Chapter 12

[Footnote 99: Coomaraswamy, _Boston Catalogue, V, Rajput Painting, 171_.]

[Footnote 100: Ibid., 172.]

[Footnote 101: Ibid., 173.]

[Footnote 102: Plates 26 and 27. _The Art of India and Pakistan_, Plate 102.]

[Footnote 103: Archer, _Garhwal Painting_, 1-4.]

[Footnote 104: Gangoly, op. cit., Plate 35.]

[Footnote 105: Archer, _Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills_, Fig. 23.]

[Footnote 106: Mehta, _Studies in Indian Painting_, Plate 21.]

[Footnote 107: Plates 19, 20 and 35.]

[Footnote 108: Coomaraswamy, _Rajput Painting_, Plates 53 and 54.]

[Footnote 109: Archer, _Garhwal Painting_, Plate 1.]

[Footnote 110: Plates 7, 12 and 25.]

[Footnote 111: Archer, _Kangra Painting_, 2-5.]

[Footnote 112: Ibid., Plate 2.]

[Footnote 113: Ibid., Plate 1.]

[Footnote 114: Ibid., Plate 2.]

[Footnote 115: B.H. Baden Powell, _Handbook of the Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab_ (Lahore, 1872), 355. Purkhu must now, most probably, be connected with the first of the two Kangra masters described in _Kangra Painting_ (p. 4)--Plates 3 and 4 being examples of his work.]

[Footnote 116: Plates 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11 and 16.]

[Footnote 117: Archer, _Kangra Painting_, Plates 1 and 2; also p. 4 where the second of the two Kangra masters is described.]

[Footnote 118: Plate 36; Mehta, op. cit., Plates 25 and 26.]

[Footnote 119: Plate 21.]

[Footnote 120: Mehta, op. cit., Plate 22.]

[Footnote 121: Plates 13-15.]

[Footnote 122: Plate 18.]

[Footnote 123: _The Art of India and Pakistan_, Plate 79]

[Footnote 124: W.G. Archer, 'Maithil Painting,' _Marg_, Vol. III, No. 2.]

[Footnote 125: W.G. Archer, _Bazaar Paintings of Calcutta_ (London, 1953), Plates 8, 9, 14, 19, 30, 31 and 41.]

[Footnote 126: Ajit Mookerjee, _Art of India_, (Calcutta, 1952) Fig. 94.]

[Footnote 127: B. Dey and J. Irwin, 'Jamini Roy,' _Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art_ (1944), Vol. XII, Plate 6.]

[Footnote 128: For reproductions of Keyt's work, see Martin Russell, _George Keyt_ (Bombay, 1950), Plates 1-101.]

NOTES

Note 1, p. 13.

For a further discussion of these two main kinds of Indian expression, see my _Indian Painting_ (Iris, Batsford, London, 1956).

Note 2, p. 14.

In Indian painting, Krishna is normally blue or mauve in colour, though cases occur in which he is black, green or dark brown. Black would seem to follow from Krishna's name--the word 'Krishna' meaning 'black'--and may have been applied either because he sprang from a black hair of Vishnu or because he was born at midnight, 'black as a thundercloud.' It has been suggested that his dark complexion proves a Dravidian or even an aboriginal origin since both the Dravidian races and the aboriginal tribes are dark brown in colour in contrast to the paler Aryans. None of the texts, however, appears to corroborate this theory. So far as 'blue' and 'mauve' are concerned, 'blue' is the colour of Vishnu and characterizes most of his incarnations. As the colour of the sky, it is appropriate to a deity who was originally associated with the sun--the sun with its life-giving rays according well with Vishnu's role as loving protector. 'Blue' is also supposed to be the colour of the ocean on which Vishnu is said to recline at the commencement of each age. In view of the variations in colour in the pictures, it is perhaps significant that 'blue,' 'mauve' and 'green' are commonly regarded in village India as variants of 'black'--many Indians making no distinction between them. In Indian painting, the fact that Krishna is blue makes it easy to identify him, his only serious rival being another and earlier incarnation of Vishnu, the princely Rama. The latter can usually be distinguished from Krishna by the fact that he carries a bow (never a cowherd's stick) and is often accompanied by Hanuman, the monkey leader.

Note 3, p. 17.

