it was the wont ordinarily of all the others to turn their backs upon that virtue of liberality, and to keep far from it. He judged those unworthy of high station who did not with large and benign hand disperse the gifts of fortune, and above all those which were acquired by little or no fatigue. But while he in this guise governed Rome, and all Italy enjoyed a gladsome peace, he was by a too early death taken from this world although still in the flower and height of his years."

He died forty-five years old on December 1, 1521.

The great works which one and another of the Popes thus left half done were completed--St. Peter's by Sixtus V. 1590, and Paul V. 1615. The Last Judgment completing the Sistine chapel was finished by Michael Angelo in 1541 under Clement VII. and Paul III. And thus the Rome of our days--the Rome which not as pilgrims, but as persons living according to the fashion of our own times, which compels us to go to and fro over all the earth and see whatever is to be seen, we visit every year in large numbers--was left more or less as it is now, for the admiration of the world. Much has been done since, and is doing still every day to make more intelligible and more evident the memorials of an inexhaustible antiquity--but in the Rome of the Popes, the Rome of Christendom, History has had but little and Art not another word to say.

FOOTNOTE:

[10] See the death of Pope Leo IX., p. 199.

THE END.

INDEX.

INDEX.

Adelaide of Susa, 262, 269.

Agnes, Empress, 217, 233, 237, 279; Hildebrand becomes adviser to, 202; alienated from Hildebrand, 214; renounces the world, 219.

Alaric, 108, 119, 121.

Albigenses, many sects among, 355; Pope Innocent's attitude towards, 357; missionaries sent to, _ib._; crusade against them, 359-361.

Albina, 17, 18, 89.

Albornoz, Cardinal, 480, 488.

Alexander II., 205, 215, 224.

Alexander VI., 581, 582, 589.

Allegories, Rienzi's painted, 413-416, 419.

Ambrose, 48.

Angelico, Fra, 546, 549.

Angelo, Michael, 588, 595, 598.

Apollinaris, the heresy of, 47, 48.

Aqueducts restored by Sixtus IV., 574.

Arimbaldo, 500; joins Rienzi in his enterprise, 489.

Aristocracy, Roman, its position at the end of the 4th century, 3, 4, 5; luxuriousness of the nobles, 5, 6, 7; and of the women, 7, 8; its characteristics in the 14th century, 396, 397. _See_ Nobles.

Art, the Popes as patrons of, 515; that of Rome imported from abroad, 516; art workshops in Rome, 546.

Artists, Roman, 412, 413, 420; employed upon the Sistine chapel, 575; Julius II. as a patron of, 482, 583, 589.

Asella, 18, 21, 89; Jerome's letters to, 72, 75, 76.

Athanasius, his life of St. Antony of the desert, 15; his reception at Rome, 16; and in the household of Albina, 17; Melania's visit to, 33.

Attila, 120.

Augsburg, Council of, 261; German nobles impatient to open, 274, 275.

Augustine, Gregory's instructions to, for the making of converts, 156; and for pastoral work, _ib._, 157, 158; sent on his mission to England, 161, 162.

Bäle, Council of, 525, 531.

Bavaria, Duke of, 260.

Beatrice of Tuscany, 204, 216, 234, 256.

Benedict, Pope, and Fra Monozello, 395.

Benedict, order of, 126, 131.

Benedict I., 138.

Benedict X. _See_ Mincio, Bishop.

Berengarius of Tours, his heresy, 279, 290.

Bethlehem, convents founded at, by Jerome and Paula, 82.

Bible, Innocent III., on the interpretation of, by sectaries, 357.

Blæsilla, 23, 55, 67; her conversion, 58; her death and funeral, 63.

Bollandists, 131.

Book collector, Thomas (Nicolas V.) as, 529, 534.

Borgias, 515, 581.

Borgo, 538; sanctity of the spot, 539, 540; wall built to enclose, 541; buildings erected afterwards within the enclosure, _ib._

Botticelli, 575.

Bowden, Mr., his life of Gregory VII., 515.

Bramante, 584.

Browning, Robert, 420, 421.

Brunhild, Queen, 169.

Bruno, Bishop, appointed Pope, 190; acts on Hildebrand's advice, 191, 192; his triumphant election at Rome, 193. _See_ Leo IX.

Buildings, ancient, Gregory accused of destroying, 176, 177; regarded as stone-quarries, 242, 517, 577; restoration of, Book IV., _passim_.

Buono Stato, secret society formed for the establishment of, 423, 424; demonstration by the conspirators, 425, 426; its rules, 426, 427. _See_ Rienzi.

Cadalous, anti-Pope, 216-218.

Cæsarea, Melania arrested at, 35.

Calixtus III., 552, 553.

Cammora (City Council), Rienzi protests against the rapacity of, 411.

Canossa, Pope Gregory sheltered in the castle of, 264.

Carinthia, Duke of, 260.

Castracani, 390.

Celestine, Pope, 316.

Celibacy, Jerome and the controversy regarding, 59-62; of the clergy, _see_ Marriage of priests.

Cencius, the Roman bandit, 243, 244; abducts Pope Gregory, 245.

Cerealis, 19.

Charities of the Roman ladies, 55, 56.

Charles IV. and Rienzi, 476.

Christianity, its conjunction with Paganism in Roman society, 7-10; nominally embraced by the common people, 57; again conjoined with Paganism during the Renaissance, 529.

