CHAPTER V.

_SNAKES._

The characteristic contour of a snake's body is too familiar to need elaborate description; its leading features are, in fact, so nearly approximated by certain of the legless lizards, previously described, that the distinctions between the two can with difficulty be defined. Many of the snake-like lizards, including the Common Blind-worm, are altogether devoid of external limbs. In some snakes, on the other hand, and notably the large terrestrial Pythons, a spur-like development on each side of the base of the tail represents rudimentary hind legs. The Snakes agree essentially with the Lizards in the character of their scaly covering, the scales, however, being larger on their under-surface and specially adapted, as in the legless lizards, for creeping locomotion. The essential distinctions between the two groups have to be sought in the structure of the head. The most notable of these, as it obtains in the Snakes, is the very loose manner in which all the bones connected with the jaws are held together, thus providing for the greatest possible distension in the act of their swallowing their prey whole, as is the custom of all ordinary snakes. To achieve this end, the two halves of the lower jaw are not united together at their extremity or chin, as in lizards, but are merely connected with one another by an elastic ligament. In most snakes the bones of the upper jaw and palate are also attached to one another in a similar way.

The eyes of a snake differ in a very marked manner from those of ordinary lizards. No snake possesses movable eyelids. The eye, in compensation, is protected by a transparent horny disk, continuous with the general epidermis, and is shed with it when the snake casts its skin. This feature imparts to snakes that fixed, stony expression of the eyes which undoubtedly contributes very materially towards increasing the feeling of repulsion with which snakes are commonly regarded. A few exceptional lizards, such as the Geckos, have a similar eye-construction, but it is not met with in any of the limbless or snake-like forms. No snakes, again, show any trace of external ear-openings, such structures, on the other hand, being distinctly developed in almost all lizards. The head itself of the snake is never compressed or elevated, as in most lizards, but flattened down and usually wider than the body, to which, however, it is united without a distinct neck. The tongue of the snake is slender, and terminates in two long, thread-like points; basally it is inserted into a hollow sheath, into or out of which the entire organ can be retracted or exserted at will. The somewhat uncanny, flickering action with which a snake, while moving, displays and as it were feels its way with its long, forked tongue represents another element which adds to the disfavour with which these reptiles are commonly regarded. Among the uneducated even at the present day it is not unusual to hear the tongue, with reference to its peculiar shape and vibrating action, pronounced to be the seat and instrument of the animal's poisonous properties. The swift, silent, stealthy, gliding motions with which, apart from any visible organs of locomotion, a snake slides, as it were, along the ground and over all obstacles fill to the brink the measure for its condemnation in the estimation of all but the snake-devotee or the naturalist.

The locomotion of the snake is, as a matter of fact, one of the most remarkable and beautifully contrived phenomena in animal mechanics. The peculiarly jointed and abnormally mobile ribs constitute the mystic _deus ex machinâ_ by which the reptile accomplishes its migration. These ribs articulate in pairs by a single mobile head with their respective segment of the vertebral column. At their opposite extremity they impinge on and are in muscular connection with the broad, slightly overlapping, shield-like scales which clothe the under surface of the body. The rib-muscles, contracting in rhythmical succession, raise the free overlapping edges of the shield-like scales, which, striking against the ground in the same regular order, push the body forward. Adopting an easily comprehensible simile, the snake's body is carried along the ground on the same principle as a paddle-wheel steamer is pushed along the surface of the water, the paddle-boards in the case of the snake being affixed to a long, narrow plane instead of a circular wheel.

