CHAPTER VII.

THE WALAM OLUM: ITS ORIGIN, AUTHENTICITY AND CONTENTS.

Biographical Sketch of Rafinesque--Value of his Writings--His Account of the WALAM OLUM.--Was it a Forgery?--Rafinesque's Character--The Text pronounced Genuine by Native Delawares--Conclusion Reached

Phonetic System of the WALAM OLUM--Metrical Form--Pictographic System--Derivation and Precise Meaning of WALAM OLUM.--The MS of the WALAM OLUM--General Synopsis of the WALAM OLUM--Synopsis of its Parts.

_Rafinesque and his Writings._

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz, to whom we owe the preservation and first translation of the WALAM OLUM, was born in Galata, a suburb of Constantinople, Oct. 22d, 1783, and died in Philadelphia, of cancer of the stomach, Sept. 18th, 1840.

His first visit to this country was in 1802. He remained until 1804, when he went to Sicily, where he commenced business. As the French were unpopular there, he added "Schmaltz" to his name, for "prudent considerations," that being the surname of his mother's family.

In 1815 he returned to America, but had the misfortune to be shipwrecked on the coast, losing his manuscripts and much of his property. On his arrival, he supported himself by teaching, occupying his leisure time in scientific pursuits and travel. In 1819 he was appointed "Professor of Historical and Natural Sciences," in Transylvania University, Kentucky. This position he was obliged to resign, for technical reasons, in 1826, when he returned to Philadelphia, which city he made his home during the rest of his life.

From his early youth he was an indefatigable student, collector and writer in various branches of knowledge, especially in natural history. On the title-page of the last work that he published, "The Good Book and Amenities of Nature" (Philadelphia, 1840), he claims to be the author of "220 books, pamphlets, essays and tracts." Including his contributions to periodicals, there is no reason to doubt the correctness of this estimate. They began when he was nineteen, and were composed in English, French, Italian and Latin, all of which he wrote with facility.

His earlier essays were principally on botanical subjects; later, he included zoölogy and conchology; and during the last fifteen years of his life the history and antiquities of America appear to have occupied his most earnest attention.

The value of his writings in these various branches has been canvassed by several eminent critics in their respective lines.

First in point of time was Prof. Asa Gray, who in the year following Rafinesque's death published in the "American Journal of Science and Arts," Vol. XI, an analysis of his botanical writings. He awards him considerable credit for his earlier investigations, but much less for his later ones. To quote Dr. Gray's words: "A gradual deterioration will be observed in Rafinesque's botanical writings from 1819 to 1830, when the passion for establishing new genera and species appears to have become a complete _monomania_."[246] But modern believers in the doctrine of the evolution of plant forms and the development of botanical species will incline to think that there was a method in this madness, when they read the passage from Rafinesque's writings, about 1836, which Dr. Gray quotes as conclusively proving that, in things botanical, Rafinesque had lost his wits. It is this: "But it is needless to dispute about new genera, species and varieties. Every variety is a deviation, which becomes a species as soon as it is permanent by reproduction. Deviations in essential organs may thus gradually become new genera." This is really an anticipation of Darwinianism in botany.

The next year, in the same journal, appeared a "Notice of the Zoölogical Writings of the late C. S. Rafinesque," by Prof. S. S. Haldeman. It is, on the whole, depreciatory, and convicts Rafinesque of errors of observation as well as of inference; at the same time, not denying his enthusiasm and his occasional quickness to appreciate zoölogical facts.

In 1864 the conchological writings of Rafinesque were collected and published, in Philadelphia, by A. G. Binney and Geo. W. Tryon, Jr., without comments. One of the editors informs me that they have positive merit, although the author was too credulous and too desirous of novelties.

The antiquarian productions of Rafinesque, which interest us most in this connection, were reviewed with caustic severity by Dr. S. F. Haven,[247] especially the "Ancient Annals of Kentucky", which was printed as an introduction to Marshall's History of that State, in 1824. It is, indeed, an absurd production, a reconstruction of alleged history on the flimsiest foundations; but, alas! not a whit more absurd than the laborious card houses of many a subsequent antiquary of renown.

His principal work in this branch appeared in Philadelphia in 1836, entitled: "The American Nations; or, Outlines of a National History; of the Ancient and Modern Nations of North and South America." It was printed for the author, and is in two parts. Others were announced but never appeared, nor did the maps and illustrations which the title page promised. Its pages are filled with extravagant theories and baseless analogies. In the first part he prints with notes his translation of the THE WALAM OLUM, and his explanation of its significance.