For a comparison of Ghora Angirasa's teaching in the _Chandogya Upanishad_ with Krishna's precepts in the _Gita_, see Mazumdar, _The Age of Imperial Unity_ (432-4) and Basham, _The Wonder that was India_ (242-7, 304-5)

Note 4, p. 17.

Although the actual date of the _Mahabharata_ war has been variously assessed--'between 1400 and 1000 B.C.' (M.A. Mehendale in _The Age of Imperial Unity_, 251) 'the beginning of the ninth century B.C. (Basham, op. cit., 39)--the epic itself is generally recognized as being a product of many centuries of compilation. The portions relating to Krishna the hero may well date from the third century B.C. The _Gita_, on the other hand, was possibly composed in the second century B.C. 'but assumed the form in which it appears in the _Mahabharata_ today in the early centuries A.D.' (Mehendale, op. cit., 249).

Note 5, p. 24.

The implication is that the Pandavas have not been granted ultimate salvation i.e. final release from living but have reached the important transitional level of 'the heaven of the doers of good deeds.' They have also been granted the limited status of petty gods.

Note 6, p. 25.

_Harivansa_, 'the Genealogy of Krishna' but more literally, 'the Genealogy of Hari,' a synonym for Vishnu. For the sake of clearness and to avoid burdening the text with too much periphrasis, I have throughout referred to Krishna as such. In the texts themselves, however, he is constantly invoked under other names--Hari (or Vishnu), Govinda (the cowherd), Keshava (the hairy or radiant one), Janarddana (the most worshipful), Damodara ('bound with a rope,' referring to the incident (p. 32) when having been tied by Yasoda to a mortar, Krishna uproots the two trees), Murari ('foe of Mura, the arch demon' p. 58) or in phrases such as 'queller of Kaliya the snake,' 'destroyer of Kesi, the demon horse,' 'slayer of Madhu--the demon who sprang from the ear of Vishnu and was killed by him.' A similar use of periphrasis occurs in Anglo-Saxon kennings ('world-candle' for sun, 'battle-adders' for arrows). In the same way, Abul Fazl's chronicle, the _Akbarnama_, never names the emperor Akbar but refers to him in terms such as 'His Majesty,' 'the holy soul,' 'lord of the age,' 'fountain of generosity,' 'the sacred heart,' 'the world-adorning mind,' 'the decorated mansion of sports.'

Note 7, p. 26, 34, 46, 68, 69.

In Chapters 3 and 4 I have, in the main, strictly followed the _Bhagavata Purana,_ incorporating, however, a few important details and passages either not given in this text but included in the _Vishnu Purana_ or if given, not so vividly expressed. The details and passages in question are page 27 concerning the white and black hairs of Vishnu, page 34--the lyrical description of Krishna's life in the forest, page 46--Akrura's meditation as he goes to visit Krishna, page 68--the drunken brawl and page 69 the deaths of Balarama and Krishna. All extracts are from H.H. Wilson, _The Vishnu Purana_ (pages 498, 511, 541-2, 609-612).

Note 8, p. 28.

The resemblance between Kansa's order to kill all male infants and Herod's slaughter of the innocents has often been remarked.

Note 9, p. 29.

Krishna's constant alterations of role, appearing sometimes as God but more often as boy or man, have been commented on by Isherwood and Prabhavananda in connection with Arjuna's dilemma in the _Mahabharata_. 'Krishna is the divine incarnation of Vishnu, Arjuna's chosen deity. Arjuna knows this--yet, by a merciful ignorance, he sometimes forgets. Indeed, it is Krishna who makes him forget, since no ordinary man could bear the strain of constant companionship with God. After the vision of Krishna's divine aspect, Arjuna is appalled by the realization that he has been treating the Lord of the universe as 'friend and fellow-mortal.' He humbly begs Krishna's pardon, but his awe soon leaves him. Again, he has forgotten. We may infer the same relationship between Jesus and his disciples after the vision of the transfiguration.' _(The Song of God, Bhagavad-Gita,_ 29-30).

Note 10, p. 33.

Although part of the supreme Trinity, Brahma was often treated in literature as an ordinary god who ambled gently about the world, was often rather absent-minded, sometimes behaved as if he were a priest, and was prone, as on the present occasion, to act a trifle misguidedly.