The poison-fangs of snakes are highly specialised structures, and their presence or otherwise was formerly considered sufficiently distinctive for the separation of these reptiles into two sharply defined natural series. More recent investigations have, however, shown that such a system of classification is entirely artificial, both venomous and harmless species occurring among groups which are related to one another by essential structural characters. The teeth in the ordinary or harmless snakes are usually represented by two rows of slender, recurved, sharply pointed teeth in the upper jaw, and a single row of a similar character in the lower one. This recurved character of the dentition effectively assists the snake in gorging its quarry whole, nothing once seized by the hook-like teeth having a chance of retreating, the snake itself being unable to eject the prey upon which the teeth have fastened. In the most poisonous series, such as a rattle-snake, there is but a single row of recurved teeth in the upper jaw, and these are the equivalents of the inner set of the harmless species. Among the most venomous snakes the poison-fangs are tubular in character, the poison being received from the venom-glands at their open base, and discharged at the apex. In other forms the fangs have grooved channels only for the passage of the virus, while in other species there may be an intermediate condition. In all cases the poison-secreting glands are modifications of the ordinary salivary glands of other vertebrate animals. They are situated, one on each side, immediately below and behind the eyes, and are in some instances so abnormally developed as to extend backwards along the sides of the body. Special muscles envelop these glands, and force the poison into the hollow base of the fangs when the mouth is opened to strike.

Snakes, like lizards, are most abundant in tropical countries, the Indian and Malay regions in particular being richest in numbers and varieties. The British Islands support but three representatives of the class--the ADDER, the COMMON RINGED and the SMOOTH SNAKES--this number, by a coincidence, being identical with that of the Lizard Tribe indigenous to the same islands. Many of the smaller species are little over 1 foot long, while the huge Pythons and the Anaconda may attain to or exceed 30 feet. Regarding their habits, some are purely terrestrial, frequenting the rocks or sandy deserts, or even burrowing beneath the earth's surface. Others are essentially arboreal, many amphibious, and some, like the Turtles among the Chelonians, entirely marine. As with the Lizards, the majority of snakes lay eggs enclosed within a white leathery shell, while with a considerable number the young are brought forth alive. The eggs, deposited in the earth, sand, or among vegetable debris, are usually left to be hatched by the heat of the sun. In the case of the Pythons, however, they are incubated by the parent.

A small group of snakes which is usually placed at the head of the series in systematic classifications share the subterranean habits of the Amphisbænas among the Lizards; and the eyes being rudimentary and functionless, they are commonly known as BLIND-SNAKES. A structural peculiarity which separates these singular reptiles from all other members of the Snake Tribe is the entire absence of teeth from either the upper or lower jaw. The food of the blind-snakes consists largely of ants and the larvæ of beetles and other insects which lead a subterranean life. Although spending the greater portion of their existence underground, they occasionally come out upon the surface, such migrations more generally taking place during showery weather. About 100 species of blind-snakes are known, and are mostly confined to tropical countries. One small worm-like form occurs in Greece and the adjacent islands, its range extending through a considerable area of South-western Asia.

The step from the small worm-like Blind-snakes, with their functionless eyes and underground habits, to the Boas and Pythons, the largest and most highly organised members of the Serpent Tribe, would seem at first sight to be altogether unwarranted. In one essential character, however, they agree very remarkably. In both groups the bony skeleton exhibits a far more generalised structural plan than in any of the succeeding ones, so that they may be regarded as more nearly resembling the primitive stock from which the other more specialised kinds--such as the Vipers, with their death-dealing poison-fangs--have been evolved.

The PYTHONS and BOAS, or BOA-CONSTRICTORS, as they are popularly known, belong entirely to the non-venomous section of the Snake series. The teeth, forming two rows in the upper jaws, gradually decrease in size from before backwards, and none of them are grooved or modified in the form of poison-fangs. The body is usually more or less compressed, and the tail prehensile. The TYPICAL PYTHONS, or ROCK-SNAKES, as they are called, with reference to their rock-frequenting habits, are distributed throughout South-eastern Asia, Australia, and Central and South Africa.