Church, the, corruption of, 10, 11; Jerome on the daily life of a Roman priest, 11, 12; fierceness of controversy in, 105; her position during the barbarian conquests of Rome, 120, 121; beginning of her sovereignty, 121, 122; best of the Roman youth absorbed by, 123; made no claim to universal authority in the 6th century, 121, 132, 168; wealth of, used for public purposes, 147; almsgiving a principle of, 151; Gregory's achievements for, 170; pretensions to supremacy made by John of Constantinople, 170, 173; Gregory's tolerant supervision of, 174; state of, in Germany, 188; reforms urgently necessary in, 195; effort of Leo IX. for reform in, 196-199; a new law for the election of the Popes, 208; Hildebrand's ambition of making her a great arbitrating power, 211, 212; how she secured independence in the election of the Popes, 214, 215; first conflict between the Empire and, 215-219; decrees of the Lateran Council against simony and marriage of priests, 235-239; decree against lay investiture, 239; real opening of her struggle with the Empire, 259; her position in Gregory's time, and that of the Scottish Church before the Disruption, compared, 302; her conflict with the Empire inevitable, 304, 305; period of her greatest power, 308; her relations with the Empire in the time of Innocent III., 311, 312. _See_ Gregory the Great, Hildebrand _and_ Innocent III.

Cities, Italian, hostility between, 311.

Clement III., appointed by the Emperor, 290; calls a council in Rome, 294; his coronation, 297. _See_ Guibert of Ravenna.

Clement VI., Rienzi's mission to, 404, 405; confirms Rienzi's authority, 434.

Cluny, the monastery of, 186, 190.

Colonna family, patronise Petrarch, 397-400; Petrarch's estimate of, 398, 467; character of, 423; rebels against Rienzi, 453; their expedition against Rome, 453-457, 469.

Colonna, Agapito, 425, 448.

Colonna, Giordano, 430.

Colonna, Giovanni, 397, 466; his dealings with Rienzi, 405, 409, 411.

Colonna, Giacomo, his friendship with Petrarch, 397.

Colonna, Janni, 419, 421, 422, 430, 448, 455, 456.

Colonna, Sciarra, 384, 393; drives out the Papal troops from Rome, 384-389; crowns Louis of Bavaria, 391.

Colonna, Stefano della, 393, 397, 425, 448, 449; Petrarch's description of, 428; forced to leave Rome, 429; swears loyalty to the Buono Stato, 430; Petrarch's account of his talk with, 467, 468.

Colonna, Stefanello, 430, 448; and his son, 494, 495.

Colosseum, as the stone-quarry of the ages, 577.

Como, Bishop of, 219, 233.

Constantinople, downfall of, 549.

Corsignano, buildings erected in, by Pius II., 556.

Council of Constantinople, 28, 47.

Council of Rome, Jerome and, 27, 28, 43, 47.

Creighton, Bishop, quoted, 556, 578; on Raphael's artistic aims, 598.

Crown, the imperial, 249, 289, 298.

Crusade, Gregory VII.'s dream of a, 265, 351, 352; encouraged by successive Popes, 352; an expedition organised, _ib._; how it was diverted from its purpose, 353-356; against the Albigenses, 298-301; Innocent rouses the Italian towns to aid in, 373; against the Turks, 553, 557, 558.

Crusaders, Innocent's instructions to his, 353; their bargain with Venice, _ib._; capture Constantinople, _ib._, 354.

Curzon, Robert, 310.

Damasus, Bishop, 27, 48, 70; Jerome becomes a counsellor of, 54.

Damian, Peter, 200, 218, 219, 223.

Dante, 211, 263.

Desiderius, 301.

Dinner-parties, Roman, 6.

Dominic, 358.

Eberhard, Count, 255.

Election of the Popes, interference of Tuscany in, 203, 204, 208; the rival authorities in, 206-208; Hildebrand's new law for, 207; first election under the new law, 214, 215; Rome secures complete freedom in, 215.

Emperors, the rival, Henry IV. and Rudolf, Gregory's letters regarding their claims, 275, 276; treated by the Pope with severe impartiality, 278; attitude of the Roman populace towards their envoys, _ib._; Gregory insists upon holding a council to choose between, 281; this plan abandoned, _ib._, 282; Rudolf's case stated before the Lateran Council, 282; Gregory pronounces his decision, 283-285. _See_ Henry IV. _and_ Rudolf.

Emperors, the rival, Philip and Otho, nothing to choose between them, 331, 332; Innocent's attitude towards, 332, 333; end of their ten years' struggle, 335. _See_ Philip _and_ Otho.

Empire and Church, first conflict between, 214-218; real opening of the struggle, 259; inevitableness of the struggle, 304, 305; in the time of Innocent III., 311, 312. _See_ Henry IV., Emperor, _and_ Gregory VII.

England, the Pope's interdict upon, disregarded, 345.

Epiphanius, Bishop, 52, 79.

Eugenius IV., 514, 516; his aspect and character, 523-525; Council of Ferrara called by, 531.

Eulogius, Gregory's letter to, 173.

Europe, state of, in the time of Innocent III., 310-312.

Eustochium, 23, 55, 78, 83, 87; plot against, 24.

Eutychius, 155.

Excommunication often ineffectual, 289, 290, 334.

Ezekiel, Gregory's exposition of, 144, 177, 178.

Fabiola, 22, 37, 55; her matrimonial troubles, 93; her visit to the convent at Bethlehem, _ib._, 94; does public penance in Rome, 95-99; founds the first public hospital in Rome, 99.

Fabriano, Gentile da, 523.

Ferdinand of Naples, his advice regarding the streets and balconies of Rome, 570, 571.

Ferrara, Council of, 531.

France, interdict pronounced upon, 341, 343; alarmed by the revival of Rome, 436.

Francis of Assisi, 326.

Fraticelli, Rienzi takes refuge among, 474, 475.

Frederic II., Emperor, Innocent acts as guardian of, 326, 327.

Frederick, Abbot, elected Pope, 201.

Funeral feast, a Roman, 102-104.

Gebehard, Bishop, chosen as Pope Victor II., 200.

Genseric, 120.

German prelates, almost independent of the Pope, 334.