_History of the Walam Olum._

Rafinesque's account of the origin of the THE WALAM OLUM may be introduced by a passage in the last work he published, "The Good Book." In that erratic volume he tells us that he had long been collecting the signs and pictographs current among the North American Indians, and adds:--

"Of these I have now 60 used by the Southern or Floridian Tribes of Louisiana to Florida, based upon their language of Signs--40 used by the Osages and Arkanzas, based on the same--74 used by the Lenàpian (Delaware and akin) tribes in their THE WALAMOLUM or Records--besides 30 simple signs that can be traced out of the NEOBAGUN or Delineation of the Chipwas or Ninniwas, a branch of the last."[248]

In these lines Rafinesque makes an important statement, which has been amply verified by the investigations of Col. Garrick Mallery, Dr. W. J. Hoffman and Capt. W. P. Clark, within the last decade, and that is, that the Indian pictographic system was based on their gesture speech.

So far as I remember, he was the first to perceive this suggestive fact; and he had announced it some time before 1840. Already, in "The American Nations" (1836), he wrote, "the Graphic Signs correspond to these Manual Signs."[249]

Here he anticipates a leading result of the latest archaeological research; and I give his words the greater prominence, because they seem to have been overlooked by all the recent writers on Indian Gesture-speech and Sign-language.

The _Neobagun_, the Chipeway medicine song to which he alludes, is likewise spoken of in "The American Nations," where he says: "The Ninniwas or Chipiwas * * have such painted tales or annals, called Neobagun (male tool) by the former."[250] I suspect he derived his knowledge of this from the Shawnee "Song for Medicine Hunting," called "Nah-o-bah-e-gun-num," or, The Four Sticks, the words and figures of which were appended by Dr. James to Tanner's _Narrative_, published in 1830.[251]

_Discovery of the Walam Olum._

As for the Lenape records, he gives this not very clear account of his acquisition of them:--

"Having obtained, through the late Dr. Ward, of Indiana, some of the original Wallam-Olum (painted record) of the Linàpi Tribe of Wapihani or White River, the translation will be given of the songs annexed to each."[252]

On a later page he wrote:--[253]

"_Olum_ implies _a record, a notched stick_, an engraved piece of wood or bark. It comes from _ol_, hollow or graved record. * * * These actual _olum_ were at first obtained in 1820, as a reward for a medical cure, deemed a curiosity; and were unexplicable. In 1822 were obtained from another individual the songs annexed thereto in the original language; but no one could be found by me able to translate them. I had therefore to learn the language since, by the help of Zeisberger, Heckewelder and a manuscript dictionary, on purpose to translate them, which I only accomplished in 1833. The contents were totally unknown to me in 1824, when I published my 'Annals of Kentucky.'"

I have attempted to identify this "Dr. Ward, of Indiana;" but no such person is known in the early medical annals of that State. There is, however, an old and well-known Kentucky family of that name, who, about 1820, resided, and still do reside, in the neighborhood of Cynthiana. One of these, in 1824-25, was a friend of Rafinesque, invited him to his house, and shared his archaeological tastes, as Rafinesque mentions in his autobiography.[254] It was there, no doubt, that he copied the signs and the original text of the Walam Olum. My efforts to learn further about the originals from living members of the family have been unsuccessful. From a note in Rafinesque's handwriting, on the title page of his MS. of 1833, it would appear that he had at least seen the wooden tablets. This note reads:--

"This Mpt & the wooden original was (_sic_) procured in 1822 in Kentucky--but was inexplicable till a deep study of the Linapi enabled me to translate them with explanations. (Dr. Ward.)"

The name of Dr. Ward added in brackets is, I judge, merely a note, and is not intended to imply that the sentence is a quotation.

_Was it a Forgery?_

The crucial question arises: Was the WALAM OLUM a forgery by Rafinesque?

It is necessary to ask and to answer this question, though it seems, at first sight, an insult to the memory of the man to do so. No one has ever felt it requisite to propound such an inquiry about the pieces of the celebrated Mexican collection of the Chevalier Boturini, who, as an antiquary, was scarcely less visionary than Rafinesque.

But, unquestionably, an air of distrust and doubt shadowed Rafinesque's scientific reputation during his life, and he was not admitted on a favorable footing to the learned circles of the city where he spent the last fifteen years of his life. His articles were declined a hearing in its societies; and the learned linguist, Mr. Peter Stephen Duponceau, whose specialty was the Delaware language, wholly and deliberately ignored everything by the author of "The American Nations."