The INDIAN PYTHON, which is the largest Old World representative of its race, is known authentically to attain to a length of 30 feet, and in the largest specimens the spinal column may include over 400 vertebræ. In common with other members of its family, this huge snake kills its quarry by compression or strangulation, throwing around it successive coils of its body, which, with their contraction, crush out the life of the victim. The dispatched prey is then swallowed whole, commencing with the head. The previous crushing of the bony framework greatly assists the swallowing process, which is further aided by the snake pouring over the body of its victim a copious discharge of saliva.

The extent to which the jaws and the integument of the body generally can be distended for the passage and reception of the food is remarkable. After partaking of a solid meal in this fashion, pythons remain sluggish and in a state of semi-torpor for several days, not reawakening to active life, in fact, until the digestion of the food has been accomplished. As is well known, these and other snakes can exist for periods of many months' duration between their meals. One of the largest Indian pythons by no means contents itself with such small quarry as hares and rabbits--sheep, young calves, and some of the smaller deer representing its more accustomed food. The human species unarmed is as weak or weaker than the proverbial kitten, pitted against the hydraulic-press-like embrace of these monster serpents; and many an Indian native, and more rarely the white man, has fallen a victim to their attacks.

The RETICULATED PYTHON, so called on account of the bold reticulated pattern of the skin-ornamentation, may equal, if not exceed, the Indian species in dimensions. It is a native of Burma, Siam, and the Malay region generally, and is recorded as occasionally exceeding 30 feet in length. Examples of this species, including one over 20 feet long, have constituted leading attractions at the Reptile-house in the Zoological Society's Gardens for many years past. The gorgeous prismatic tints that play upon the surface-markings of the coils of these huge snakes, as the sun strikes upon them about midday in their cages, form one of the most wonderful sights that the Gardens afford.

The African Continent also produces its large species of pythons. One of these, attaining to a length of 20 feet or more, reaches its maximum on the west coast, and occurs with local modifications as far east and south as Natal. In the latter country it is most familiarly known as the NATAL ROCK-SNAKE.

Some rather singular incidents have been recorded illustrating the tenacity with which pythons retain hold of the quarry once seized, or, more correctly, their inability to release it. At the Adelaide Zoological Gardens a specimen, when absorbing a rabbit, managed to entangle its teeth in a corner of its blanket. That blanket had to follow the rodent through the 12-foot-long python. On another occasion two pythons, a Queenslander and Afrikander, happened at the same instant to commandeer respectively the head and hindquarters of an identical rabbit. Inch by inch the portion between the two grew smaller until the two noses met. There was no retreating from this _impasse_, and the momentous question, "Shall I slay my brother boa?" had to be settled affirmatively by one or other of the interested parties without further parley. The somewhat smaller and weaker individual was gradually telescoped, and in due time assimilated. The absorber was decidedly poorly and "off colour" for a considerable period after accomplishing this cannibalistic feat; it ultimately recovered both its appetite and its prismatic tints.

The TRUE BOAS, as distinguished from the Pythons, are more essentially arboreal in their habits, and, with the exception of one or two species found in Madagascar, belong to the tropical American zoological region. The COMMON BOA, or BOA-CONSTRICTOR, which attains to a length of 12 or 14 feet or more, is limited in its distribution to South America. The colours of this snake, which consist mainly of a light brown, with a number of dark brown cross-bars on the back, and light centred, dark brown spots on the sides, so nearly agree with the tint of the tree-branches with their interlacing shadows, among which it usually lies concealed, that, notwithstanding its large size, it readily evades detection, and is unconsciously approached by the animals on which it preys. These, in adult individuals, may be represented by such large-sized quarry as dogs, and even deer; while smaller examples prey largely on birds and their eggs, and the numerous rodents with which the tropical American forests teem. From observations made upon this species in captivity, it would appear that the eggs are usually hatched within the parent's body, though an instance has been recorded in which both eggs and young were produced simultaneously.

