Chapter 22

A Grammar of the Fuyuge Language

Translated and Edited by _Sidney H. Ray_, M.A., from the Manuscript of the _Rev. Father Egedi_, S.C.

Phonology.

I. Alphabet.

Vowels: _a, e, i, o, u_.

Consonants: _k, g; t, d; p, b, f, v; m, n; r, l; s; y_.

The vowels are pronounced as in Italian, the consonants as in English. The sound of the Italian _c_ is also found, but is rare.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between _o_ and _u_. Ex. _ombo(le)_ or _umbo(le)_, belly.

_G, b_, and _d_, are often preceded by a nasal, sometimes constant (and then marked in the vocabulary), sometimes variable according to the pronunciation of individuals. For the nasals _m_ is employed before _p_ and _b_, and _n_ before other consonants.

The _i_ and _y_ are very difficult to distinguish, especially when they follow one another. Ex. _iye_ or _ye_, or _ie_, tree; _iangolo_ or _yangolo_, ear. Father Egidi wrote _j_ for _y_.

The _l_ and _r_ are very difficult to determine. Ex. _aliete_ or _ariete_, to salute; _naul'i_ and _naur'i_, my eye. In the vocabulary _l_ is used generally.

The _s_ is often _ts_. Ex. tsivu and sivu; su(le) and tsu(le grass. Also in the future suffix _t_ or _ts_. Ex. _nati_ or _natsi_, I will eat.

II. Elision.

A great number of Fuyuge words terminate in an open syllable of which the vowel is generally _e_. This syllable is usually omitted at the end of a phrase, and nearly always when the following word commences with a consonant. But if the following word begins with a vowel the final _e_ only falls away. Thus the complete form of a word is rarely used, except to avoid confusion, or for the sake of emphasis. The following are examples:

_ovo(le),_ pig: _ovol' ovoge,_ boar, _ovo momombe,_ sow.

_ifa(ne),_ beautiful: _ifa ta,_ very fine, _ifan' aka,_ less fine.

_da(le),_ who? _nu da?_ who art thou? _dal' aua?_ who is this?

_i(nde),_ to give: _ne i,_ give me, _ne ind' u,_ give it to me.

_-a(le)_, with: _andal' a?_ with what? _indiv' al' ongai_, cut with the knife.

_a(le),_ here: _a mo ma?_ must I put it here? _al' itatsi,_ he will sleep here.

_u(ne),_ and: _kitoval' u kene,_ black parroquet and white, _amb' un' ale,_ banana and sugar cane.

Note (1). The _b_ in an elision sometimes changes to _p._ Ex. _obe,_ bud, _op'indie,_ to bud.

(2). Sometimes two syllables are elided: Ex. _taume, tame,_ from which comes _ovo ta,_ a tame pig, and _ovo taum' ifa,_ the tame pig is good.

(3). Words which do not end in _e,_ rarely elide a final vowel, and never the last syllable. Ex. _kuku,_ tobacco, _kuk' oko nei,_ give me a little tobacco; _na,_ I, _nu,_ thee, _ongo_ at the foot of, _na n' ong' ando,_ I am at thy feet; _umbubi, wash, umbub' u,_ wash him.

(4). Some verbs in _-ri_ or _-li_ however often omit this syllable. Ex. _ivo(ri)_ to wipe, _na ga kodig' ivo,_ I have wiped the plates; _tsimi(li),_ to lick, _ama tsimi,_ lick the salt; _itu(lili)_ to split, _ol' itu,_ split the wood.

In the grammar and vocabulary the syllable which may be elided is enclosed in a bracket, and in compound words and phrases the elision is marked with an apostrophe, as in the preceding examples.

III. Vowel Changes.

1. A final _o_ sometimes changes to _u_ if the word following begins with a vowel.

Ex. _oko,_ some, a little, _kuk' oku ind' uno,_ give him some tobacco to smoke.

2. An initial _o,_ on the other hand, sometimes changes to _u_ when the preceding word begins with _a._

Ex. _ongo,_ under; _na_ ungo ando, remain at my feet.

3. The final _a_ of the word _na,_ I, becomes _e_ when it is followed by the verb _indi_ in the imperative.

Ex. _ne i, ne inde,_ give me, but _nuga na indi,_ thou hast given me.

Nouns.

I. Gender.

There is no modification or grammatical difference to mark gender.

Sex is indicated by separate words in the case of human beings: _an(e)_ man, _me(le)_ boy, _ena(ne)_ brother, _amu(le)_ woman, _ame(le)_ girl, _eta(de)_ sister.

For mammals the words _avoge,_ male, or _momobe,_ female, follow the noun: _ovol' avoge,_ boar, _ovo' momobe,_ sow.

Dr. Strong notes that the sex of birds is sometimes denoted by the adjective _ifa(ne),_ good, _i.e.,_ "ornamented," for the male bird, and _ifan' ul' amu,_ the "wife of the ornamented" for the female: _uruv' ifa,_ the male hornbill; _uruv' ifan ul' amu,_ the female hornbill.

II. Number.

Only nouns indicating persons have been found with plurals. These are formed by changing the final _e_ to _i._ Sometimes the _e_ is changed to _a;_ this may indicate the dual.

Ex. _amu(le)_ woman, plur. amuli and amula; _so(le),_ young man, plur. _soli_ and _sola; me(le),_ child, plur. _meli_ and _mela._

Note (1). The word _a(ne)_ man, has a double plural in two different meanings: _ani,_ the men; _ake(da)_ the married men.

(2). The shortened form of the word is often used in the plural. This naturally is the same as the singular.

III. Case.

1. There is no modification of the noun to express case, but the equivalents of cases are shown by suffixes. The vocative alone often takes a final _a_ as in the interrogative form.

Ex. _Tayova, a tsia!_ Tayo, come here!

The subject, direct object, and indirect object are however easily recognised by their position in the sentence. The subject comes first, followed by the direct object, then the indirect object if there be one, with the verb at the end. If there are complements they immediately precede the word which governs them.