Note 12, p. 40.

The scene is illustrated in two Kangra and Guler paintings (Archer, _Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills_, Figs. 10 and 23).

Note 12, p. 58.

Pragjyotisha--a city situated in the east, in Kamarupa on the borders of Assam. According to the _Vishnu Purana_ (Wilson, 582), its environs were defended by 'nooses, constructed by the demon Mura (Naraka's ally), the edges of which were as sharp as razors.' Mura had seven thousand sons (not seven, as stated in the _Bhagavata_). All, however, were 'burnt like moths with the flame of the edge of Krishna's discus.'

Note 13, p. 67.

Basham (op. cit., 305) points out that elements in the Krishna story such as the destruction of the Yadavas and the death of the god are 'quite un-Indian in their tragic character. The themes of the drunken brawl leading to a general slaughter, of the hero slain by an arrow piercing his one vulnerable spot, and of the great city engulfed by the sea, are well-known in European epic literature, but do not occur elsewhere in that of India and are not hinted at in the Vedas. The concept of the dying god, so widespread in the ancient Near East, is found nowhere else in Indian mythology.'

It is unfortunate that Krishna's reasons for destroying the Yadava race are nowhere made very clear. The affront to the Brahmans is the immediate occasion for the slaughter but hardly its actual cause; and, if it is argued that the Yadavas must first be destroyed in order to render Krishna's withdrawal from the world complete, we must then assume that the Yadavas are in some mysterious way essential parts of Krishna himself. Such a status, however, does not seem to be claimed for them and none of the texts suggest that this is so. The slaughter, therefore, remains an enigma.

Note 14, p. 68.

Wilson (op. cit., 608) summarizing the portents listed in the _Mahabharata_ but not included in the _Vishnu_ or _Bhagavata Puranas_.

Note 15, p. 72.

From the _Brihadaranyaka_, quoted A. Danielou, 'An Approach to Hindu Erotic Sculpture,' _Marg_, Vol. II, No. i, 88. For a Western expression of this point of view, compare Eric Gill, 'Art and Love,' _Rupam_ (Calcutta, 1925), No. 21, 5.

'If the trees and rocks, the thunder and the sea, the frightful avidity of animal life and the loveliness of flowers are so many hints of the God who made them, how much more obviously are the things of humanity analogues of the things of God? And among all such things, the union of man and woman takes the highest place and is the most potent symbol. Therefore it is that outside the commercial civilizations of the western world, love and marriage take their place as types of divine union and everywhere love and marriage are the subject matter, the theme of religious writers, singers, painters and sculptors. It is true that love is the theme of western writers also but with them the idea of love is entirely free from divine signification. (As a corollary), the more the divine background disappears, the more the prudishness of the police becomes the standard of ethics and aesthetics alike. Under such an aegis the arts are necessarily degraded to the level of the merely sentimental or the merely sensual and while the sentimental is everywhere applauded, the sensual is a source of panic.'

Note 16, p. 73.

In later poetry as well as in popular worship, Radha's position is always that of an adored mistress--never that of a beloved wife. And it is outside or rather in the teeth of marriage that her romance with Krishna is prosecuted. Such a position clearly involved a sharp conflict with conventional morals and in the fourteenth century, an attempt was made, in the _Brahma Vaivarta Purana_, to re-write the _Bhagavata Purana_, magnifying Radha as leader of the cow-girls, disguising or rather denying her adultery and finally presenting her as Krishna's eternal consort. For this purpose, three hypotheses were adopted. Radha was throughout assumed to be Krishna's spouse and it is only on account of a curse that she takes human form as a cowgirl and comes to live in Brindaban. Radha herself does not marry Ayana the cowherd--his wedding being only with her shadow. Thirdly, Krishna comes to Brindaban and goes through a secret marriage with her. Their love-making is, therefore, no longer adulterous but strictly conjugal. It is not perhaps surprising that the _Brahma Vaivarta Purana_ failed to capture the Indian imagination and indeed is nowadays hardly ever heard of. It is of interest mainly on account of the prolific information given about Radha, the fact that it sets her firmly in the centre, dethroning the hapless Rukmini, and its baroque descriptions of sexual union.

Note 17, p. 73.

During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a parallel situation seems to have arisen in feudal France and Germany where local love-poetry also treated adultery as a _sine qua non_ of romance.