Why was this?

Rafinesque was poor, eccentric, negligent of his person, full of impractical schemes and extravagant theories, and manufactured and sold in a small way a secret nostrum which he called "pulmel," for the cure of consumption. All these were traits calculated to lower him in the respect of the citizens of Philadelphia, and the consequence was, that although a member of some scientific societies, he seems to have taken no part in their proceedings, and was looked upon as an undesirable acquaintance, and as a sort of scientific outcast.

As early as 1819 Prof. Benjamin Silliman declined to publish contributions from him in the "American Journal of Science,"[255] and returned him his MSS. Dr. Gray strongly intimates that Rafinesque's assertions on scientific matters were at times intentionally false, as when he said that he had seen Robin's collection of Louisiana plants in France, whereas that botanist never prepared dried specimens; and the like.

I felt early in this investigation that Rafinesque's assertions were, therefore, an insufficient warranty for the authenticity of this document.

As I failed in my efforts to substantiate them by local researches in Kentucky and Indiana, I saw that the evidence must come from the text itself. Nor would it be sufficient to prove that the words of the text were in the Lenape dialect. With Zeisberger and Heckewelder at hand, both of whose works had been years in print, it were easy to string together Lenape words.

But what Rafinesque certainly had not the ability to do, was to write a sentence in Lenape, to compose lines which an educated native would recognize as in the syntax of his own speech, though perhaps dialectically different.

This was the test that I determined to apply. I therefore communicated my doubts to my friend, the distinguished linguist, Mr. Horatio Hale, and asked him to state them to the Rev. Albert Anthony, a well educated native Delaware, equally conversant with his own tongue and with English.

Mr. Anthony considered the subject fully, and concluded by expressing the positive opinion that the text as given was a genuine _oral_ composition of a Delaware Indian. In many lines the etymology and syntax are correct; in others there are grammatical defects, which consist chiefly in the omission of terminal inflections.

The suggestion he offered to explain these defects is extremely natural. The person who wrote down this oral explanation of the signs, or, to speak more accurately, these chants which the signs were intended to keep in memory, was imperfectly acquainted with the native tongue, and did not always catch terminal sounds. The speaker also may have used here and there parts of that clipped language, or "white man's Indian," which I have before referred to as serving for the trading tongue between the two races.

This was also the opinion of the Moravian natives who examined the text. They all agreed that it impressed them as being of aboriginal origin, though the difference of the forms of words left them often in the dark as to the meaning.

This very obscurity is in fact a proof that Rafinesque did not manufacture it. Had he done so, he would have used the "Mission Delaware" words which he found in Zeisberger. But the text has quite a number not in that dialect, nor in any of the mission dictionaries.

Moreover, had he taken the words from such sources, he would in his translation have given their correct meanings; but in many instances he is absurdly far from their sense. Thus he writes: "The word for angels, _angelatawiwak_, is not borrowed, but real Linapi, and is the same as the Greek word _angelos_;"[256] whereas it is a verbal with a future sense from the very common Delaware verb _angeln_, to die. Many such examples will be noted in the vocabulary on a later page.

In several cases the figures or symbols appear to me to bear out the corrected translations which I have given of the lines, and not that of Rafinesque. This, it will be observed, is an evidence, not merely that he must have received this text from other hands, but the figures also, and weighs heavily in favor of the authentic character of both.

That it is a copy is also evident from some manifest mistakes in transcription, which Rafinesque preserves in his printed version, and endeavored to translate, not perceiving their erroneous form. Thus, in the fourth line of the first chant, he wrote _owak_, translating it "much air or clouds," when it is clearly a mere transposition for _woak_, the Unami form of the conjunction "and," as the sense requires. No such blunder would appear if he had forged the document. It is true that a goodly share of the words in the earlier chants occur in Zeisberger. Thus it seems, at first sight, suspicious to find the three or four superlatives in III, 5, all given under examples of the superlatives, in Zeisberger's _Grammar_, p. 105. It looks as if they had been bodily transferred into the song. So I thought; but afterwards I found these same superlatives in Heckewelder, who added specifically that "the Delawares had formed them to address or designate the Supreme being."[257]

If we assume that this song is genuine, then Zeisberger was undoubtedly familiar with some version of it; had learned it probably, and placed most of its words in his vocabulary.