Ex. _naga kuku nu inde,_ I tobacco to thee gave; _Baiv' u mega nembe u fod' al' ema,_ Baiva's child bird his bow-with killed; _nuni ake mu letsi gatsi,_ thou men their village-to will-go.

2. The genitive is expressed by means of the possessive adjective.

Ex. _ovo'u ma,_ hair of the pig, lit. pig his hair.

3. Persons belonging to a place sometimes omit the adjective.

Ex. _A Kotsi,_ a man of Kotsi; _An'Alol',_ a man of Alole; _Alol' amu,_ a woman of Alole; _Ambov'amu,_ a woman of Ambove; _Tseluku ul' akeda,_ men of Tseluku.

4. Position in a place, or motion to or from a place is shown in the following ways. When the noun has a shortened for _-tsi_ is suffixed. If there is no short form the final _e_ of the noun is changed to _i_ and _-tsi_ is added.

Ex. _nani etsi ando,_ I am in the house; _nuni bulitsi gatsi,_ thou wilt go to the garden; _naga Mambutsi l'a tela,_ I have come here from Mambo.

Note (1). Some proper names of places do not take the suffix _-tsi._ Ex. _amul' Alol' itatsi,_ the woman will sleep at Alole.

(2). Other proper names, especially those of mountains and the villages built on them, take the suffix _-tu_ (upon) instead of _-tsi._ Ex. _Falitu gatsi,_ I will go to Faliba, lit. I will go upon Faliba.

IV. Interrogative Nouns.

The noun in Fuyuge has a special form to indicate the interrogative. If the noun ends in _e,_ this vowel is changed to _a._ If already ending in _a,_ the _a_ takes a strong accent. To any other vowel ending _a_ is added.

Ex. _ovo(le)_ pig: interrog. _ovola?_ is it a pig?

_bulomakao,_ cow, &c.: interrog. _bulomakaoa?_ is it a cow?

_kuku,_ tobacco: interrog. _kukua?_ is it tobacco?

_kupa,_ sweet potato: interrog. _kupa?_ is it a sweet potato?

V. Demonstrative Nouns.

These are similar to the Interrogative Nouns and are formed by the addition of the syllables _-aua, -ana,_ or _-ala_ instead of _a._ This form is both affirmative and interrogative.

Ex. _oyand' aua?_ is it a flower? or, it is a flower.

_Tayov' aua,_ it is Tayo; _kuku aua,_ it is tobacco; _an' ala,_ it is a man; _Ambov' ana,_ it is Ambo.

Adjectives.

I. Adjectives have no Gender. In the expression of Case, Interrogative and Demonstrative forms they are the same as Nouns.

Ex. _a baibe, amu baibe,_ man tall, woman tall; _uli baibitsi mau,_ pot big-in put it, put it in the big pot; _ifana?_ is it good? _ifan' ala,_ it is good.

II. Adjectives of Quality.

1. Number.

Number is expressed as with nouns by changing _e_ to _i._ Some adjectives in _-a_ add _i._ There are no adjectives with the plural in _-a._ Some adjectives in _-a(ne)_ have the plural _-ai._

Ex. _kakava(ne)_ strong, plur. _kakavani; safa(le),_ plur. _safa(li); isosonga,_ idle, plur. _isosongai; aka(ne)_ small, plur. _akai._

2. Agreement.

The adjective always follows the noun which it qualifies, and takes the suffix of the noun.

Ex. _a sesada,_ fence long; _emo gai,_ house old; _kodige kisiakatsi,_ plate little-in: _indiv' amoja(le)_ knife blunt-with; _koua baibitu,_ box big-on.

Sometimes the pronoun _u(ne),_ his, is placed between the noun and the adjective.

The meaning of this is uncertain, but it appears to be more emphatic, as _e.g._ "the road which is good," "the house which is bad."

Ex, _enamb' un' ifa,_ the good road, _em' u koi,_ the bad house.

The adjective used as predicate immediately follows the noun, without a substantive verb.

Ex. _an' ala gududuba,_ that man (is) stingy; _nuni sesada,_ thou (art) tall; _amu safali,_ the women (are) weak.

Note.--When the subject is represented by a pronoun of the first or second person dual or plural, the predicate remains singular.

Ex. _dini kakava(ne)_ we (are) strong; _yani kapape,_ you two (are) weak; but, _muni isosongai,_ they (are) idle.

When the predicate expresses a negation the word expressing the quality is followed by the adverb _ua(ne)_ not.

Ex. _sesad' ua, onov' aka,_ it is not long, it is short.

3. Comparison.

There is no special form for comparisons. Two positive statements are made, or a superlative may be used.

Ex. My house is larger than yours may be translated: _naul' e baibe, nul' a kisiaka,_ my house is large, yours is small, or _nul'e baibe, naul'a baibe ta,_ your house is large, mine is large much.

Equality is expressed by the suffix _-umba_ or _-yakala._

Ex. _naul' e, nul' em' umba,_ my house is like your house; _nuni sesada, nauyekala,_ you are tall like me.

A superlative is expressed by the prefix _ande,_ or the suffix _-ta._ But if the adjective in the superlative expresses a lessening of the quality then _-aka(ne)_ is suffixed.

Ex. _baibe,_ large, _ande baibe,_ larger; _ifa,_ fine, _ifata,_ finer; but _ono(ve),_ short, _onov'aka,_ shorter.

The prefix _ande_ is used only with adjectives which express an idea of extension.

When the adjective expresses an actual state rather than a passive, it is preceded by the sign of past tense, the particle _ga._

Ex. _ant g'ifa,_ the breeches are (have become) good; _ena ga ko,_ the road (is) bad.

III. Demonstrative Adjectives.

The demonstrative adjectives in Fuyuge are represented by the suffixes -_ana_, this, -_ala_, this, here, -_vala_ that, there. The same expressions translate the French "le voici," "le voilà."

Ex. _indiv'ana_, this knife; _eni'ala_, this house; _enavala_, that road.

There is no article, but the expression _u mane_ is used in reference to any thing which has been previously spoken about.

Ex. _enamb' ifa_, or _enamb' un' ifa_, it (is) a good road; but _enamb u man' ifa_, the road (which has been mentioned) is good.