A close ally of the typical boas, which shares with them a tropical South American habitat, is the huge ANACONDA, or WATER-BOA, of Brazil and the adjacent countries. This animal, which is undoubtedly the largest living representative of the Serpent Tribe, attains a length little, if any, short of 40 feet. One such monster was specially referred to by Dr. Gardiner, the botanist, in his "Travels in Brazil"; it had devoured a horse, and was found dead, entangled in the branches of a tree overhanging a river, into which it had been carried by a flood. Full-grown cattle, and occasionally human beings, as well as horses, are alleged to fall victims to the destructive prowess of this gigantic snake. The anaconda is essentially amphibious in its habits, the greater part of its life being spent in the water, lying in wait, in the quiet lagoons and backwaters, with only its head above the surface, and prepared to seize any unfortunate animal which may come to the brink to drink. At other times it will coil itself upon the trunks and larger branches of the adjacent trees, and from that point of vantage will dart down its head, with sure aim and lightning rapidity, to seize any suitable quarry which may pass beneath. In some parts of South America where the rivers dry up at certain seasons of the year, the anaconda is recorded to be in the habit of burying itself in the mud and lying torpid, after the manner of crocodiles, until the return of the rains. The ground-colour of the anaconda is usually greyish brown or olive above, the back being ornamented with one or two transversely disposed rows of large, rounded, dark brown or blackish spots, while the sides are decorated with more irregularly scattered, smaller, eye-like spots, having whitish centres and dark margins.

An interesting little group, connecting the Boas and Pythons with the Common Snakes, is that of the so-called SHIELD-TAILS, or EARTH-SNAKES, of India and Ceylon. These reptiles are earth-burrowers, like the Blind-snakes, previously referred to, but have well-developed eyes, and are further distinguished by the abruptly truncated contour of their posterior extremity, which may be either a naked disk or covered with keeled scales. Their bodies are cylindrical, with the scaly covering very smooth and polished, the scales of the under-surface being but little larger than the upper ones; the jaws, in conformity with the peculiar modification of their skull, are not capable of wide distension. Seven genera and a large number of species are recognised, some being brilliantly coloured with tints of red or yellow. Their main diet is earth-worms.

The family of the COMMON SNAKES includes the greater number of species, the majority of the most venomous as well as harmless varieties being comprised within its limits. The characters that are made the basis for separating these snakes from the Boas are associated with the structure of the skull, and are not therefore readily recognised without having recourse to dissection. It will suffice to mention that, in this and the remaining groups, there is an entire absence from the lower jaw of the slender supplementary bone known as the "coronoid," which is present in the Boas and Pythons. From succeeding groups, such as the Viperine series, they are distinguished by the circumstance that the upper jaw is firmly fixed in a horizontal position, and is not capable of erection in a vertical plane, or like the lid of a box, as obtains with the Vipers.

These snakes are separated into secondary groups with relation to the structure of their teeth. In one series these teeth are solid throughout, neither grooved nor tubular; and all the snakes thus characterised are harmless. In the second series one or more pairs of the hinder upper teeth are longitudinally grooved, and act as poison-fangs; they are consequently distinguished as the "back-fanged" group. In the third series the front teeth of the upper jaw-bone are grooved, and constitute the poison-fangs, and they are known as the "front-fanged" group.

To the first-mentioned solid-toothed and harmless division of the family belongs the BRITISH RINGED SNAKE and some forty other allied species which are collectively known as WATER-SNAKES, with reference to their more or less pronounced aquatic habits. The ringed snake has a stoutish cylindrical body, keeled scales, flat head covered with regular shields, wide mouth-cleft, and numerous teeth, the strongest of which are at the hinder end of the jaw-bone. The colour varies somewhat, being usually grey, brown, or olive above, with darker spots or narrow transverse bands; the under-surface is mottled black and white or grey. The lip-shields are white or yellowish, with black dividing-lines. The neck in the ordinary variety is usually ornamented with a yellow, white, or orange collar-like patch, behind which is a somewhat broader black collar, which is produced forwards and sub-divides the yellow one in the centre of the upper-surface. In the variety of the ringed snake indigenous to the South of Europe the collar-like markings may be altogether absent, or reduced to a small black patch on each side of the nape of the neck. The maximum length of the ringed snake is some 6½ feet. It is a most expert swimmer, moving swiftly through the water with lateral undulations of its body, and carrying its head and neck well above the surface. Frogs constitute its favourite diet, but it will also capture and devour fish, mice, and young birds.

