Part 40

[115] Among the heathen emperors of Rome, Titus, the two Antonines, and Alexander deserved the best of their subjects, and the three last gained a great reputation for moral virtue. The Antonines were eminent for their learning, and devoted themselves to the Stoic philosophy. Arrius Antoninus, who had distinguished himself by his moderation and love of justice in several magistracies, was adopted by the emperor Adrian in 138, and upon his death in the same year ascended the imperial throne. He was truly the father of his people during a reign of twenty-two years, and died in 161, being seventy-seven years old. He obtained the surname of Pius, according to some, by his gratitude to Adrian; but, according to others, by his clemency and goodness. He had often in his mouth the celebrated saying of Scipio Africanus, that he would rather save the life of one citizen than destroy one thousand enemies. He engaged in no wars, except that by his lieutenants he restrained the Daci, Alani, and Mauri, and by the conduct of Lollius Urbicus quieted the Britons, confining the Caledonians to their mountains and forests by a new wall. Yet the pagan virtues of this prince were mixed with an alloy of superstition, vice, and weakness. When the senate refused to enrol Adrian among the gods, out of a just detestation of his cruelty and other vices, Antoninus, by tears and entreaties, extorted from it a decree by which divine honors were granted that infamous prince, and he appointed priests and a temple for his worship. He likewise caused his wife Faustina to be honored after her death as a goddess, and was reproached for the most dissolute life of his daughter Faustina the younger, whom he gave in marriage to his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Xiphilin writes that the Christians shared in the mildness of his government. Yet though he did not raise by fresh edicts any new persecution, it is a notorious mistake of Dodwell and some others, who pretend that no Christians suffered death for the faith during his reign, at least by his order. Tertullian informs us (l. ad Scapul. c. 4), that Arrius Antoninus, when he was only proconsul of Asia, put in execution the old unjust rescript of Trajan; and having punished some Christians with death, dismissed the rest, crying out to them, “O wretches, if you want to die, have you not halters and precipices to end your lives by?” St. Justin, in his first apology, which he addressed to Antoninus Pius, who was then emperor, testifies that Christians were tortured with the most barbarous cruelty without having been convicted of any crime. Also St. Irenæus (l. 3, c. 3), Eusebius (l. 4, c. 10), and the author of an ancient poem which is published among the works of Tertullian, are incontestible vouchers that this emperor, whom Capitolinus calls a most zealous worshipper of the gods, often shed the blood of saints. By the acts of St. Felicitas and her sons, it appears what artifices the pagan priests made use of to stir up the emperors and magistrates against the Christians. At length, however, Antoninus Pius, in the fifteenth year of his reign, of Christ 152, according to Tillemont, wrote to the states of Asia, commanding that all persons who should be impeached merely for believing in Christ, should be discharged, and their accusers punished according to the laws against informers, adding, “You do but harden them in their opinion, for you cannot oblige them more than by making them die for their religion. Thus they triumph over you by choosing rather to die than to comply with your will.” See Eusebius, l. 4, c. 26, where he also mentions a like former rescript of Adrian to Minutius Fundanus. Nevertheless, it is proved by Aringhi (Roma Subterran. l. 3, c. 22), that some were crowned with martyrdom in this reign after the aforesaid rescript, the pusillanimous prince not having courage always to protect these innocent subjects from the fury of the populace or the malice of some governors.

[116] St. Minias was a Roman soldier who suffered martyrdom at Florence under Decius. See Mart. Rom., 13 Oct.

[117] In Luc. l. 7, c. 13.