IV. Interrogative Adjectives.

For these. _See_ Pronouns.

V. Indefinite Adjectives.

The indefinite adjectives are _oko_, some, a little, part of; _tale(le)_, several, many; _korio_, several; _gegeto_, a few, several; _alu(ve)_, all; _urambe_, another; _none_, together, one with the other; _dovavemunge_? _domamai_? how many?

Note.--When _oko_ is followed by a word beginning with _i_, it becomes _oku_.

Ex. _Kuku oko nei_, give me some tobacco; _nemb' oko ematsi_, they will spear the birds; _bodol' oko tsia_, take one of his hands; _indiv' oko ya_, take a knife; _kuk oko ua_, (there is) no tobacco; _indiv' oku i_, give him a knife; _ake talel' ando_, there are many men; _kupa korio inde_, give several potatoes; _me' gegeto indiatsi_, some children will come; _aked' aluvi etsi ando_, all the men are in the village; _nau mel' alu_, all my children; _indiv' urambe ya_, take another knife; _Pitsoke non' ade_, the Pitsoke strike one another; _oye non' ongete_, the dogs keep beside each other; _kokol' ul' ombo dovavemunge?_ how many eggs? _nu sise domamai?_ how many dog's teeth?

VI. Possessive Adjectives.

_See_ Possessive Pronouns.

Numerals.

I. There are only two numerals: _fida (ne)_, one, and _gegeto_, two. _Gegeto_ is also used for a small number, and _gegetom'inda_, is little used for three. For more than three, _gegeto_, meaning "a few," or _tale(le)_, "many" is used.

II. There are no ordinals and the only distributive is _fida fida_, one by one.

Pronouns.

I. Personal Pronouns. Simple.

Singular.

lst Person _na, nave, nani,_ I, me 2nd Person _nu, nove, nuni,_ thou, thee 3rd Person _u(ne), ove, uni,_ he, she, it, him, her

Dual.

lst Person _da, dani,_ we, or us two 2nd Person _ya, yani,_ you two 3rd Person _tu, tuni,_ they, or them two

Plural.

1st Person _di, dini,_ we, us 2nd Person _yi yini,_ you 3rd Person _mu, muni,_ they, them

1. The first form _na, nu, u(ne)_ etc., is used either as subject or object of the verb, the meaning being only indicated by the position of the word.

Ex. _na kuku nu inditsi,_ I will give thee tobacco; _na un' adatsi,_ I will strike him; _ya di ong' ando,_ you two are beside us.

When used before the imperative of the verb _indi,_ to give, _na_ becomes _ne._

Ex. _ne i, ne inde,_ give me.

2. The forms _nave_ and _ove_ are rarely used. The commonest use is with the words _ete,_ to say, _ende,_ also.

Ex. _nav' elete,_ I said; _ov' elete,_ he said; _nav' ende, nov' ende, ov' ende,_ I also, thou also, he also.

3. The forms _nani, nuni,_ etc., are employed when the verb is understood, or to indicate opposition or emphasis.

Ex. _da gatsi? dini;_ who will go? we (will); _nuni kakape ta, nani kakava,_ you are weak, but I am strong; _nani a baibe,_ I am a great man.

4. The dual is generally observed by the natives. Adjectives used with the dual pronoun take the singular form.

Ex. _dani sosonga,_ we (are) idle,

5. The dual is often employed with two subjects one of which is plural.

Ex. _Kakao tu, tsimani u g'anga_, Kakao they two, with the policemen, have started.

When _dani_ is used alone it is generally inclusive of the person addressed, and means "I and thou." If the third person is intended the name is used: _dani Okomi' u da gatsi_, we two Okomi with we will go. _Yani_ is used in a similar way, when one of the persons referred to is not present: _ya, Dun'u yani natsi_, you two Dune with you will go. The use of the conjunction _u(ne)_ with the second member of the subject does not appear to be constant.

6. The pronoun of the third person singular _u(ne)_ when it is the direct object of the verb usually follows, and often takes the form -_unde_.

Ex. _kodigitsi mau_, put it in the dish; _nag' al' unde_, I have seen him.

II. Personal Pronouns. Compound.

From the pronouns _na, nu_, etc., are derived by means of the suffix -_muku_, alone, the forms _namuku, numuku_, etc., with the meanings, "I alone, without company," etc.

The suffix -_mule_, is equivalent to self, _namule, numule_, etc., myself, thyself, etc.

From _nani, nuni_, etc., come the forms: _naniende_, or _nanienge_, etc., meaning myself in person, etc.; _nanieke, nunieke_, etc., from -_eke_, alone; _naniova_, etc., it is my business, _nanibila_, I by myself, without help. _Nani endebila_ is more emphatic than _nanibila_.

Ex. _numuku andola_? art thou quite alone? _da gatsi? uniende_; who will go? he himself; _nu da? nanienge_; who art thou? it is myself; _amed' unieke ando_, the chief is alone; _ake muniova_, it is the men's business; _dinieke al' andetsi_, we will stay here alone; _isong' unibila_, his own rainbow appears.

III. Possessive Pronouns.

1. These are formed from the simple forms of the personal pronouns by suffixing -_ula(ne)_ literally "his thing."

Singular. Dual. Plural.

1. _naula(ne)_ 1. _daula(ne)_ 1. _diula(ne)_ 2. _nula(ne)_ 2. _yaula(ne)_ 2. _yula(ne)_ 3. _ula(ne)_ 3. _tula(le)_ 3. _mula(ne)_

They translate the English mine, thine, etc. Sometimes in compounds the final _n_ becomes _nd_. Ex. _nauland' aua_, here is mine.

2. The adjectival forms appear without the syllable _la_.

Singular. Dual. Plural.

1. _nau_(_le_) 1. _dau_(_le_) 1. _diu_(_le_) 2. _nu_(_le_) 2. _yau_(_le_) 2. _yu_(_le_) 3. _u_(_le_) 3. _tu_(_le_) 3. _mu_(_le_)

These adjectives precede the noun which they govern. With personal nouns the forms _naula_, etc., are sometimes used.