The VIPERINE and TESSELATED SNAKES, both European forms, as also the GARTER- and MOCASSIN-SNAKES of North America, are all closely allied in structure and habits to the familiar ringed species. The second British species, known as the SMOOTH SNAKE, belongs to the same group, but is more terrestrial in its habits; while comparatively rare in England, and limited to the southern counties, it is plentiful on the Continent. The INDIAN RAT-SNAKE, which is almost as useful as the domestic cat in ridding dwellings of rats and mice, is another representative of the solid-toothed group. This group also includes the so-called PYGMY SNAKES, inhabiting the Malay region, whose habits are mainly arboreal. They are the most diminutive members of their order, some of the thirty known species not exceeding 1 foot in length.

The typical TREE-SNAKES of the Indian and Australian region, with large eyes, somewhat compressed bodies, and colours of green or olive, in harmonious accord with their arboreal surroundings, also belong to the solid-toothed and harmless section. An especially interesting representative of this group is the so-called EGG-EATING SNAKE of South Africa. It does not exceed 2 feet in length, and is for the most part arboreal in its habits, and, as its name implies, would appear to feed exclusively on eggs. As a structural adaptation for this peculiar habit, the spinous processes of a number of the vertebræ project into the throat and are tipped with enamel, thus constituting supplementary throat-teeth. Normally this snake subsists on the eggs of the smaller birds, but when short of this supply has been known to leave the trees and rob hen-roosts, being able, notwithstanding its comparatively small size, to dilate its mouth and throat for the reception of a hen's egg. The egg is split longitudinally by the action of the throat-teeth, the contents swallowed, and the shell ejected.

The second or "back-fanged" group includes many exceedingly poisonous species. Among these may be mentioned the INDIAN WHIP-SNAKES and their allies, comprising many tree-frequenting species, closely resembling in habits and colours the harmless solid-toothed tree-snakes of the preceding section.

It is among the third or "front-fanged" group, however, that the most venomous species occur. To this section belongs the death-dealing COBRA, the yet more formidable HAMADRYAD, the INDIAN CRAITS, the EGYPTIAN ASP, and the AUSTRALIAN BLACK SNAKES and DEATH-ADDERS. The COBRA-DE-CAPELLO, HOODED, or SPECTACLED SNAKE, as it is variously known, is perhaps the most notoriously familiar example of its section, being responsible for the greater moiety of the many thousands of fatalities that annually occur among the natives of India from the bites of venomous serpents. The craits, which resemble the cobras, but do not possess an erectile hood, are accredited a second position in death-dealing. The peculiar feature of the erectile hood that characterises the cobras is due to the circumstance that a certain number of the ribs in this region are independently movable, and can be elevated and depressed at will, the skin-fold that overlies them being loose and elastic. The back of the hood in the ordinary Indian cobra is usually ornamented with two eye-like spots, connected with a loop-like band, which communicate to the complete pattern the fancied resemblance to a pair of spectacles, whence it has derived its appellation of Spectacled Snake. Individuals vary, however, very considerably in this matter of colour-markings; in some instances a single eye-like spot is alone developed, while in others it may be entirely absent. The COMMON COBRA grows to a length of 6 or 7 feet, dimensions greatly exceeded by the GIANT COBRA, or HAMADRYAD, a fortunately rarer form more exclusively confined to jungle and forest districts. This species may attain to a length of 13 feet or more, and on account of its deadly bite and fiercely aggressive disposition is much feared by the natives of the countries it inhabits, which include not only India, but Burma, Siam, and the Malay region. This giant cobra preys almost exclusively on smaller snakes, frequently including the common cobra.