'Two things prevented the men of that age from connecting their ideal of romantic and passionate love with marriage. The first is, of course, the actual practice of feudal society. Marriages had nothing to do with love and no 'nonsense' about marriage was tolerated. All marriages were matches of interest and, worse still, of an interest that was continually changing. When the alliance which had answered would answer no longer, the husband's object was to get rid of the lady as quickly as possible. Marriages were frequently dissolved. The same woman who was the lady and 'the dearest dread' of her vassals was often little better than a piece of property to her husband. He was master in his own house. So far from being a natural channel for the new kind of love, marriage was rather the drab background against which that love stood out in all the contrast of its new tenderness and delicacy. The situation is indeed a very simple one, and not peculiar to the Middle Ages. Any idealization of sexual love, in a society where marriage is purely utilitarian, must begin by being an idealization of adultery.' (C.S. Lewis, _The Allegory of Love_ (London, 1936), 13.)

Note 18, p. 77.

Much of the _Gita Govinda's_ power arises from the endowment of Nature with romantic ardour, the forest itself being presented as a highly sensitive and symbolic setting for the behaviour of lovers. The following passage from _Tess of the D'Urbervilles_ is perhaps the nearest approach in English to this kind of treatment.

'Amid the oozing fatness and warm ferments of the Var Vale, at a season when the rush of juices could almost be heard below the hiss of fertilization, it was impossible that the most fanciful love should not grow passionate. The ready bosoms existing there were impregnated by their surroundings. July passed over their heads and the weather which came in its wake seemed an effort on the part of Nature to match the state of hearts at Talbothays Dairy. The air of the place, so fresh in the spring and early summer, was stagnant and enervating now. Its heavy scents weighed upon them, and at mid-day the landscape seemed lying in a swoon. Ethiopic scorchings browned the upper slopes of the pastures, but there was still bright herbage here where the water courses purled. And as Clare was oppressed by the outward heats, so was he burdened inwardly by waxing fervour of passion for the soft and silent Tess.'

Note 19, p. 77.

The _Gita Govinda_ was one of the first Sanskrit poems to be rendered into English--Sir William Jones publishing a mellifluous version in _Asiatick Researches_ in 1792. Later in the nineteenth century it was translated into Victorian verse by Sir Edwin Arnold. The present translation from which all the extracts are taken is by George Keyt, the foremost modern artist of Ceylon. It is greatly to be hoped that the entire translation, hitherto available only in an Indian edition, will one day be published in England.

Note 20, p. 86.

Poems 1 and 2 are based on versions by O.C. Gangoly (_Masterpieces of Rajput Painting_, 29, 58); poems 3-11 are from new translations by Deben Bhattacharya.

Note 21, p. 91.

For the originals of certain poems in the _Rasika Priya_ and their literal translation, see Coomaraswamy, 'The Eight Nayikas.'

Note 22, p. 104.

The first scholar to draw attention to this fact, i.e. that the subjects are not Radha and Krishna but palace ladies impersonating them, is Dr. Joan van Lohuizen de Leeuw, whose paper on this and kindred problems is under preparation.

Note 23, p. 105.

For a detailed discussion of Bhanu Datta's _Rasamanjari_ and of similar treatises by other Sanskrit authors, see V. Raghavan, _Srngaramanjari of Saint Akbar Shah_ (Hyderabad, 1951).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AGRAWALA, V.S.: 'The Romance of Himachal Paintings,' _Roopa-Lekha_ XX, 2, (1948-9), 87-93.

ARCHER, W.G.: _Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills_ (London, 1952). _Kangra Painting_ (London, 1952). _Garhwal Painting_ (London, 1954). _Indian Painting_ (London, 1956).

BASHAM, A.L.: _The Wonder that was India_ (London, 1954).

BURNOUF, E. (trans.): _Le Bhagavata Purana_ (Paris, 1840-98).

COOMARASWAMY, A.C.: 'The Eight Nayikas,' _Journal of Indian Art and Industry_, XVI (New Series), No. 128 (1914), 99-116. _Rajput Painting_ (Oxford, 1916). _Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: Part V, Rajput Painting; Part VI, Mughal Painting_ (Cambridge, Mass. 1926, 1930). (trans.) _The Taking of Toll_ (London, 1915).