Ex. _nau me_ and _naula me_, my son; _diu vase_ and _diula vase_, our guest.

Note.--The form _nulu_ is heard in the phrase _nulu babe_, thy father.

The suffix _mule_ is also used in the sense of "own."

Ex. _numul' ul' i to, n' alo_, your own name, which I know; _namul' ul i_, my own name. These suggest that the true possessive is simply _ul_(_e_) or _ula_(_ne_).

IV. Interrogative Pronouns.

1. These are: _Da_(_le_)? _dau_(_ne_)? who, which? _anda_(_le_)? what? _unau_? which? They are used also as adjectives.

Ex. _Nu da_? who art thou? _dau ga ne_? who has eaten it? _anda l' elete_? what did he say? _Ivi: unau_? Ivi: which one?

2. When the verb is preceded by the particle _ga_, _dau_(_ne_) must be used instead of _da_(_le_).

V. Indefinite Pronouns.

These are the same as the Indefinite Adjectives.

VI. Relative Pronouns.

The suffix _niu_(_ne_) or _u_(_ne_) takes the place of a relative pronoun.

Ex. _A yaigegemune_, the man who descends; _audati itedemu bulitsi jalo tolom elota_, in the garden which they are cutting now when the food is ripe; _ovo jamun' imbade_, the meat taken from the pig; _fal' itamun' akeda_, the men who have dug the ground.

Verbs.

I. Conjugation.

The Fuyuge verb is conjugated by modifications of the terminal syllables, or by a particle added to the subject.

II. The Particle, Ga.

The particle _ga_ (often _g'_ before a vowel) is generally used with the past tense, and is rarely absent in the positive form of the verb. But it may be used also with the present and future. With the present it seems to indicate reference to a preceding action in the sense of "being on the point of," "ready to." With the future it has almost the sense of "go."

Ex. _Ake ga nembe na,_ the men have eaten the bird; _amu g'anga_ the women are gone; _naga bulitsi gatsi,_ I am going to go away to the garden; _naga sue,_ I am going away.

Note (1). _Ga_ always immediately follows the subject, except with the past of the verb _ange(ge),_ to go, which always has _g'anga._

(2). When the subject is not a pronoun, the pronoun of the 3rd pers. sing. is often expressed.

(3). _Ga_ never appears to be used in a negative expression.

Ex. _Naga ipitsial' uruv' ema,_ I have killed with the gun a toucan; _mel ul' etsi g'anga,_ the child to his village has gone; _Okom' ug' nemb' ema,_ Okome has killed a bird; _ake kupa me na,_ the men have not eaten the potatoes.

III. Person and Number.

These are not expressed by the verb in Fuyuge.

IV. Tense and Mode.

1. There are three principal tenses, present, past and future. The present is found in the indicative and imperative modes, the past in the indicative only, and the future in the indicative and subjunctive. Besides these, there is a method of expressing the infinitive, a passive participle, and two forms of verbal adjectives.

2. _Paradigm of tenses and modes._

ememe, umbubi, isiei, pierce wash follow

Indicative present ememe umbubi isiei Indicative past (1) ema(me) umbubi(ne) isia Indicative past (2) emo(ne) Indicative future ematsi(me) umbubitsi(me) isiatsi Imperative (1) ema umbubi isia Imperative (2) emau umbubu Subjunctive (1) emo(le) umbubi(ne) isio(me) Subjunctive (2) emo(me) Infinitive ema(me) umbubi(me) isie(me) Past participle emam(ane) umbubim(ane) Verbal adjective (1) emabul(ane) umbubibul(ane) Verbal adjective (2) ememond(ana)

If the Imperative be regarded as the stem, there appear to be three Conjugations, but Dr. Strong gives four based on past tense, thus: i. Verbs with monosyllabic roots, 2. Verbs with roots in _a_, 3. Verbs with roots in _i_, 4. Verbs with roots in _e_.

His examples are:--

1. 2. 3. 4. nen, itede, ongai, bole, eat cut break leave

Present nene itede ongai bolo Past na ita ongai bole Future natsi itatsi ongaitsi bolatsi Imperative nu ito ongai bo(le) Subjunctive no ito ongai bolo Infinitive namubabe itamubabe ongaimubabe bolamane Past participle namane itaname ongaimane bolamane Adjectival nab'ula(ne) itedondona ongaibula(ne) bolabula(ne)

3. _Notes on the foregoing paradigms._

_a._ Indicative present.

Most verbs double the last syllable of the stem, which in the first conjugation always ends in _e_. There are, however, some exceptions, especially among verbs in _i_, and those which have a verbal suffix. The syllable _-te_ when doubled is always _-tede_.

Ex. _Nag alili_, I see; _nani e gadi_, I build (tie up) the house; _nani okid' atede_, I light the fire.

_b._ Indicative past.

The difference between the two forms, both of which are preceded by the particle _ga_, is not yet clearly made out. The ending _e_ seems to refer to the time when the action finished, whilst _-a_ has a more general signification.

Ex. _Naga ne_, I have eaten, _naga kupa na_, I ate the potatoes. There is another form which replaces the final syllable of the present tense by _-ua_. Verbs in _-i_ add _-ua_ to the final syllable. But it is uncertain whether this expresses the near past, or includes an idea of movement.

Ex. _na bul' elelua_, I have just worked in the garden; _nu a gadi ua_, you have just tied up the fence.

_c_. Indicative future.

If the syllables preceding the suffix _-tsi_ also contain _-tsi-ti_. In monosyllabic verbs especially, a second form of the future is often found, which retains the doubling of the present tense.

Ex. _etsiati_, will come; _nenetsi_, will eat; _yeyetsi_, will take. For _ga_ with the future, see below.

_d_. Imperative.

The first form of the imperative has less force than the second. In the first conjugation the second form always terminates in _-au_, even when the first form is irregular. The last syllable of the imperative is often lost, especially when the ending is _-li_.