Germany, state of the Church in, 188; an anti-Pope chosen by the Church in, 216.

Ghirlandajo, 575.

Gibbon quoted, 132.

Goethe quoted on Raphael's _loggie_, 599.

Gordianus, 125.

Gottfried the Hunchback, 244, 260.

Gottfried of Lorraine, 204.

Gratiano. _See_ Gregory VI.

Greek Church, 354.

Gregorio, Count, 203.

Gregory the Great, his home and early life, 124, 125; enters public life, 125; first result of his religious impulse, 126; becomes a monk, 127; describes his doubts and his intentions, _ib._; legends regarding his monastic life, 128; his musings in his garden, 129, 130; had no ecclesiastical ambitions, 131; receives the first orders of the Church, _ib._; appointed a cardinal deacon, _ib._; Gibbon's description of him as a nuncio, _ib._; his position in the Court at Constantinople, 132; in the society of his monks, 132-138; his commentary on Job, 134, 135; its moral discursiveness, 136, 137; how he was assisted in it by the monks, 137; his liberality, 139, 147; promotion, and popularity as a preacher, 139; his encounter with the English slave-children, _ib._, 140; sets out on his mission to Britain, 141; compelled to return, 142; effect upon him of the story of Trajan and the widow, _ib._, 143; organises processions of penitents during the plague, 144, 145; his vision of the angel, 146, 147; elected Bishop of Rome, 148; attempts to escape from this responsibility, _ib._; his repugnance to the cares of office, 149; his conviction that the end of the world was near, _ib._, 150; feeds the starving poor of Rome, 151; preserves Rome from attacks by the barbarians, 152; was not a learned man, _ib._, 153; his instructions to missionaries for the making of converts, 156, 157; and for pastoral work, _ib._; his intercessions and negotiations for the safety of Rome, 158, 159; amount of his work and responsibility, 159, 160; welcomes the usurping Emperor Phocas, 160; sends forth Augustine on his mission to England, 161-163; no reason for attributing to him a great scheme of papal supremacy, 163, 164, 175, 176; his reformation in music, 165, 166; introduces changes in the ritual, 166; his daily surroundings and occupations, 167, 168; his rules of religious discipline, 168; not a faultless character, 169; his achievements for Rome and for the Church, _ib._; his indignation at the assumption of supremacy by John of Constantinople, 170; his letters on this subject to the Emperor and to the Eastern Bishop, _ib._, 173; his letter to Eulogius, 173; tolerant in the supervision of his bishops, 175; had no desire for political independence, _ib._; accused of causing the destruction of ancient buildings, 176, 177; his last illness, 177; his commentaries on Ezekiel and Job, _ib._; his death, _ib._; spots connected with his memory, 179.

Gregory VI., 186, 188; how he secured his election, 183; deposition of, _ib._, 189.

Gregory, VII., (_see_ Hildebrand), his dream of elevating the Church, 231; hopelessness of his instruments, _ib._; his reforms, and the enemies they raised up against him, _ib._, 232; sufferings of his later years, 232; council for the discussion of questions between Henry IV. and, 233; reconciliation between Henry and, 235; his letter summoning the first Lateran Council, _ib._; his decree against lay investiture, 239, 240; unbosoms himself in a letter to Hugo, 240; his care for the cause of justice and public honesty, 240-242; abduction of, by Cencius, 245; rescued by the populace, 249, 250; summons Henry to appear before the papal court, 251; his letter of remonstrance to the Emperor, 252; council convoked by Henry for the overthrow of, 253, 254; acts and addresses against, issued by this council, 254, 255; his reception of the Emperor's letters, 257-259; excommunicates the Emperor, 259; effect of this step, 259-261; agrees to preside over the Council of Augsburg, 261; sets out for Augsburg, _ib._; takes refuge in the Castle of Canossa, 264-266; German bishops make their submission to, 266; accepts Henry's promises of amendment, 270; receives him again into the church, _ib._, 271; his attitude towards Henry, 273; his letter to the German princes, 274; shut up in Canossa Castle, _ib._; anxious to take part in the settlement of the Empire, 275; his letters on the rivalry of the two kings, _ib._, 276; sends legates to both kings demanding a safe-conduct, 276; his authority disregarded by the rival parties, _ib._, 277; treats both impartially, 278; and the heresy of Berengarius, 279; and the Norwegian king's request for missionaries, _ib._, 280; insists upon a council to choose between the rival kings, 281; his reception of the statement of Rudolf's envoys, 283; appeals to St. Peter to judge of his dealings with Henry, 284, 285; asserts his claim to universal authority, 286; sends the imperial crown to Rudolf, 289; Henry's council for the deposition of, _ib._; his reconciliation with Guiscard, 291, 292; council convoked by the anti-Pope to reverse his anathemas, 293; Henry submits his cause to a council convoked by, 295; refuses to make peace with Henry, 296; confined to the Castle of St. Angelo, 297; his faith in his mission, 298; brings down the Normans upon Rome, 299; his spirit broken by the sack of Rome, 300; his journey to Salerno, _ib._, 301; revival of his former energy, 302; the abuses he opposed, and those in the Church of Scotland before the Disruption, compared, _ib._, 303; a martyr to his hatred of simony, 303, 304; his death, 305; his life and achievements, 306, 308, 363, 514.

Guelf and Ghibelline, when these titles were first used, 326.

Guglielmo, Fra, 447.

Guibert of Ravenna, 232, 244, 292; elected Pope by the Emperor's supporters, 290. _See_ Clement III.

Guiscard, Robert, 232, 244; Gregory's reconciliation with, 291; leaves the Pope to his fate, 293; rescues the Pope and sacks Rome, 299; conducts Gregory to Salerno, 300, 301.

Helena, Empress, 40.