[118] Though Pliny and Procopius pretend that the Vandals were of the same extraction with the Goths, the contrary is demonstrated by the learned F. Daniel Farlati (Illyrici Sacri, t. 2, p. 1308, Venetiis 1753), and by Jos. Assemani (in Calend. de Orig. Slavor. par. 2, c. 5, t. 1, p. 297). And their language, manners, and religion, were entirely different. The same arguments show that they differed also from the Slavi, Huns, and original Winidi or Venedi, this last being a Sarmatian, and the two others Scythian nations. The Vandals are placed by Jornandes and Dio (l. 55) on the German coast of the Baltic sea, in the present Prussia and Pomerania; they thence extended themselves to the sources of the Elbe, in the mountains of Silesia. They were afterward removed near the Danube, in the neighborhood of the Marcomanni, in the reigns of Antoninus, Aurelian, and Probus. In the fifth century they made an excursion into Gaul; and being there repulsed, crossed the Pyrenæan mountains with the Alani, who were the original Massagetæ from mount Caucasus, and beyond the Tanais, as Ammianus Marcellinus testifies. About the year 400, in the reign of Honorius, the Alani settled themselves in Lusitania, and the Vandals under king Gunderic, in Gallicia (which then comprised both the present Gallicia and Old Castile), and in Bætica, which from them was called Vandalitia, and corruptly Andalusia. (See St. Isidore and Idatius, in their chronicles, Salvian, l. 7, p. 137, St. August. ep. 3, ad Victor.) The Vandals were baptized in the Catholic faith about the time when they crossed the Rhine; but were afterward drawn into Arianism, probably by some alliance with the Arian Goths, and out of hatred to the Romans. Idatius says, that common fame attributed the Arian perversion of the Vandals to king Genseric, who succeeded his brother Gunderic in 428, and was a man experienced in all the arts of policy and war. Count Boniface, lieutenant of Africa, seeing his life threatened by Aëtius (who, with the title of Magister Militiæ, governed the empire for the empress Placidia, regent for her son Valentinian), invited the Vandals out of Spain to his assistance. Genseric, with a powerful army, passed the strait which divides Africa from Spain, in May, 429, and though Boniface was then returned to his duty, the barbarian everywhere defeated the Romans, besieged Hippo during fourteen months; and though he was obliged by a famine to retire, he returned soon after and took that strong fortress. The emperor Valentinian, in 435, by treaty yielded up to him all his conquests in Africa. Genseric soon broke the truce, and in 439 took Carthage, and drove the Romans out of all Africa. In 455, being invited by the Empress Eudoxia to revenge the murder of Valentinian on Maximus, he plundered Rome during fifteen days. Though that city had been ravaged by Alaric the Goth in 400, whilst Honorius was emperor, the Vandal found and carried off an immense booty; and among other things, the gold and brass with which the capitol was inlaid, and the vessels of the Jewish temple at Jerusalem, which Titus had brought to Rome. These Justinian, when he had recovered Africa, caused to be brought to Constantinople, whence he caused them to be removed and placed in certain churches at Jerusalem, as Procopius relates. Rome was again twice plundered by Totila, in 546 and 549. The Vandals, by their transmigrations into Spain and Africa, soon after ceased to be a nation in Germany, as Jornandes and Procopius testify. Euricus, king of the Visigoths, in Languedoc, in 468, invading Spain, conquered most of the territories which the Romans still possessed there, and all the provinces which the Vandals had seized. So that by the extinction of the empire of the Vandals in Africa under Justinian, the name of that potent and furious nation was lost: though Frederic, the first king of Prussia, in 1701, was for some time very desirous rather to take the title of king of the Vandals. The cavalry of the ancient Vandals fought chiefly with the sword and lance, and were unpractised in the distant combat. Their bowmen were undisciplined, and fought on foot like the Gothic. See Procopius.

[119] Tinuzudæ tempore quo sacramenta Dei populo porrigebantur, introeuntes cum furore (Ariani) Corpus Christi et Sanguinem pavimento sparserunt, et illud pollutis pedibus calcaverunt. St. Vict. Vitensis, l. 1, p. 17.

[120] Qui nobis pœnitentiæ munus collaturi sunt, et reconciliationis indulgentiâ obstrictos peccatorum vinculis soluturi? A quibus divinis sacrificiis ritus est exhibendus consuetus? Vobiscum et nos libeat pergere, si liceret. S. Victor Vit. l. 2, p. 33.

[121] Scribam ego fratribus meis ut veniant coëpiscopi mei, qui vobis nobiscum fidem communem nostram valeant demonstrare, et præcipue ecclesia Romana, quæ caput est omnium ecclesiarum. Victor Vit. l. 2, p. 38.

[122] In it the Catholics appealed to the tradition of the universal Church. “Hæc est fides nostra; evangelicis et apostolicis traditionibus atque auctoritate firmata, et omnium quæ in mundo sunt Catholicarum ecclesiarum societate fundata, in qua nos per gratiam Dei omnipotentis permanere usque ad finem vitæ hujus confidimus.” Victor Vit. l. 3, p. 62.

[123] L. 5, p. 76.

[124] Æneas, Gaz. Dial. de Animarum Immortaliiate et Corporis Resurrectione, p. 415.

[125] Procop. de Bello Vandal. l. 1, c. 8.

[126] Hist. Franc. l. 2, p. 46.

[127] Ruin. Hist. Persec. Vandal. part. 2, c. 8, Notit. Afric.

[128] Hæc sunt linteamina quæ te accusabunt cum majestas venerit judicantis. Vict. Vit. l. 5, c. 78.