Ex. _aitodede_, runs, imperat. _aitode_ and _aitodau_; _itulili_, ward off, imperat. _itu_; _bole_, leaves, imperat. _bole_, _bo_, and _bolau_; _ameme_, puts, imperat. _a_ and _ama_.

The imperative is only used for the second person. In the first and third (sometimes even in the second) it is replaced by the subjunctive.

Ex. _di ango_, let us go; _to n'alo_, speak, that I may know; _go di go_, go that we may go.

_e_. Subjunctive.

The two forms of the subjunctive are distinguished only in composition, and have not yet been clearly understood. The last syllable besides is rarely heard except in questions, and refers then to the interrogative form. The subjunctive without a conjunction is used in simple phrases consisting only of subject and object.

Ex. _kuku gadi, di no_, roll the tobacco (make cigarette), that we may smoke (eat).

_f_. Infinitive.

The forms given as infinitive are uncertain. They may be verbal nouns. They are used in phrases such as: _nam' u babe_, father of eating, for 'a great eater': _tsimilim' u babe_, father of licking, cf. _andaval' u babe_, father of crying, one who causes crying.

_g_. Past Participle.

This does not easily lose the final syllable when it ends a sentence. In other cases, when it is followed by the word it qualifies it loses _-ane_, if the qualified word begins with a vowel, and _-ne_ in other cases.

Ex. _iy' ongaimane_, the cut tree, _indiv' ongaima ya_, or _ongaim' indi' ya_, take the broken knife, _g'usangaman' ul' ande_, the thing of death.

The past participle of some verbs has not yet been ascertained.

_h_. Verbal Adjectives.

The exact difference between the two forms is not accurately ascertained. The first seems to indicate an instrument, and is equivalent to the phrase "used for," the second appears to indicate habitual rather than momentary use. When qualifying persons _-onde_ is used for _-ondana_.

Ex. _indi kupa fifitabula_, knife for scraping potatoes; _ai safatsilibula_, a yam which has rotted; _kulule iy' adedondona_, a hammer for striking wood; _nuni oyatonde_, you are only joking; _nani falawa me nonde_, I don't eat bread.

In composition _-ande_, or at least _-nde_, is lost when the word qualified follows.

Ex. _ai filibulanda_, a yam for planting, _filibula' ai ne i_, give me the yam for planting; _ambe nenondana_, the eatable banana, _nenond' ambe ya_, take the eatable banana.

V. Negation.

The negative of the verb is formed by the particle _me_ or _mi_ preceding. In the imperative it also precedes, but when emphasis is laid upon the negation _mi_ follows. The difference between _me_ and _mi_ is not clear, but _me_ appears to be used only before verbs beginning with a consonant, and _mi_ with other verbs.

A negative participle or infinitive does not appear. For the verbal adjective the suffix _-ua(ne)_ is used.

Ex. _Na mi alele_, I do not understand; _nani matsine mi engatsi_, I will not put on the (shell) bracelet; _mi unde_, do not fear; _kolose mi_, do not play; _me ya_, do not take; _nenond' an' ua_, what is not eaten.

VI. Interrogative.

The interrogative is only employed with reference to the verb itself, not to the complements. It changes with the conjugation and varies for present, past and future tense.

Present. Past 1. Past 2. Future 1. Future 2.

ememoma? emama? emena? emolà? emómà? umbubima? umbibia? umbubina? umbubila? umbubima?

The present in the first conjugation keeps the reduplication of the stem, and changes the final _e_ to _-oma_. The second conjugation simply adds _-ma_. The interrogative in the past simply changes the _e_ of the positive indicative to _a_ in both forms. The future is formed in the same way from the subjunctive with a stress upon the final _a_ in the first conjugation.

Ex. _Nuga malele yera?_ have you taken the book? _uga nemb' emama?_ has he killed the bird? _nu aiti golà?_ would you start to-morrow? _kupa g'ilama?_ are the potatoes cooked?

Note (1). The future interrogative replies to the question, "Can I..."? or "Should I..."?

(2). The interrogative of the near past (_cf.p._ 318, 3, _b_) is formed by substituting _-una_ for _-ua_.

Ex. _nug' em' aliluna?_ Have you just come to see the village?

(3). The form of the second future as _umbibia_ is rarely heard, except with the verb _alili_, see, from which comes _'Aria?_ see?

(4). The negative interrogative is formed like the simple negative by _me_ or _mi_ preceding the verb.

The questions "What should I do?" "What should I say," How should I begin it?" are translated by the expression _do(le)... maiti_, from _do(le)?_ where?

Ex. _dotamaiti?_ how should I say? _dol' imaiti?_ what should I do? _do yela maiti?_ how shall I call?

VII. Substantive Verb.

1. In the present tense there is no substantive verb. The predicate and subject are combined as in the examples already given (cf. p. 312, 2). But when the present indicates a state in opposition to one preceding it, _ga_ is used before the adjective, or if in opposition to a future state, the verb _ando_ follows.

Ex. _Kuku ga ko_, the tobacco is bad; _balava ga ua_, the bread is finished; _indi ga kouatu_, the knife is on the box; _ambe g'ifa_, the banana is good; _ambe gos' ando_, the banana is (still) green (not ripe).

The past is more difficult to express. It always requires an adverb of time.

Ex. _Mele maleke ifa, audati ga ko_, the child formerly was good, now he is bad.

3. For other tenses the verb is translated only by the auxiliaries _-elele_ and _-angege_, for which cf. p. 322, 7.

VIII. Auxiliary Verbs.

1. The particle _ga_ may be used to make any expression whatever attributive.

Ex. _Yu g'ua_, the water is finished (_i.e_., is not); _malele ga kouatsi_, the book is in the box.

In such examples there is almost the sense of a past action, as if it were "The water (has become) nothing," "the book has been put (is already in) the box."

2. The verbs _ete, tede_, to say, or to do, and _elele_, to become, are often used to form a noun stem into a verb. _Ete_ and _tede_ give the sense of _sounding_, _elele_ gives the sense of _using_ whatever the noun expresses.

Ex.