Heliodorus, Jerome's epistle to, 46.

Helvidius, 60.

Henry III., Emperor, 183; patronises Hildebrand, 187; appoints three successive Popes, 189.

Henry IV., Emperor, his vicious character, 223, 224; summoned before the Papal court, 224; council for the discussion of questions between Gregory and, 233; reconciliation between Gregory and, 235; rebels against the decrees of the Lateran Council, 251; Gregory's letter of remonstrance to, 252; summons a council for the overthrow of the Pope, 253, 254; acts and addresses issued by the council, 254, 255; excommunication of, 259; abandoned by his friends and supporters, 260, 261; his princes threaten to elect a king in his place, 261; determines to make his submission to Gregory, _ib._; his fortunes begin to revive, 266; his arrival at the Castle of Canossa, _ib._, 269; his penances, 270; his bond of repentance accepted by Gregory, _ib._; received again into the Church, _ib._, 271; his attitude towards Gregory, 272; refuses his consent to the council of arbitration, 281; Gregory appeals to St. Peter to judge of his dealings with, 282-285; again excommunicated and dethroned, 285; his council for the deposition of Gregory, 289, 290; chooses an anti-Pope, 290; success of his enterprises, _ib._; crowned Emperor by his anti-Pope, 292; seizes the Leonine city, 293; submits his cause to a council convoked by Gregory, 295; this council proves fruitless, 296; becomes master of Rome, _ib._, 297; evacuates the city, 299-300. _See_ Emperors, the rival.

Henry VI., Emperor, 327, 328.

Henry VII., 402.

Heresy, the, of the Albigenses, 355,356; Innocent's letter on, 356; ordinances against, 370.

Hermits, Egyptian desert peopled by, 34; Melania supports and protects fugitive, 35; self-chastisements of, 43, 44. _See_ Monks.

Hildebrand, his wanderings about the world, 184; surroundings of his early life, _ib._, 185; at the monastery of Cluny, 186; patronised by the Emperor, Henry III., _ib._, 187; influence of his experience of the Church in Germany upon, 188; beginning of his public life, _ib._; follows the deposed Gregory VI. into exile, 189; in Germany again, 190; becomes a counsellor of Bruno, 191; his plan for Bruno's conduct successful, 193; offices conferred upon, by Leo IX., _ib._; sets in order the monastery of St. Paul, 195; his work in Rome under Leo, 200; selects a German prelate as Pope, _ib._; becomes adviser to the Empress Agnes, 202; solicits the intervention of Tuscany in the election of the Popes, 204, 207; the actual possessor of the power of two weak Popes, 205, 206; holds a council in Rome, 206; his new law for the election of the Popes, 207, 208; his aims and purposes, 208, 211; his dream of the Church as disinterested arbitrator in all quarrels, 211, 212; did he desire universal authority? 212; begins his reign under Nicolas II., _ib._; his letter to a powerful archbishop, 213; secures for Rome complete independence in the choice of Popes, 215; his sanction of the invasion of England by the Normans, 221; supports the Conqueror's spoliation of Saxon abbeys, _ib._; summons Henry IV. to appear before the papal court, 224; development of his ideal of the Church's sovereignty, _ib._, 225; chosen and elected Pope, 225-227; his abstemious habits, 297. _See_ Gregory VII.

Historian of Rienzi, 382, 383.

Hospital founded by Fabiola, 99.

Hospital Santo Spirito rebuilt by Innocent, 376; and again by Sixtus IV., 572, 573.

Hugo of Cluny, 234, 265, 269; Gregory's letter to, 240.

Humanists, school of, 560, 561.

Ingelburga, 340, 343.

Innocent III., his wide-spread activity, 308; his family, _ib._, 309; his education, 309; becomes a canon of St. Peter's, 310; appointed Cardinal, 313; his book on the vanity of life, 313-315; elected Pope, 316; his address to the assembly after his consecration, 319-322; endeavours to strengthen his hold upon Rome, 322-324; changes the constitution of the city, 323; regains possession of the Papal States, 325, 326; acts as guardian to Frederic of Sicily, 326; profits by the inactivity of the Empire, _ib._; sides against Philip, 332, 333; supports Otho, 333; unable to enforce his authority over the German prelates, 334; excommunicates Philip, _ib._; his part in the ten years' struggle between Philip and Otho, 335; crowns Otho as Emperor, 338; Otho breaks faith with, 339, 340; his dealings with Philip Augustus, 340-343; pronounces interdict upon France, 341, 342; his activity, 344; pronounces interdict upon England, 345; excommunicates King John, _ib._; his acceptance of John's oath, 349; his dealings with John unworthy of his character, _ib._, 350; his instructions to the Crusaders, 353; protests against the use made of the expedition, 354; his letter on heresy, 356; on the interpretation of the Bible by sectarians, _ib._; his attitude towards the Albigenses, 357, 358; sends missionaries to them, 358; proclaims a crusade against them, 359; his career a failure, 361-363; strengthened Papal authority over the Church, 364; his address to the fourth Lateran Council, 365-369; and the appeal of the Provençal nobles, 371; befriends Raymond of Toulouse, 372; rouses the Italian towns to aid in a crusade, 373; his death, 374; small result of his activities, _ib._; Roman populace at enmity with, 375; his gifts to his brother Richard, _ib._; buildings erected by, 376; his character, _ib._; the greatness of his ideals, 514.

Innocent VI., 484.

Innocent VIII., 581, 582.