Some other collateral evidences of authenticity I have referred to on previous pages (pp. 67, 89, 136).

From these considerations, and from a study of the text, the opinion I have formed of the WALAM OLUM is as follows:--

It is a genuine native production, which was repeated orally to some one indifferently conversant with the Delaware language, who wrote it down to the best of his ability. In its present form it can, as a whole, lay no claim either to antiquity, or to purity of linguistic form. Yet, as an authentic modern version, slightly colored by European teachings, of the ancient tribal traditions, it is well worth preservation, and will repay more study in the future than is given it in this volume. The narrator was probably one of the native chiefs or priests, who had spent his life in the Ohio and Indiana towns of the Lenape, and who, though with some knowledge of Christian instruction, preferred the pagan rites, legends and myths of his ancestors. Probably certain lines and passages were repeated in the archaic form in which they had been handed down for generations.

_Phonetic System._

The phonetic system adopted by the writer, whoever he was, is not that of the Moravian brethren. They employed the German alphabet, which does not obtain in the present text. On this point Rafinesque says: "The orthography of the Linapi names is reduced to the Spanish or French pronunciation, except _sh_, as in English; _u_, as in French; _w_, as in _how_."[258] A comparison of the words with their equivalents in Zeisberger's spelling shows that this is generally true.

It is obvious that the gutturals are few and soft, and that the process of synthesis is carried further than in the Minsi dialect. For this reason, from the introduction of peculiar words, and from the loss of certain grammatical terminations, the Minsi Delawares of to-day, to whom I have submitted it, are of the opinion that it belongs to one of the southern dialects of their nation; perhaps to the Unalachtgo, as suggested by Chief Gabriel Tobias, in his letter printed on a preceding page (p. 88).

_Metrical Form._

Even to an ear not acquainted with the language, the chants of the WALAM OLUM are obviously in metrical arrangement. The rhythm is syllabic and accentual, with frequent effort to select homophones (to which the correct form of the words is occasionally sacrificed), and sometimes alliteration. Iteration is also called in aid, and the metrical scheme is varied in the different chants.

All these rhythmical devices appear in the native American songs of many tribes, though I cannot point to any other strictly aboriginal production in Algonkin, where a tendency toward rhyme is as prominent as in the WALAM OLUM. It is well to remember, however, that our material for comparison is exceedingly scanty, and also that for nearly three fourths of a century before this song was obtained, the music-loving Moravian missionaries had made the Delawares familiar with numerous hymns in their own tongue, correctly framed and rhymed.

_Pictographic System_

The pictographic system which the WALAM OLUM presents is clearly that of the Western Algonkins, most familiar to us through examples from the Chipeways and Shawnees. It is quite likely, indeed, that it was the work of a Shawnee, as we know that they supplied such songs, with symbols, to the Chipeways, and were intimately associated with the Delawares.

At the time Rafinesque wrote, Tanner's _Narrative_ had been in print several years, and the numerous examples of Algonkin pictography it contains were before him. Yet it must be said that the pictographs of the WALAM OLUM have less resemblance to these than to those published by the Chipeway chief, George Copway, in 1850, and by Schoolcraft, in his "History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes." There is generally a distinct, obvious connection between the symbol and the sense of the text, sufficient to recall the latter to one who has made himself once thoroughly familiar with it. I have not undertaken a study of the symbols; but have confined myself to a careful reproduction of them, and the suggestion of their more obvious meanings, and their correspondences with the pictographs furnished by later writers. I shall leave it for others to determine to what extent they should be accepted as a pure specimen of Algonkin pictographic writing.

_Derivation of Walam Olum._

The derivation of the name WALAM OLUM has been largely anticipated on previous pages. I have shown that _wâlâm_ (in modern Minsi, _wâlumin_) means "painted," especially "painted _red_." This is a secondary meaning, as the root wuli conveys the idea of something pleasant, in this connection, pleasant to the eye, fine, pretty. (See ante p. 104.)

_Olum_ was the name of the scores, marks, or figures in use on the tally-sticks or record-boards. The native Delaware missionary, Mr. Albert Anthony says that the knowledge of these ancient signs has been lost, but that the word _olum_ is still preserved by the Delaware boys in their games when they keep the score by notches on a stick. These notches--not the sticks--are called to this day _olum_--an interesting example of the preservation of an archaic form in the language of children.

The name _Wâlâm Olum_ is therefore a highly appropriate one for the record, and may be translated "RED SCORE."