_fioli_, flute, _fioliete_, to play the flute. _yuve_, water, _yuv' elele_, to bathe. _ule_, thunder, _ulonete_, to thunder. _ivule_, dye, _ivul' elele_, to paint one's self. _andavale_, crying, _andav' ete_, to weep. _bule_, earth, _bul' elele_, to cultivate.

3. The Tenses, etc., of these verbs are found as follows:

1 2

Pres. indic. ete or tede. elele. Imperative. ta. elau, ele, e. Past indic. te(ne). elame. Subjunctive. to(me), to(le). elo(me), elo(le). Past indic. ta(me). elene. Infinitive. ta(me). ela(me). Future indic. tatsi(me). elatsi(me). Verbal adj. tond(ana). ?

4. The negative is formed regularly by _mi_.

Ex. _nani yu mi elatsi_, I shall not bathe; _degu mi e_, don't get dirty.

5. The interrogative is regular.

Pres. or past, _tena?_ or _tama? elena?_ or _elama?_ Fut. _toma?_ and _tola? eloma?_ and _elola?_

6. The auxiliaries _ete, tede, elele_, should be distinguished from the regular verb, _tede_ or _ta_, to make. The latter is a distinct verb used when the result of the action is to produce a new thing.

Ex. _Sambari tatsi_, will make a wall; _ombo tatsi_, will make a sieve.

7. The verbs _elele_ and _angege_, both meaning "to become," may be regarded as auxiliary verbs when they are used with adjectives, often taking the place of a substantive verb. In this use _elele_ is never, and _angege_ very rarely used in the past tense, the particle _ga_ taking their place.

Both are regular except in the imperative, which has respectively _ela_ and _elau_, _ange_ and _angau_.

Ex. _Ifan' eloma?_ will he become handsome? _ifa mi elatsi?_ he will not be handsome? _indi g' ifa_, the knife is good; _yuv' uan angatsi_, the water will cease (become nothing); _mel g' us' anga_, or _me g' use_, the child is dead.

IX. Verbal Suffixes.

1. The suffix _-i_, added to a noun stem, forms generally a neuter verb.

Ex. _abe_, work, _abi_, to work; _iso_(_ne_), smoke, _isoni_, to give forth smoke; _kese_, a clean vegetable, _kesi_, to clean vegetables.

2. The suffix _-tede_, added to a noun stem, forms usually an active verb.

Ex. _foye_, ashes, _foitede_, to cook in ashes; _gurube_, neck, _gurutede_, to hang at the neck.

3. The suffix of manner defining the verb, is formed by adding the adjective with the final syllable changed to _-i_.

Note (1). The suffix of manner is always added to the infinitive form of the preceding verb.

(2). In the negative these compound verbs are considered a single word.

Ex. _te_, say, _ifane_, good, _tam' ifani_, to say well. _i_, do, _koye_, bad, _i'koi_, to do badly. _ilele_, cook, _akane_, small, _ilam'akani_, to half-cook.

4. The suffix _-matede_ appears to have a causative signification.

Ex. _ga koda_ (perhaps the past of _kodede_,) pierced, _komatede_, to pierce (of a man); _ga siuda_, extinguished, _siumatede_, to extinguish.

Note. This suffix appears in some examples as a separate verb in the same sense.

Ex. _yuv' olola mata_, warm up the water; _indi koi matatsi_, the knife will become bad.

The negative is not known.

5. The suffixes _-meme_ and _-ngo_ are added to neuter verbs. The first has an active meaning, the second is passive.

Ex. _yu_, to be upright, _yuma_, to put upright, _yungo_, to be upright. _yari_(?), _yarima_, to hang, _yaringo_, to be hanging.

Note (1). _Meme_ is regularly conjugated; _-ngo_ is imperfectly known.

(2). Negative forms are _me yumatsi_, will not place upright, _mi yaringo_, not hanging.

6. The auxiliary verbs, except _ga_, may perhaps be included among the suffixes (_see_ p. 322, VIII.).

X. Verbal Prefixes.

The prefix _ya-_ renders a neuter verb active or causative.

Ex. _yaigege_, to go down, _yeyaigege_, to carry down. _faikadede_, to come back, _yefaika(dede)_, to give back. _yu_, to stand up, _yeyu_, to set up.

XI. Irregular Verbs.

1. Many verbs are irregular in the imperative.

Ex.

_angege_, imperat. _ange_, go. _atede_, imperat. _ade_, kindle, burn. _ende_, imperat. _ende_, undo. _etsie_, imperat. _etsie_, come up (ladder). _faikadede_, imperat. _faika(dede)_, go back. _idede_, imperat. _de_, gather, pluck. _isie_, imperat. _isia_, follow; _itede_, imperat. _ide_, sting, bite. _itulili_, imperat. _itu(li)_, split. _ivori_, imperat. _ivo(ri)_, wipe. _kosisi_, imperat. _kose_, turn. _telele_, imperat. _te(le)_, come. _yelele_, imperat. _ye(le)_, call.

2. Other irregular verbs are the following. Only those forms known are entered.

_Aitodede_, to run: imperat. _attode_, infin. _aitode(me)_. _ando_ and _ande_, to be there: fut. _andetsi_, imperat. _ande_, subj. _ando_, and _ande_. _bole_, to leave: past, _bo(le)_, imperat. _bo(le)_. _ete_, to tell: past, _ete_ and _elete_, imperat. _eta_ and _ta_. _faduatsiete_, to ache (head): fut. _faduatatsi_. _iei_, to throw: fut. _iatsi_, imperat. _ia_. _indi_, to give;, imperat. _i(nde)_, subj. _i(ndi)_. _ingale_, to carry (on shoulder): past, _ingala_ and _inge_, imperat. _inga_, subj. _ingo_. _itede_ and _ito_, to lay down: past, _ito_ and _ita_, near past, _itova_, imperat. _ito_. _songe_, to go: pres. and past, _se_, near past, _sova_, imperat. _so(nge)_, subj. _so_, interrog. _sona?_ _sue_, to walk, go: pres. _sue_, fut. _susuetsi_. _utsisi_, to draw: fut. _utsist_, imperat. _ude_.