Jerome, 28, 37, 42, 43, 66, 77; quoted, 7, 19, 57, 58, 63, 69, 70, 110, 114; on the daily life of a Roman priest, 11, 12; accused of being concerned in Melania's disappearance, 33; his life in the desert, 44, 45; his Epistle to Heliodorus, 45, 46; enters into religious controversy, 46, 47; his usefulness recognised by the Church in Rome, 48; lodged in Marcella's palace, 49; his friendship with Paula, _ib._, 69; his life among the Roman ladies, 50-54; his position in Roman society, 54; begins his translation of Scripture, _ib._; popular resentment against, 59, 62, 63, 69, 70; engages in the controversy regarding celibacy, 60; his letter on virginity quoted, _ib._, 61; his letter to Paula on her daughter's death, 68, 69; forced to retire from Rome, 72; his letters to Asella, 72-76; joins Paula's caravanserai, 79; founds a convent at Bethlehem, 82; how his translation of the Scriptures was finished, 84-88; entreats Marcella to abandon the world, 91; puzzled by Fabiola's curiosity, 95; his judgment in the case of a divorced woman, 96; his controversy with Rufinus, 100, 101.

Jeronimo, Count, 580.

Jerusalem, 40, 41.

Jews, 370.

Job, Gregory undertakes a commentary on, at the request of his monks, 134-138.

John XXII., 384; deposed by the Emperor Louis, 392; his supporters regain possession of Rome, 393.

John of Constantinople, his pretensions to supremacy over the Church, 170, 174; Gregory's letter to, 173.

John, King of England, and the Pope's interdict, 344, 345; excommunicated and deposed, 345; swears fealty as a vassal of the Pope, _ib._, 346.

Jovinian, 60.

Jubilee, papal, 429, 480, 483, 536.

Julian, Emperor, 8.

Julius II., a fighting Pope, 582; a patron of artists, 583, 589; pulls down the ancient St. Peter's, _ib._, 587, 591; secures the States of the Church, 587; employs Raphael, 589, 590; his portrait by Raphael, 590; his death and career, 590-592.

Ladies. _See_ Women.

Lanciani, Professor, 242, 539, 540.

Langton, Stephen, 287.

Lateran Council, the first, Gregory's letter convoking, 235; its decrees against simony and marriage of priests, 236-238; lay investiture prohibited by the second Council, 239; reception of the Emperor's letters by Gregory in, 256-259; demands the excommunication of Henry, 259; decides the case of the rival emperors, 281-285; the fourth, Pope Innocent's address to, 365-369; ordinances passed by, 370, 371; gives judgment for de Montfort against the Provençal nobles, 371, 372.

Lay investiture, decree against, 239.

Leander, 133; Gregory's letter to, 127, 149.

Learning, how pursued during the Renaissance, 529; Nicolas V. as a patron of, 537.

Legacies to priests declared illegal, 12.

Leo IV., the Leonine city enclosed by, 541-543.

Leo IX., confers offices upon Hildebrand, 193; his tour of reformation, 195-199; at the Council of Rheims, 198; his use of the power of excommunication, 199; his last enterprise and his death, _ib._, 200. _See_ Bruno, Bishop.

Leo X., 515, 516; little troubled by the rebellion against the Papacy, 592, 595; his attitude towards Luther, 596, 597; obliged to fight for the Patrimony, _ib._; amuses himself with his painters and his court, _ib._, 598; his patronage of Raphael the chief element in his fame, 598; his career, 599.

Leo XIII., as Papa Angelico, 212 _n._

Leonine city. _See_ Borgo.

Leopold of Mainz, 334.

Lombard League, 325.

Lorenzo, Cola's son, his baptism of blood, 461.

Louis of Bavaria, 384; his reception in Rome, 320, 321; his coronation, 390, 391; declares Pope John deposed, 392; elects a new Pope, _ib._; recrowned by his anti-Pope, _ib._, 393; his departure from Rome, 393.

Luther, Martin, 595; Pope Leo's attitude towards, 596.

Lytton, Lord, his novel _Rienzi_, 420.

Maddalena, Rienzi's mother, 402.

Manno, Giovanni, 386.

Mantegna, Andrea, 582.

Marcella, early life and marriage of, 17, 18; becomes a widow, 18; her reputation for eccentricity, _ib._, 19; forms her community of Christian women, 20; her zeal for knowledge, 26; entreated by Paula and Jerome to abandon the world, 89-91; prefers her useful life in Rome, 92, 93; saves Principia from the Goths, 110; tortured by them, _ib._; her death, 113. _See_ Marcella, the Society of.

Marcella, the Society of, founded, 20; character and position of the members, 21; some associates of, 22-24; a religious and intellectual meeting-place, 25; daily life of the members, 26; Thierry quoted on their occupations, _ib._; Jerome becomes the guest of, 49, 54; wealth and liberality of, 55, 56; unrestricted life of, 57; shares in the popular resentment against Jerome, 77; last days of, 108-110.

Marcellinus, Ammianus, quoted, 5, 6, 11.

Marriage of priests, decree of the first Lateran Council against, 235, 238; priests rebel against this measure, 237; effects of the decree on the minds of the laity, 238, 239.

Martin V., 516, 517, 525; begins the reconstruction and adornment of Rome, 523; administers justice _ib._

Martino, F. di, 544.

Matilda of Tuscany, 204, 217, 233, 256, 262, 269, 270, 292, 325; her character, etc., 263.

Maurice, Emperor, 148, 152, 160

Maximianus, 139.

Medici, Cosimo dei, 534.

Melania, her bereavement, 30; abandons her son, _ib._, 31; sensation caused in Rome by her disappearance, 32; in the Egyptian deserts, 33; provides for and protects hunted monks, 35; her encounter with the proconsul in Palestine, _ib._; accompanied by Rufinus, 36, 39; founds a monastery at Jerusalem, 41; the nature of her self-sacrifice, _ib._; her quarrel with Paula, 81.

Mercenaries. _See_ Soldiers of Fortune.

Milman, Dean, 363.

Mincio, Bishop, how he was elected Pope, 203; his abdication, 204.