A third species of cobra, known as the HAJÉ, or SPITTING-SNAKE, inhabits Africa, from Egypt as far south as Natal. It is perhaps the fiercest member of the group, turning readily upon its pursuers, or even commencing the attack. It also possesses the somewhat remarkable and disconcerting habit of ejecting poison from its mouth to a distance of several feet, usually aiming with considerable accuracy at the eyes of its assailant. Although unattended by permanently serious effects, the pain caused by the virus striking the eyes is for the time being excruciatingly painful, placing the recipient of the unwelcome discharge entirely _hors de combat_. The first record of the poison-spitting propensities of this snake, made by Mr. Gordon Cumming, was received with considerable incredulity, but the statement has been confirmed. A relative of the writer's, stationed in Natal, was recently the victim of such an incident, receiving the poison-discharge in his eyes from one of these snakes, which, in his eagerness to dispatch it, he had imprudently cornered, armed only with a sword. It was some days before the pain entirely abated and the sight regained its normal clearness.

Australia, with its BLACK and TIGER-SNAKES and the DEATH-ADDER, possesses snakes as venomous as the cobra, which the first-named species approach in their capacity to inflate their necks, though to a less degree. The TASMANIAN BLACK SNAKE, as it glides swiftly, as though sailing, across open grass-land, with the midday sun scintillating on its 7-foot stretch of jet-black, highly polished scales, its head and expanded neck threateningly elevated some 18 inches above the ground, is certainly a most impressive sight.

One very distinct group of the front-fanged section which demands brief notice is that of the SEA-SNAKES. These are readily distinguished by their especial adaptation to a marine existence, their much-compressed, oar-like tails constituting powerful propelling organs. In contradistinction to the terrestrial snakes of the same group, the inferior scales, not being required for terrestrial locomotion, are little if any larger than the upper ones. All the species are highly venomous; they feed chiefly upon fish, and are distributed throughout the tropical seas. The larger species rarely exceed 5 or 6 feet in length, and the majority are much smaller. Many species are noted for their conspicuous colouring, which most frequently takes the form of distinctly contrasting bands. All the members of this group are viviparous.

The last and most highly specialised section of the Snake Tribe is that of the VIPER and its allies, collectively known as the Viperine Family. In all the representatives of this group the hinder upper jaw-bone is so loosely articulated that it is capable of erection at a right angle to the horizontal plane of the skull, the gape of the mouth being in consequence abnormally wide. The teeth in the upper jaw are reduced to a single anteriorly situated pair of tubular poison-fangs, with which, when striking its prey, the snake deals a direct stab. The head in the majority of the Viperine Snakes is flattened and triangular, nearly resembling in contour the symbolic ace of spades. The body is usually relatively thick, and the tail short and stumpy. The vertical pupil of the eye denotes nocturnal habits. All the members of the section are venomous.