[129] He closes this work by the following supplication to the angels and saints: “Succor us, O angels of my God; look down on Africa, once flourishing in its numerous churches, but now left desolate and cast away. Intercede, O patriarchs; pray, O holy prophets; succor us, O apostles, who are our advocates. You, especially, O blessed Peter, why are you silent in the necessities of your flock? You, O blessed apostle Paul, behold what the Arian Vandals do, and how your sons groan in captivity. O all you holy apostles, petition for us. Pray for us though wicked; Christ prayed even for his persecutors,” &c. Adeste angeli Dei mei, et videte Africam totam dudum tantarum ecclesiarum cuneis fultam, nunc ab omnibus desolatam, sedentem viduam et abjectam--Deprecamini patriarchæ; orate sancti prophetæ; estote apostoli suffragatores ejus. Præcipue tu Petre, quare siles pro ovibus tuis?--Tu S. Paule, gentium magister, cognosce quid Vandali faciunt Ariani, et filii tui gemunt lugendo captivi. Victor Vit. Hist. Pers. Vandal. sub finem. The history of St. Victor is written with spirit and correctness, in a plain affecting style, intermixed with an entertaining poignancy of satire, and edifying heroic sentiments and examples of piety. The author is honored in the Roman Martyrology among the holy confessors on the 23d of August, though the time and place of his death are uncertain. He flourished in the middle of the fifth century. His history of the Vandalic persecution has run through several editions: that of Beatus Rhenanus at Basil in 1535, is the first: Peter Chifflet gave one at Dijon in 1664: but that of Dom. Ruinart at Paris, in 1694, is the most complete. It was published in English in 1605. The best French translation is that of Arnau d’Andilly.

[130] L. de. Glor. Conf. c. 13.

[131] The Roman provinces, in Africa, soon after sunk again into barbarism and infidelity, being overrun in 668 by the Saracens from Arabia and Syria, who in 669 took also Syracusa, and established a kingdom in Sicily and part of Italy. They planted themselves in Spain in 707. Muhavia, a general of the Sultan Omar, having routed Hormisdas Jesdegird, king of Persia, in 632, translated that monarchy from the line of Artaxerxes to the Saracens. This Omar conquered Egypt in 635. He was second caliph after Mahomet, and successor of Abubeker; and from his time the caliphs of Bagdat or Babylon were masters of Syria, Persia, and Egypt, till the two latter revolted; but notwithstanding various revolutions, all those countries still retain the Mahometan superstition. The Mahometans in Egypt shook off the yoke of the caliphs of Bagdat, and set up their own caliphs at Cairo in 870, to whom the Moors in Africa adhered till the Turks became masters of Egypt.

[132] 2 Peter i. 9.

[133] S. Ambros. in Ps. 40.

[134] L. 3, de Virgin. See S. Aug. Serm., 38. de Temp.

[135] Hebr. x. 34, xi. 37.

[136] The exact number of years that some of the popes sat before Victor in the year 200, cannot be determined with any degree of certainty, partly on account of faults of copies and the disagreement of later pontificals. (See Pagi, the Bollandists, Tillemont, Orsi, Berti, &c.) St. Peter sat twenty-five years; St. Linus seems to have held the see about eleven years, St. Cletus twelve years, St. Clement about eleven years, and St. Anacletus nine, dying about the year 109. The tradition and registers of the Roman church show Anacletus and Cletus to have been two distinct popes, as is manifest from the Liberian Calendar and several very ancient lists of the first popes quoted by Schelstrate (Diss. 2, Ant. Eccl. c. 2.) and the Bollandists (ad 26 Apr.) from the old poem among the works of Tertullian, written about the time that he lived; from the very ancient Antiphonaries of the Vatican church, published by cardinal Joseph Thomasius, and the old Martyrology which bore the name of St. Jerom, and was printed at Lucca by the care of Francis-Maria-Florentinius, a gentleman of that city; which original authorities were followed by Ado, Usuard, &c. The pontificals call Cletus a Roman by birth, Anacletus a Grecian, and native of Athens.

[137] Baillet in S. Bonav. Wadding, &c.

[138] Haymo, who had taught divinity at Paris, and been sent by Gregory IX. nuncio to Constantinople, was employed by the same pope in revising the Roman breviary and its rubrics. He is not to be confounded with Haymo, the disciple of Rabanus Maurus, afterward bishop of Halberstadt, in the ninth age, whose Homilies, Comments on the Scriptures, and Abridgment of Ecclesiastical History are extant. His works are chiefly Centos, compiled of scraps of fathers and other authors patched and joined together; a manner of writing used by many from the seventh to the twelfth age, but calculated to propagate stupidity and dullness, and to contract, not to enlarge or improve the genius, which is opened by invention, elegance, and imitation; but fettered by mechanical toils, as centos, acrostics, &c.

[139] Alexander of Hales, a native of Hales in Gloucestershire, after having gone through the course of his studies in England, went to Paris, and there followed divinity and the canon law, and gained in them an extraordinary reputation. He entered into the Order of Friars Minors, and died at Paris in 1245. His works discover a most subtle penetrating genius; of which the principal is a Summ or Commentary upon the four Books of the Master of the Sentences, written by order of Innocent IV. and a Vumm of Virtues.