GANGOLY, O.C.: _Masterpieces of Rajput Painting_ (Calcutta, 1926). _Ragas and Raginis_ (Calcutta, 1934).

GRAY, B.: _Rajput Painting_ (London, 1948). 'Painting,' _The Art of India and Pakistan_, ed. L. Ashton (London, 1950).

GRIERSON, G.A.: _The Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindustan_ (Calcutta, 1889).

HENDLEY, T.H.: _Memorials of the Jeypore Exhibition. IV, the Razm Namah_ (London, 1883).

HOLLINGS, W. (trans.): _The Prem Sagar_ (Lucknow, 1880).

ISHERWOOD, C. and PRABHAVANANDA, S. (trans.): _The Song of God, Bhagavad-Gita_ (London, 1947).

JONES, W. (trans.): 'Gitagovinda or Songs of Jayadeva,' _Asiatick Researches_ (Calcutta, 1792).

KEYT, G. (trans.): _Sri Jayadeva's Gita Govinda_ (Bombay, 1947).

MATHERS, E. POWYS (trans.): _Eastern Love_ (London, 1927-30). (trans.) _Love Songs of Asia_ (London, 1944).

MAZUMDAR, R.C. (ed.): _The History and Culture of the Indian People, I, The Vedic Age_ (London, 1951); II, _The Age of Imperial Unity_ (Bombay, 1951).

MEHTA, N.C.: _Studies in Indian Painting_ (Bombay, 1926). _Gujarati Painting in the Fifteenth Century_ (London, 1931).

RANDHAWA, M.S.: _Kangra Valley Painting_ (New Delhi, 1954). _The Krishna Legend in Pahari Painting_ (New Delhi, 1956).

ROY, P.C. (trans.): _The Mahabharata_ (Calcutta, 1883).

SEN, D.C.: _History of Bengali Language and Literature_ (Calcutta, 1911).

SEN, R.N. (trans.): _The Brahma Vaivarta Purana_ (Allahabad, 1920).

STCHOUKINE, I.: _La Peinture Indienne_ (Paris, 1929).

WINTERNITZ, M.: _A History of Indian Literature_ (Calcutta, I, 1927; II, 1933).

WILSON, H.H. (trans.): _The Vishnu Purana_ (London, 1840).

INDEX

Abul Fazl, 116, pl. 1 (comment) Aditi, mother of the gods, 58, 59 _Age of Imperial Unity, The_, 115, 121 Agni, god of fire, 18 Agrawala, V.S., 121 Ahmadnagar, Deccan, 97 Ajmer, Rajasthan, 103 Akbar, Mughal Emperor, 97-99, 116, pl. 1 (comment) _Akbarnama_, 98, 116 Akrura, chief of the Yadavas, 45-47, 49, 51, 57, 116 _Allegory of Love, The_, 119 Altdorfer, 93 Amaru, Sanskrit poet, 73 Aniruddha, son of Pradyumna and grandson of Krishna, 64 Archer, Mildred, 4, 9 Archer, W.G., 4, 101, 105, 107-112, 115, 117, 121 Arjuna, leading Pandava, husband of Draupadi, husband of Krishna's sister, Subhadra, 20-22, 64, 65, 67, 69, 116, 117 Arnold, Sir Edwin, 119 _Art of India and Pakistan, The_, 96, 98, 101, 104, 107, 111, 121 _Asiatick Researches_, 119 Assam, 117 Aurangzeb, Mughal Emperor, 99 Ayana, husband of Radha, brother of Yasoda, 72, 118