_The MS. of the_ WALAM OLUM.

The MS. from which I have printed the WALAM OLUM is a small quarto of forty unnumbered leaves, in the handwriting of Rafinesque. It is in two parts with separate titles. The first reads:--

WALAMOLUM

First Part of the painted-engraved ║ traditions of the Linni linapi,&c ║ containing ║ the 3 original traditional poems ║ 1 on the Creation and Ontogony, 24 verses ║ 2 on the Deluge, &c. 16 v ║ 3 on the passage to America, 20 v ║ Signs and Verses, 60 ║ with the original glyphs or signs ║ for each verse of the poems or songs ║ translated word for word ║ by C S Rafinesque ║ 1833

The title of the second part is:--

WALAM-OLUM

First and Second Parts of the ║ Painted and engraved traditions ║ of the Linni linapi

II Part

Historical Chronicles or Annals ║ in two Chronicles

1 From arrival in America to settlement in Ohio, &c 4 chapters each of 16 verses, each of 4 words, 64 signs

2d From Ohio to Atlantic States and back to Missouri, a mere succession of names in 3 chapters of 20 verses--60 signs

Translated word for word by means of Zeisberger and Linapi Dictionary. With explanations, &c.

By C S Rafinesque 1833

When Rafinesque died, his MSS. were scattered and passed into various hands. Prof. Haldeman, in his notice above referred to (p. 150), stated that he and "Mr. Poulson of Philadelphia" had a large part of them.

This particular one, and also others descriptive of Rafinesque's archaeological explorations in the southwest, his surveys of the earthworks of Kentucky and the neighboring states, and the draft of a work on "The Ancient Monuments of North and South America," came into the possession of the Hon. Brantz Mayer, of Baltimore, distinguished as an able public man and writer on American subjects, from whose family I obtained them.

He loaned them all to Mr. E. G. Squier, who made extensive use of Rafinesque's surveys, in the "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," giving due credit.

In June, 1848, Mr. Squier read before the New York Historical Society a paper entitled, "Historical and Mythological Traditions of the Algonquins; with a translation of the 'Walum-Olum,' or Bark Record of the Linni-Lenape." This was published in the "American Review," February, 1849, and has been reprinted by Mr. W. W. Beach, in his "Indian Miscellany" (Albany, 1877), and in the fifteenth edition of Mr. S. G. Drake's "Aboriginal Races of North America."

This paper gave the symbols, original text and Rafinesque's translation of the first two songs, and a free translation only, of the remainder. The text was carelessly copied, whole words being omitted, and no attempt was made to examine the accuracy of the translation; the symbols were also imperfect, several being reversed. Hence, as material for a critical study of the document, Squier's essay is of little value.

At the close of the second part of the MS. there are four pages, closely written, with the title:--

"Fragment on the History of the Linapis since abt 1600 when the _Wallamolum_ closes translated from the Linapi by John Burns."

This was printed by Rafinesque and Squier, but as it has no original text, as nothing is known of "John Burns," and as the document itself, even if reasonably authentic, has no historic value, I omit it.

_General Synopsis of the Walam Olum._

The myths embodied in the earlier portion of the WALAM OLUM are perfectly familiar to one acquainted with Algonkin mythology. They are not of foreign origin, but are wholly within the cycle of the most ancient legends of that stock. Although they are not found elsewhere in the precise form here presented, all the figures and all the leading incidents recur in the native tales picked up by the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth century, and by Schoolcraft, McKinney, Tanner and others in later days.

In an earlier chapter I have collected the imperfect fragments of these which we hear of among the Delawares, and these are sufficient to show that they had substantially the same mythology as their western relatives.

The cosmogony describes the formation of the world by the Great Manito, and its subsequent despoliation by the spirit of the waters, under the form of a serpent. The happy days are depicted, when men lived without wars or sickness, and food was at all times abundant. Evil beings, of mysterious power, introduced cold and war and sickness and premature death. Then began strife and long wanderings.

However similar this general outline may be to European and Oriental myths, it is neither derived originally from them, nor was it acquired later by missionary influence. This similarity is due wholly to the identity of psychological action, the same ideas and fancies arising from similar impressions in New as well as Old World tribes. No sound ethnologist, no thorough student in comparative mythology, would seek to maintain a genealogical relation of cultures on the strength of such identities. They are proofs of the oneness of the human mind, and nothing more.