Missionaries, Gregory's instructions to, for the making of converts, 156; and for pastoral work, _ib._, 157.

Monks, wandering, 36, 37, 184; resentment of the Roman populace against, 63; Gregory's following of, 132-138.

Monozello, Fra, and Pope Benedict, 395.

Montefiascone, the wine of, 485 _n._

Montfort, Simon de, 360, 361, 371, 372.

Monuments, ancient, restored by Paul II., 562.

Moreale, Fra, 487; agrees to assist in Rienzi's undertaking, 489, 490; arrives in Rome, 496; his arrest and execution, 497-500.

Muntz, M., quoted, 562.

Music, Gregory's reformation in, 165, 166; a commentary on his system, as adopted by the Germans and Gauls, 166.

Nicolas II., 205, 213.

Nicolas V., 392, 516, 562, 567; as a lover of literature, 530; unconscious of the coming revolution, _ib._; his origin, 531; his learning, _ib._; makes his reputation, 532; as a book collector, 534; his character, 535; a lover of peace, _ib._; his dealings with his literary men, 537; churches rebuilt by, 544; his additions to the Vatican and to St. Peter's, 545; founds the Vatican library, 546; his work as a builder-Pope, 549; his death-bed counsel to his cardinals, 550, 551.

Nobles, Roman, strongholds of, in Rome, 382; use made of, by Rienzi, 447, 448; arrested at Rienzi's banquet, and afterwards discharged, 449; effect of this treatment upon, 450; rebellion of the Orsini, 451; and of the Colonnas, 453-456; their return to the city, 472, 473. _See_ Aristocracy.

Normans of Southern Italy, 199, 200, 213, 225; Rome sacked by, 299.

Nuncio, Gregory as a, 132, 138.

Oceanus, 37, 101.

Odilon of Cluny, 186.

Olaf, King of Norway, 280.

Origen, 100.

Orsini family, 424, 436, 448, 454, 467; rebel against Rienzi, 451.

Orsini, Bartoldo, 393.

Orsini, Ranello, 430.

Orsini, Robert, 425.

Otho, Philip's rival in the Empire, 331; supported by the Pope, 333; becomes Emperor, 336; his coronation in Rome, 336-338; breaks faith with the Pope, 339, 340. _See_ Emperors, the rival.

Paganism, its conjunction with the Christian religion in Roman society, 8, 9; this conjunction occurs again at the Renaissance, 530.

Palazzo Venezia, 559.

Pammachius, 55, 77, 99, 101, 114.

Papencordt quoted, 450.

Pastoral work, Gregory's instructions regarding, 156-158.

Paul II. builds the Palazzo Venezia, 559; Platina's strictures upon, _ib._, 560; dismisses the learned men patronised by Pius, 560, 561; imprisons Platina, 561; his liberality, 562; restores ancient monuments, _ib._; his magnificent tastes, _ib._, 563; Platina on his private life, 563; his humours and vanities, 564; his death, 568.

Paula, 37, 63; and her family, 22-25, 26; her friendship with Jerome, 49, 69; her character and position, 65, 66; how she was attracted to the Marcellan Society, 66; Jerome's letter to, on Blæsilla's death, 68, 69; her abandonment of her home and children, 77, 78; her journey to Jerusalem, 79, 80; her quarrel with Melania, 81; travels through Syria, _ib._; builds convents and a hospice, 82, 83; assists Jerome in the translation of the Scriptures, 83-88; entreats Marcella to join her in Bethlehem, 90, 91.

Paulina, 23, 55, 77; her death, 101; the funeral feast, 102-104.

Paulinian, 101.

Paulinus, Bishop, quoted, 105.

Peacemakers, 431.

Pelagius II., 141, 147; his letter on the defenceless state of Rome, 138.

Pen, silver, used by Rienzi, 411.

Pepino, Count, 471.

Perugino, 575, 590.

Petrarch, 390, 411, 437; his friendship with the Colonna family, 397; crowned Altissimo Poeta, 398, 399; quoted, 433, 435, 450, 465, 466, 522; his letters to Rienzi, 361, 369, 386; his faith in Rienzi shaken, 387; his letter describing his talk with Stefano, 467, 468; letter on Rienzi's career and downfall, 478, 479; describes how Rienzi's condemnation was reversed, 479, 480.

Philip Augustus of France and his wives, 340-343; his threatened invasion of England, 345.

Philip of Swabia elected Emperor, 330; Innocent's denunciation of, 333; his success, 335; his death, 336.

Phocas, Emperor, 160, 169.

Pintore, Antonazzo, 576.

Pius II., 562, 567; his early career, 553, 554; his character, 554; his writings, 555; as a builder, 556; his enthusiasm for the crusade against the Turk, 557, 558.

Plague in Rome, and the processions of penitents, 144-146.

Platina, his biased account of Paul II., 559, 560; protests against Paul's dismissal of the learned men, 560; imprisoned, 561; reinstated, 577.

Poor, the destitute, Gregory feeds and cares for, 151.

Popes, three rival, in Rome, 183; how their conflict was ended, _ib._; three successive, appointed by the Emperor Henry III., 189,190; become fighting princes, 513, 514; ideals of the greatest, 514; art-patrons among, 515; how treated by English writers, _ib._; success of the builder-Popes, 516, 517; their power and influence in the times of Pius II. and Paul II., 564, 567. _See_ Gregory the Great, Hildebrand, Innocent III., Election of the Popes, _et passim_.