Baden Powell, B.H., 110 Bakasura, crane demon, 33 _Balagopala Stuti_, poem by Bilvamangala, 84, 94 Balarama, brother of Krishna, 27, 30, 31, 34-36, 44-48, 50-56, 61-64, 66, 67, 69, 116, pls. 1, 5, 6, 9, 12, 16, 17 Bali, ruler of the underworld, 62 Bani Thani, poetess of Kishangarh, 103 _Barahmasa_, poems of the twelve months, 102, pl. 32 Basawan, Mughal artist, pls. 1, 2 (comment), 3 (comment) Basham, A.L., 9, 19, 115, 117, 121 Basohli, Punjab Hills, 104, 105, 107, 111, pls. 18 (comment), 26 (comment), 30 (comment) Beatty, Sir Chester, pls. 17, 19 _Bhagavad Gita_, 15-17, 24, 67, 115, 117 _Bhagavata Purana_, 11, 25-71, 72, 74, 85, 85, 99, 101, 105, 107, 110, 111, 116-18, 121, pls. 3-19 _Bhakti_, devotion to God, 19, 24 Bhanu Datta, author of _Rasamanjari_, 9, 105, 120, pls. 30, 31 Bharat Kala Bhawan, Banaras, 103, pl. 37 _Bharatiya Natya Sastra_, Sanskrit treatise, 90 Bhartrihari, Sanskrit poet, 73 Bhattacharya, Deben, 9, 87-90, 119 Bhima, strongest of the five Pandavas, 24, 65, 66 Bihari Lai, poet, 84, 110, pl. 36 Bijapur, Deccan, 97 Bikaner, Rajasthan, 99, 100, 103 Bilaspur, Punjab Hills, 107, 111, pl. 18 Bilvamangala, poet, 84, 94 Blue, colour of Krishna, 14, 115 Book covers, Bengali, 111 Brahma, 17, 27, 28, 33, 34, 58, 59, 65, 67, 117, pl. 2 _Brahma Vaivarta Purana_, 118, 121 Brahmans, 22, 28, 30, 38, 39, 62, 63, 67, 68, 71, 74, 107, 108, 117 Wives of, 38, 39 Braj, country around Mathura, 26, 28, 40 _Brihadaranyaka_, 117 Brindaban, forest near Gokula, 33, 35, 45, 46, 49, 52, 53, 59-62, 103, pl. 6 British Museum, pl. 18 Brough, J., 9 Buddhism, 94 Bull demon, 44 Bundelkhand, 91, 99 Bundi, Rajasthan, 101-103 Burnouf, E., 121

Calcutta, 111, 112 Campbell, Roy, 75 Ceylon, 57, 112 Chamba, Punjab Hills, 107, 111 Chandi Das, Bengali poet, 84, 85, 89, 111 Chandigarh Art Gallery, East Punjab, pl. 27 _Chandogya Upanishad_, 17, 24, 115 Chanura, wrestler, 45, 48 Chawand, Mewar, 100 Christ, 14, 112, 117 Clothes, stealing of cowgirls', 37, 38, 74, 75, pl. 11 Coomaraswamy, A.K., 99, 104-6, 108, 120, 121, pl. 8 (comment) Cowgirls, loves of the, 29, 36-38, 41-44, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53, 58, 60-62, 66, 70-82, 85, 86, 109, 110, 113, pls. 11, 13-15, 20-23. Cowherds, abandonment of, by Krishna, Krishna's life with, 49-53, 61, 62

Damodara, pseudonym for Krishna, 116 Dance, circular, 38, 41, 43, 46, 74, 75, p. 13 (comment) Danielou, A., 117 Daruka, charioteer to Krishna, 68, 69 Demons, combats with, 29, 30, 33-36, 44, 45, 54, 55, 58, 64, 116, 117, pl. 9 role of, 18, 19 Devaka, younger brother of King Ugrasena, 27 Devaki, mother of Krishna, 17, 27, 28, 44, 46, 48-50, 52, 63, 69, pl. 3 Devi, goddess, Earth Mother, 28, 40, 56, pls. 3, 18 Dey, B., 112 _Dharma_, 18, 23 Dhenuka, ass demon, 34 Dhritarashtra, blind son of Kuru, father of Kauravas, 20, 21, 51, 66 Dice, contest by, 21 Dickinson, Eric, 103 Draupadi, daughter of King of Panchal, common wife of the five Pandavas, 20-23, 64, 67 Drumalika, demon, 26 Duryodhana, leading Kaurava and son of Dhritarashtra, 23, 51, 66, 67 Dwarka, Krishna's capital in Western India, 21, 22, 54-59, 61-64, 66-70, 94, 108, pls. 2 (comment), 19

Earth, 27, 49, 58, 67 _Eastern Love_, 121 El Greco, 93

Flute playing, 15, 36, 37, 41, 61, 78, 86, 109, 112, pl. 21 Forest fires, 35, 36, pl. 10 France, feudal, 118