Note (1). The verbs _ando_ and _ito_ are not yet accurately understood.

(2). The verb _ete_ has a double conjugation, the initial _e_ being retained or omitted at will. The past _elete_ is used in reporting the words of another person.

(3). The verb _faduatsiete_ is a type of several verbs which end in _ete_, preceded by the syllable _tsi_. All these appear to lose _tsi_ in the future, although some have both forms.

Ex. _kiovatsiete_, to cry (of black parrot): fut. _kiovatatsi_ and _kiovatsitatsi_. _puatsiete_, to make a cracking noise: fut. _puatatsi_ and _puatsiatsi_.

(4). The verb _sue_ in the meaning "go away" always has _ga_.

Ex. _nu ga sua? na ga sua_, are you going away? I am going away.

The verb _angege_, to go, in the past tense has the particle ga prefixed to the verb instead of suffixed to the pronoun.

Ex. _na nul etsi ganga_, I went to your village.

XII. Notes on Some Verbs.

1. _Tede_ and _i_.

There is a difference in the meaning of the verbs _tede_, (_ete_) and _i_, both used for "do" or "make." The first is used when the object by which one obtains the action is indicated, the second is used when the action only is expressed, and might then be translated by the phrase "to go to work, to set about."

Ex. _olon'ete_, to snore, make a sound with the _olo_(_ne_ hole, _i.e._, the nostrils, _ung'ul 'olo. na (melauk') i koitsi_, I shall do the thing wrong.

2. _Gege, angege, engege, songe._

All of these have the general meaning of "go." Their differences are not yet clearly understood. _Engege_ appears to mean "go up." _Songe_ is specially employed when the following phrase indicates a final proposition, or an answer to the questions "Where do you come from?" or "Where are you going?"

Ex. _nuni o' gega_, thou hast passed down there; _di engo_, let us go up; _na song' em' aritsi_, I am going to see the village; _nu do sona_? where have you been? (or, where do you come from?); _na bulitsi sova_, I have been in the garden (or, I have come from the garden).

3. _Idede_.

This verb has a general meaning besides the special one "to gather."

Ex. _fang' idede_, to set a trap; _di yu molots' idoma_? should we make a water-pipe?

4. _Ameme_.

This verb has the general meaning of passing, or making anything pass, through an opening. The object which has the opening does not take suffixes.

Ex. _kupa ulin' ama_, put the potatoes in the pot; _na ul' olol' amene_, I passed it through the hole; _iso nu emana? andavete_, does the smoke irritate you? you are weeping.

Adverbs.

I. Adverbs generally precede the verb which they modify. The exceptions are the interrogative na? (is it not so?) which always comes at the end of the sentence, and _-ta_ (at first), which follows the verb.

Ex. _aiti balava natsi_, to-morrow bread I shall eat; _aiti nu inditsi na_? to-morrow I will give it you, shall I not? _kuku neta_, I eat the tobacco at first.

Note.--This _ta_ appears to be almost a conjunction, and the phrase might be translated "when I shall have smoked (eaten) the tobacco."

II. Adverbs of Place.

_do(le)?_ where. _a(le)_), here. _va(ie)_, there. _ombatsi_, underneath. _gisa(le)_, far. _ime(li)?_ far. _kugume_, near. _tsi_, inside. _val'enga_, outside. _tu_, on, over _ibe(le)_, down there. _o(me)_, up there. _yo(le)_, there above.

III. Adverbs of Time.

The adverbs of time are not very definite. For example _audati_, "to-day, now," means also "in a few days" or "a few days ago." The latter meaning is also attributed to _arima_, and the former to _aiti_.

_aida_? when? _vomarima_, day before yesterday. _arima_, yesterday. _male(ke)_, formerly. _malieke)_, formerly. _audali)_, to-day, now. _aiti(me)_, to-morrow. _vomaiti_, day after to-morrow. _talele_, often, for ever. _dedi_, just now, later (near). _ido(ve)_, not yet (with fut.) immediately. _ulsienga_, later on, in the future. _utsimata_, later on, in the future. _utsinenga_, later on, in the future. _kelavalage_, for a time. _-ta_, at first. _vo(ye_, again.

IV. Adverbs of Quantity.

_dovavemunge_? how much? how many? _domamai_? how much? how many? _avevemunge_, as much, so much, as many, so many. _tale(le)_, many. _apa(le)_, enough. _kisiaka_, few, little. _oko_, few, little. _-ta_, very. _ande_, very. _boboi_, entirely, quite. _gegeto_, few.

Note. When _apa_ is used with a numeral it precedes it. Ex. _apa gegeto_, two are sufficient.

V. Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation and Interrogation.

_e_, yes. _akai(ge)_, truly. _g'akai_, truly. _me_! what! certainly! _ila_! I who knows? _ua(ne)_, not, no. _nà_? is it not (French, n'est ce pas?). _óuo_! not at all, by no means. _andal'ai(me)_? why?

Note. _Me_, _óuo_, and _ila_ are almost interjections.

VI. Adverbs of Manner and Likeness.

The adverbs of manner are often replaced by noun suffixes attached to the verb, with the final _i_. (See Verbal Suffixes, p. 323).

_unoi_, together. _akaumai(nge)_, further, beyond, besides. _uneke_, only. _ende_, also. _elele_, quickly. _dedi_, slowly _fidefide_, continually. _kela_, without reason, gratis.

Note. When _ende_ modifies a verb with subject in the third person, it is preceded by the pronoun _ove_. Ex. _nau fud' ov' ende fufuli_, my bones (they) also ache.

Prepositions and Postpositions.

I. Prepositions.

Only two prepositions are found in Fuyuge. These are _ise_, near, and _ga_, by.

Ex. _aked' is' okid' ando_, the men are near the fire; _ganda_? _ga ma_! by what do you swear? by the thread.

Note. _Ga_, in the sense of "by," is much used, and corresponds to a kind of oath.

II. Postpositions.

1. All the postpositions are used as suffixes to the words which they govern. When the noun to which they are suffixed has a double form, the postposition is added to the short form.