Populace, Roman, degraded state of, in the 4th century, 4, 5; all nominally Christian, 57; their resentment against the monks, 63; compel Gregory to abandon his mission to Britain, 141, 142; Gregory feeds the destitute poor, 151; fight between Papal troops and, 385-389; their reception of Louis of Bavaria, 389-391; reception of Fra Venturino by, 394, 395; unruliness and recklessness of, 395; enthusiastic over the crowning of Petrarch, 399, 400; Rienzi as an ambassador of, to Clement VI., 404-409; give absolute power to Rienzi, 427; begin to criticise Rienzi, 438; their conflict with the Colonna, 454-457; resent Rienzi's baptism of his son, 461, 462; had no active share in Rienzi's downfall, 472; invite him to reassume the government of the city, 489; their reception of Rienzi, 494; their rising against him, 502-508. _See_ Rome.

Prætextata, 23, 24.

Priests, Roman, Jerome quoted on, 11, 12.

Principia, 100, 110.

Provence, Innocent's missionaries in, 358, 359; appeal of the forfeited lords of, against de Montfort, 371.

Raphael, 595, 597; employed by Julius II., 589, 590; his portrait of Julius, 590; Pope Leo's patronage of, 598; Bishop Creighton on his artistic aims, _ib._; had no didactic purposes, _ib._

Raymond, Bishop, the Pope's Vicar, 416, 424, 427, 429; protests against Rienzi's pretensions, 442; reconciled to Rienzi, 471.

Raymond of Toulouse, 371, 372.

"Religious adventures," 36, 37.

Renaissance, 526, 529; conjunction of Christianity and Paganism during, 530.

Rheims, Council of, the Pope's opening address, 197; speeches of the bishops, 198.

Riario, Pietro, 578, 579.

Riccardo Imprennante, 500.

Richard, brother of Pope Innocent, 575.

Rienzi, Cola di, his historian, 382, 384; his parentage, 403, 404; his love for the ancient writers, 403; his early life, _ib._, 404; sent on a mission to Clement VI., 404; appointed notary to the City Council of Rome, 405; success of the mission, 406; letter announcing his success, _ib._; disgrace and return to favour, 410, 411; protests against the rapacity of the City Council, 412; his painted allegories, 413, 415, 419; attitude of the patricians towards, 416, 419, 423; his address to the Roman notables, 417, 418; his power and privileges, 418; and the secret society, 423,424; the conspiracy carried out, 425; addresses the people on the Capitol, 426; absolute power given to, by the people, 427; drives all the nobles out of Rome, 429; compels the nobles to swear loyalty to the Buono Stato, _ib._, 430; his character, 431; justice and public safety in Rome secured by, 431-434; his braggadocio, 432; secures the safety of travellers on the roads, _ib._, 433; his authority confirmed by the Pope, 434; his procession to St. Peter's, _ib._, 435; his love of magnificence, 435; Petrarch's letters to, 436; success of his warlike expeditions, _ib._, 437; beginning of his indiscretions, 437, 438; makes himself a knight, 438; claims to hold his authority from God and from the people, 440; friendly messages from European monarchs to, 441; ceremonials of his knighthood, _ib._, 442; the Pope's Vicar protests against his pretensions, 443; claims universal dominion in the name of the Roman people, _ib._, 444; sincerity of his claim, 444, 445; crowning of, 445, 446; Fra Guglielmo's grief for, 447; makes use of the nobles, _ib._, 448; gives a banquet to the nobles, 448; arrests and discharges them, 449; his expedition against the Orsini, 451; his meeting with the Pope's legate, 452; a powerful party organised against, 453; apprehensive of danger, _ib._; celebrates his victory over the Colonna, 457; fails to take advantage of his success, 460; his son's baptism of blood, 461; his friends begin to desert him, 462; Petrarch's letter of reproof to, 465; Petrarch's faith in him shaken, 466; moderates his magnificence and his arrogance, 470; sees visions of disaster, 471; his downfall, 471-473; develops the character of a conspirator, 473, 474; takes refuge among the Fraticelli, 474, 475; his correspondence with Charles IV., 476; handed over to the Pope, _ib._; condemned to death, 477; how he was saved, _ib._, 479; his career and downfall, Petrarch's letter on, 478; returns with the Pope's legate to Rome, 484, 485; welcomed in the towns of the Patrimony, 488; his enterprise assisted by Moreale and his mercenaries, 490; obtains the countenance of the Pope's legate, _ib._, 491; his expedition sets out, 491; his hopes and aims, 492; his reception by the Roman populace, 493, 494; change in his outward man, 494; his expedition against Stefanello, _ib._, 495; his motives for executing Moreale, 496; imprisons and executes Moreale, 497-500; this act generally approved, 500; but questioned by his councillors, _ib._; how he raised money to pay the mercenaries, 501; becomes irresolute, 502; his final downfall and death, 502-509; estimate of his career, 508, 509.

Roads made safe for travellers, 434.

Robert, King of Naples, 399.

Roland of Parma presents Henry's letters to Pope Gregory, 257.

Roman society, state of, at the end of the 4th century, 3 _et seq._; irresponsible wealth of the patrician class, 3, 4; debased state of the populace, 4, 5; luxurious habits of the nobles, 5, 6; and of the women, 7; conjunction of the old and new religions in, 8-10; relations of the Church with, 10-12; Jerome's picture of, quoted, 60, 61; undermined by the ascetic ideals, 106-108. _See_ Aristocracy _and_ Populace.