The Viperine Snakes are usually divided into two groups. The first contains the Typical or Old World Vipers, and includes, in addition to the COMMON VIPER, the CERASTES or HORNED VIPER of Egypt, and the large and most repulsive and deadly African PUFF-ADDER. The COMMON VIPER or ADDER, the only poisonous British snake, has a very extensive geographical distribution, extending throughout Europe and Asia as far east as the island of Saghalien, and northwards to the Arctic Circle. The HORNED VIPER of the Sahara and North Africa is one of the most venomous of living serpents. Lying buried beneath the sand, with only its head above, it will spring aggressively at any animal which passes by, and the action of its venom is so rapid that a horse or man bitten by it usually dies within half an hour. In colour the horned viper closely resembles the sand or stony wastes among which it lies. The most remarkable feature in this snake is the presence of two elevated horn-like processes immediately above the eyes, which are most prominent in the male. The species has frequently been on view at the Zoological Society's Gardens. On one occasion an ostensible example was purchased and deposited in the Reptile-house, which proved on nearer investigation to be a base imposition. A common desert-viper had been cleverly manipulated by the deft insertion of suitably shaped splinters of wood into its head, so that it resembled the rarer horned variety. The PUFF-ADDER, the largest member of its tribe, may attain to a length of 6 feet or more, and is distributed throughout the African Continent. Its thick body is almost triangular in section, the head very large, flat, and bluntly rounded anteriorly, while the eyes have a particularly fierce, stony, and repulsive aspect. In colour individuals vary considerably, but there is generally a chequered pattern of reds, browns, and greys, disposed in the form of darker and lighter alternating crescent-shaped bands along the back. The poison of this snake is nearly as virulent as that of the horned viper, and is commonly used by the African bushmen for poisoning their arrows.

The Viperine group is abundantly represented in the New World, where its members differ from the typical Old World species in sundry anatomical points, one of the most conspicuous features being the presence of a distinct depression or pit in the surface of the head between the nostril and the eye on either side. On this account they are distinguished by the title of PIT-VIPERS. Among the more familiar representatives of this group are the RATTLE-SNAKES, the FER-DE-LANCE, the BUSH-MASTER, and the COPPER-HEAD or MOCASSIN-SNAKES. All these are notoriously venomous, fatal effects from bites received by human subjects being of frequent recurrence. The RATTLE-SNAKES are especially distinguished by the peculiar, loosely jointed, horny appendage to their tails, by the rapid vibration of which, when disturbed, they fortunately give timely notice of their presence. In the young individuals this rattle is only represented by a single button-like knob, additional loose, hollow, horny rings being added between it and the scaly termination of the tail as age increases. In full-grown examples the horny rings composing the rattle may number as many as twenty or more, though, owing to the war of extermination incessantly levied against these reptiles in all civilised areas, it is rarely that such elaborate rattle-bearers are now met with. The rattle-snake, in the more northern districts of its distribution, hibernates in the winter, often congregating together in great numbers for the sake of the mutual warmth. In the earlier days certain caves were famous as the retreats into which not only hundreds but thousands of the reptiles would congregate from the country round for their winter's slumber. At such times hunting-parties were specially organised for their wholesale destruction, and accomplished much towards reducing their ranks to their present numbers.

In addition to the common North American rattle-snake there are some four or five other species distributed throughout the Southern States, Mexico, and Panama. None appear to exceed a length of 6 feet. In South America their place is to a large extent taken by the so-called BUSH-MASTER, a snake which attains to a length of as much as from 9 to 12 feet, and, in addition to being exceedingly venomous, is of an especially fierce and aggressive disposition. It is devoid of a rattle-like appendage, the tail terminating in a sharp horny spine. The FER-DE-LANCE, or RAT-TAILED PIT-VIPER, is another Central and South American species, held in wholesome dread on account of its death-dealing potentialities. The South American sugar-plantations are an especially favourite resort of this deadly snake, its attraction being the rats which frequent the canes and afford its chief food. Lying concealed among the thick foliage, it will launch itself aggressively at any passer-by, and its bite is usually attended with fatal results within a few hours. The fer-de-lance grows to a length of 6 or 7 or occasionally even 8 feet, with a thickness of a man's arm. Its colours, as with most members of its tribe, are somewhat variable. The ground-colour of the back is usually olive or reddish brown, with dark cross-bands; a black stripe runs backwards from the eye to the neck, and in some instances the sides of the body are bright red.

The American Continent is not wanting in aquatic representatives of the Viperine series. The most notable of these is the fish-eating WATER-VIPER, whose distribution extends from North Carolina in the south over the whole of North America as far westward as the Rocky Mountains. Fish and frogs constitute the main diet of this reptile.

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AMPHIBIANS.

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