Ex. _uli-tsi_ from _uli(ne)_ pot: _fatsi_ from _fa(le)_, ground.

There are however some exceptions.

2. When the postposition begins with a consonant, the final _e_ of a noun changes to _i_.

Ex. _kodigi-tsi_ from _kodige_, plate; _bulitsi_ from _bule_, garden.

3. The postpositions are often used as nouns.

Ex. _balava u tsi ido asi_, the inside of the loaf is still raw.

III. List of Postpositions.

_-ai(me)_, because of, for: _ovol' aim' andavete_, I weep for the pig.

_-a(le)_, with, by (instrumental): _isong' al' oki ya -andal' a? isong' ale_, take the fire with the tongs--with what? with the tongs; _amul' al' ul'ese_, the woman with her child; _uli sond' al' ale_, a pot with a handle.

_-ala_, to, adherent to, along: _yo' ata yarima_, hang it on the rattan; _enamb' ata malele yatsi_, I will take it along the road.

_-fendateme_, near (within bounds): _Sivu Alo fendatem' ando_, Sivu is near Alo.

_-noi_, with (?): _yini danoi gatsi_, you will go with us two.

_-ongo_, before, at the side of (with an idea of inferiority): _na nu ongo ando_, I am before thee (at thy service); _non' ongo_, one beside the other.

_-enga_, from the side of, towards: _nani Ambov'enga g'anga_, I have been (gone) towards Ambove.

_-kaine_, towards: _dedi yi kaine tsiati_, later on I will come towards you.

_teti_, under: _sosoeteti ando_, he is under the bed.

_tsi_, to (movement, and time, rest), at, at the place of (Fr. chez): _nani etsi andota, u bulitsi g'anga_, I am in the house, he has gone into the garden; _naga Mambutsil' a tela_, I am come here from Mambo; _kouatsi ma_, put it in the box; _tutsi etsiati_, he will come in the night; _nu datsi sona_? who has he been with?

_-tu_, upon (to or at places on mountains): _kulumitu, ma_, put it on the table; _Falitu g'anga_, he is gone to Faliba.

Note. _Ale_ in the sense of "with" is used when the second substantive is considered as an accessory to the first. Ex. _an' al amu_, a married man (man with a wife); _uli sondal' ale_, pot with a handle. There are not yet enough examples to distinguish the two forms.

IV. Prepositional Phrases.

_u mome_, above: _kurum' u mome yarime_, hang it over the table; _u bane_, behind; _mel' an' u ban' ando_, the child is behind the man; _ul' umbo(le)_, in the middle of; _Veke ul' umbol' ando_, he is at Vee.

Conjunctions.

I. Copulative.

_-u(ne)_, and, with; _naga kitoval' u kene' ema_, I killed a black and white parrot.

_Une_ is generally only used to connect two nouns, and is placed between the two. But sometimes it comes after the second, especially when meaning "with," and the first noun is then followed by the personal pronoun. There are a few doubtful examples of _une_ joining two phrases: _ake tale mu, Augustin' un' ando_, many men are with Augustin.

II. Adversative.

_-ta_, yet, but: _nuni safa' ta nani kakava_, you are weak but I am strong.

_Ta_, meaning "but," precedes the phrase which it governs: _nuni natsi, ta nani fema_, you will eat, but I do not.

III. Sequence.

_-ta_, when (when a fact is accomplished, or will certainly happen), lest: _aked' indiota, dinoi gatsi_, when the men arrive, we will go together.

_Ta_ in this sense follows the verb, which is in the past if the action depends on the person who speaks or is spoken to, in other cases in the subjunctive: _kuku neta, etsi gatsi_, when I (or you) have eaten, I will (or you will) go to the village; _mulamula angetota, gadiu_, lest the medicine fall, tie it up.

_-tamai_, when (uncertain event): _oki finolitamai, na natatsi_, when the fire blazes, warn me.

_Tamai_ always requires the subjunctive.

_-mai_, if: _Augusto bubulimai, dimuku e gaditsi_. If Augusto delays, we ourselves will build the house.

_-umba_, so, like: _an' umba ne i_, give me (one) like that.

Interjections.

_mamu(la)_! admiration. _ile_! sadness. _fanimo(le)_, commiseration. _fanikoe_! commiseration. _-e_ (suffix), commiseration. _segoa_! joy at another's misfortune. _biu_! contempt. _alaila_! a command for silence. _faiamela_! expresses the recognition of an error.

Notes on Dependent Clauses.

1. A final proposition with the future is expressed in four ways.

a. By the infinitive preceding the verb which it governs: _na nul' em' arim' an gatsi_, I will go to see thy village, lit, I thy village to-see will-go.

b. By the simple future preceded by the verb: _na songe, Tsekari aritsi_, I go, I shall see Tseka.

c. By the future preceding the verb: _ake Mambutsi itatsi m' ando_, the men remain to sleep at Mambo.

d. By the suffix _-du(le]: Pe' Egidi yol' itadul andemai, puatsitatsi,_ If Père Egidi stays to sleep up there, he will fire a gun; _ake Baidane (gatsi) ame boladu_, the men will go to Baidane to leave the girl; _muto yetadu, Labao gatsi_; I will go to Yule Is to take the sheep, (_muto_, Fr. mouton). The use of the verb "to go" is not certain.

2. A dependent sentence with the past is expressed in two ways.

a. By the simple past: _na so, fang' an_, I went to see the trap.

b. By the suffix _-ua_, with the omission of the verb: _Tsekan' alilua_, I went to see Tseka, which might also be translated: _na sova, Tsekan' ari_.

3. Causative sentences appear to be governed by the same rules as the preceding.

Ex. _ame nu arim' undede_, the girl is afraid to see you; _andal' un' arim' ete_, what has he seen to talk about.

4. Conditional sentences precede the principal and have their verb in the subjunctive with the conjunction _-mai_ or _-tamai_. (See p. 330, III.).

5. A dependent sentence expressing time also precedes the principal sentence. It has its verb in the subjunctive or indicative, followed by the conjunction _-ta_ or sometimes _-tamai_. (See p. 330, III.).