[140] Specul. Discipi. p. 1, c. 3.

[141] Gerson, Tr. De libris quos religiosi legere debent.

[142] Gerson, l. de Examine Doctrinar.

[143] See Du Pin, Biblioth. Cent. 13, p. 249, t. 14.

[144] Soliloqu. Exercit. 4, c. 1, 2.

[145] The psalter of the Blessed Virgin is falsely to scribed to St. Bonaventure, and unworthy to bear his name. (see Fabricius in Biblioth. med. ætat. Bellarmin and Labbe de Script. Eccl. Nat. Alexander, Hist. Eccl. Sæc. 13.) The Vatican edition of the works of St. Bonaventure was begun by an order of Sixtus V. and completed in 1588. It consists of eight volumes in folio. The two first contain his commentaries on the holy scriptures: the third his sermons and panegyrics: the fourth and fifth his comments on the Master of the Sentences: the sixth, seventh, and eighth, his lesser treatises, of which some are doctrinal, others regard the duties of a religious state, others general subjects of piety, especially the mysteries of Christ and the Blessed Virgin. Most of these have run through several separate editions. All his works have been reprinted at Mentz and Lyons; and in 4to. in fourteen volumes at Venice, in 1751.

[146] B. Giles was a native of Assisio, and became the third companion of St. Francis in 1209. He attended him in the Marche of Ancona, and made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, whither he was sent by St. Francis to preach to the Saracens; but upon their threats of raising a persecution he was sent back to Italy by the Christians of that country. He afterward lived some time at Rome, some time at Reati, and some time at Fabriano; but the chief part of the remainder of his life he spent at Perugia, where he died in the night between the 22d and the 23d of April, in the year 1272, not in 1262, as Papebroke proves against the erroneous computation of certain authors. (p. 220, t. 3, Apr.) Wading and others relate many revelations, prophecies, and miracles of this eminent servant of God; his tomb has been had in public veneration at Perugia from the time of his death, and he was for some time solemnly honored as a saint in the church of his order in that city, as Papebroke shows; who regrets that this devotion has been for some time much abated, probably because not judged sufficiently authorized by the holy see. The public veneration at his tomb and the adjoining altar continues, and the mass is sung, on account of his ancient festival, with great solemnity, but of St. George, without any solemn commemoration of this servant of God. Nevertheless, from proofs of former solemn veneration, Papebroke honors him with the title of Blessed.

None among the first disciples of St. Francis seems to have been more perfectly replenished with his spirit of perfect charity, humility, meekness, and simplicity, as appears from the golden maxims and lessons of piety which he gave to others. Of these Papebroke has given us a large and excellent collection from manuscripts: some of which were before printed by Wading and others. A few will suffice to show us his spirit.

B. Giles always lived by the labor of his hands. When the cardinal bishop of Tusculum desired him always to receive his bread as a poor man an alms, from his table, B. Giles excused himself, using the words of the psalmist: _Blessed art thou, and it shall be well with thee, because thou shalt eat by the labor of thy hands._ Ps. cxxvii. “So brother Francis taught his brethren to be faithful and diligent in laboring, and to take for their wages not money, but necessary subsistence.” (Papebroke, p. 224.) If any one discoursed with him on the glory of God, the sweetness of his love, or Paradise, he would be ravished in spirit, and remain so great part of the day unmoved. Shepherds and children who had learned this from others, sometimes for diversion or out of curiosity, cried out after him, Paradise, Paradise; upon hearing which, he through joy fell into an ecstasy. His religious brethren in conversing with him took care never to name the word Paradise or Heaven for fear of losing his company by his being ravished out of himself. (ib., p. 226, and Wading.)

An extraordinary spiritual joy and cheerfulness appeared always painted on his countenance; and if any one spoke to him of God, he answered in great interior jubilation of soul. Once returning to his brethren out of close retirement, he praised God with wonderful joy and fervor, and sung,--“Neither tongue can utter, nor words express, nor mortal hearts conceive how great the good is which God hath prepared for those who desire to love him.”

Pope Gregory IX., who kept his court at Perugia from 1234 to autumn in 1236, sent one day for the holy man, who, in answer to his holiness’s first question about his state of life, said,--“I cheerfully take upon me the yoke of the commandments of the Lord.” The pope replied,--“Your answer is just; but your yoke is sweet and your burthen light.” At these words B. Giles withdrew a little from him, and, being ravished in spirit, remained speechless and without motion till very late in the night, to the great astonishment of his holiness, who spoke of it to his cardinals and others with great surprise.

This pope on a certain occasion pressed the holy man to say something to him on his own duty; Giles after having long endeavored to excuse himself said, “You have two eyes, both a right and a left one, always open; with the right eye you must contemplate the things which are above you; and with the left eye you must administer and dispense things which are below.”