Rome, her two conquests of the world, 1, 2; transitional period in her history, 2; her position at the end of the 4th century, 3; believed in the 4th century to be the Scarlet Woman of Revelation, 105; sacked by the Goths, 108, 109; successive sieges of, 119, 120; no patriot aroused to the defence of, 123; defenceless state of, 138; distress and pestilence in, 144-147, 150, 151; preserved by Gregory from barbarian attacks, 151; heartened by Gregory's energy, 159; Gregory's achievements for, 169, 182; Gregory accused of destroying ancient buildings in, 176; state of, in the 11th century, 182, 183; its outward aspect in the time of Gregory VII., 242, 243; a portion of, seized by Emperor Henry IV., 293; Henry withdraws his troops from, 295; and again occupies the city, 296, 297; sacked by Guiscard and the Normans, 299; Innocent III. endeavours to strengthen his hold upon, 322, 323; her constitution changed by Gregory, 323; populace of, at enmity with Innocent III., 375; buildings erected in, by Innocent, 376; disorderly state of, in the 14th century, 381-383; strongholds of the great nobles in, 382; fight between Papal troops and the people of, 384-386; reception of Louis of Bavaria in, 389; as arbiter of the world, 390; how Fra Venturino was received in, 394, 395; public safety and justice unknown in, 401, 424, 425; establishment of the Buono Stato in, 425-427; public safety secured in, by Rienzi, 432, 434; apprehensions aroused in foreign countries by the revival of, 435, 436; her claim to universal dominion, 439; assertion of the claim by Rienzi, 442-444; expedition of the Colonna against, 453-457; dream of a double reign of universal dominion in, 475; celebration of the Jubilee in, 480, 481; anarchy in, after Rienzi's fall, 483, 484; possessed no native art, 516; external state of, at Pope Martin's entry, 517-522; restoration and adornment of, begun, 522, 523, 525; restoration and adornment of buildings in, by Nicolas V., 544, 549; art workshops in, 545, 546; ancient monuments restored by Paul II., 562; still disorderly, 569; King Ferdinand's advice regarding the balconies and tortuous streets, 570; his suggestion adopted by Sixtus, 571. _See_ Borgo.

Rudolf, Duke of Suabia, 233, 290; elected king, 275; anxious for the council of arbitration, 281; his case stated before the Lateran Council, 282; declared King of Germany by the Pope, 285; Gregory sends the imperial crown to, 289; his death, 290. _See_ Emperors, the two rival.

Rufinus travels with Melania, 36, 37; arrives in Rome, 100; his controversy with Jerome, _ib._

St. Benedict. _See_ Benedict, order of.

St. Jerome. _See_ Jerome.

St. John Lateran, the church of, 521, 573; internal revolution in, 588.

St. Mary, the monastery of, 186.

St. Paul, the monastery of, Hildebrand's reforms in, 194.

St. Peter, evidence for his presence and execution in Rome, 540.

St. Peter's, the old and the modern church, 539, 541; additions made to, by Nicolas, 545; pulled down by Julius II., 583, 584; architecture of the ancient church, 584; completion of the present church, 600.

St. Remy, consecration of the church of, 196.

St. Stefano Rotondo, church of, rebuilt, 544.

St. Teodoro, church of, rebuilt, 544.

Salerno, Gregory's arrival at, 301.

San Lorenzo, chapel of, 546.

Savelli, Francesco, 430.

Savelli, Luca de, 448.

Saviello, Jacopo di, 384, 385.

Scotland, Church of, its position before the Disruption, and that of the Church in Gregory's time, compared, 302, 303.

Secret society, the, and Rienzi's address to, 423, 424; the conspiracy carried out, 425-427.

Silvia, 124, 128.

Simony, 188, 224, 230; crusade of Leo IX. against, 196-199; Hildebrand's hatred of, 211, 232; condemned by the first Lateran Council, 236; Gregory VII. a martyr to his hatred of, 303, 304.

Sismondi quoted, 390.

Sistine chapel, 575; completion of, 601.

Sixtus IV., his pedigree, 569; his purposes and achievements, _ib._, 570; rebuilds the narrow and tortuous streets, 570; builds a bridge over the Tiber, 571; reconstructs the hospital Santo Spirito, 572, 573; his violent temper, 573; all Rome pervaded by his work, _ib._, 574; restores the aqueducts, 574; painters employed by, for the Sistine chapel, 575; his varied aims and activities, 575-577; reinstates Platina and his fellow-scholars, 577; enlarges the Vatican library, _ib._; his taste in art, _ib._; his favourites, 578-580.

Soldiers of Fortune, 487; Rienzi procures the services of, 489; how he raised money to pay them, 501.

States of the Church, Innocent III. regains possession of, 324, 325; secured by Julius II., 587; part of them lost again, 596.

Stefano, Cardinal, 215.

Tasso, 263.

Taxes imposed by Rienzi, 501.

Tedeschi, the, 325, 389.

Thebaid, the, 15.

Theodolinda, Queen, 151, 156, 159.

Thierry, quoted, 21, 26, 84, 93, 96.

Thomas of Sarzana. _See_ Nicolas V.

Toulouse, 358.

Trajan and the widow, effect of the story upon Gregory, 143.

Tuscan League, 325, 326.

Tuscany, interference of, in the election of the Popes, 203, 204, 216, 217.

Utrecht, Bishop of, 260.

Vatican, its reconstruction begun by Innocent, 376; enlarged and adorned by the Popes, 544; additions built to, by Nicolas, 545; library of, founded by Nicolas, 546; and enlarged by Sixtus, 577.

Venice, drives a bargain with the Crusaders, 353.

Venturino, Fra, his reception in Rome, 394, 395.

Vertolle, Conte di, 448.

Vespasiano the bookseller, 523, 524.

Vico, Giovanni di, 436, 437, 453.

William the Conqueror, his invasion of England sanctioned by Hildebrand, 221, 222.

Women, friendships between religious zealots and, 49, 50; harshly spoken of by Catholic teachers, 49; their success in the art of government, 202; take part in the election of a Pope, 227; form part of a council called by Gregory VII., 233, 234.

Women, Roman, their artificial life, 7; influence of the conflicting religions upon their actions, 9, 10; Jerome's description of different types of, 60-62. _See_ Marcella, the Society of.

Worms, Council of, 190, 253-255.

Zara, capture of, by the Crusaders, 353.