As to the historical portion of the document, it must be judged by such corroborative evidence as we can glean from other sources. I have quoted, in an earlier chapter, sufficient testimony to show that the Lenape had traditions similar to these, extending back for centuries, or at least believed by their narrators to reach that far. What trust can be reposed in them is for the archaeologist to judge.

Authentic history tells us nothing about the migrations of the Lenape before we find them in the valley of the Delaware. There is no positive evidence that they arrived there from the west; still less concerning their earlier wanderings.

Were I to reconstruct their ancient history from the WALAM OLUM, as I understand it, the result would read as follows:--

At some remote period their ancestors dwelt far to the northeast, on tide-water, probably at Labrador (Compare ante, p. 145). They journeyed south and west, till they reached a broad water, full of islands and abounding in fish, perhaps the St. Lawrence about the Thousand Isles. They crossed and dwelt for some generations in the pine and hemlock regions of New York, fighting more or less with the Snake people, and the Talega, agricultural nations, living in stationary villages to the southeast of them, in the area of Ohio and Indiana. They drove out the former, but the latter remained on the upper Ohio and its branches. The Lenape, now settled on the streams in Indiana, wished to remove to the East to join the Mohegans and other of their kin who had moved there directly from northern New York. They, therefore, united with the Hurons (Talamatans) to drive out the Talega (Tsalaki, Cherokees) from the upper Ohio. This they only succeeded in accomplishing finally in the historic period (see ante p. 17). But they did clear the road and reached the Delaware valley, though neither forgetting nor giving up their claims to their western territories (see ante p. 144).

In the sixteenth century the Iroquois tribes seized and occupied the whole of the Susquehanna valley, thus cutting off the eastern from the western Algonkins, and ended by driving many of the Lenape from the west to the east bank of the Delaware (ante p. 38,).

_Synopsis of the separate parts._

I.

The formation of the universe by the Great Manito is described. In the primal fog and watery waste he formed land and sky, and the heavens cleared. He then created men and animals. These lived in peace and joy until a certain evil manito came, and sowed discord and misery.

This canto is a version of the Delaware tradition mentioned in the Heckewelder MSS. which I have given previously, p. 135. The notion of the earth rising from the primal waters is strictly a part of the earliest Algonkin mythology, as I have amply shown in previous discussions of the subject. See my _Myths of the New World_, p. 213, and _American Hero Myths_, Chap. II.

II.

The Evil Manito, who now appears under the guise of a gigantic serpent, determines to destroy the human race, and for that purpose brings upon them a flood of water. Many perish, but a certain number escape to the turtle, that is, to solid land, and are there protected by Nanabush (Manibozho or Michabo). They pray to him for assistance, and he caused the water to disappear, and the great serpent to depart.

This canto is a brief reference to the conflict between the Algonkin hero god and the serpent of the waters, originally, doubtless, a meteorological myth. It is an ancient and authentic aboriginal legend, shared both by Iroquois and Algonkins, under slightly different forms. In one aspect, it is the Flood or Deluge Myth. For the general form of this myth, see my _Myths of the New World_, pp. 119, 143, 182, and _American Hero Myths_, p. 50, and authorities there quoted; also, E. G. Squier, "Manabozho and the Great Serpent; an Algonquin Tradition," in the _American Review_, Vol. II, Oct., 1848.

III.

The waters having disappeared, the home of the tribe is described as in a cold northern clime. This they concluded to leave in search of warmer lands. Having divided their people into a warrior and a peaceful class, they journeyed southward, toward what is called the "Snake land." They approached this land in winter, over a frozen river. Their number was large, but all had not joined in the expedition with equal willingness, their members at the west preferring their ancient seats in the north to the uncertainty of southern conquests. They, however, finally united with the other bands, and they all moved south to the land of spruce pines.

IV.

The first sixteen verses record the gradual conquest of most of the Snake land. It seems to have required the successive efforts of six or seven head chiefs, one after another, to bring this about, probably but a small portion at a time yielding to the attacks of these enemies. Its position is described as being to the southwest, and in the interior of the country. Here they first learned to cultivate maize.

The remainder of the canto is taken up with a long list of chiefs, and with the removal of the tribe, in separate bands and at different times, to the east. In this journey from the Snake land to the east, they encountered and had long wars with the Talega. These lived in strong towns, but by the aid of the Hurons (Talamatans), they overcame them and drove them to the south.

V.

Having conquered the Talegas, the Lenape possessed their land and that of the Snake people, and for a certain time enjoyed peace and abundance. Then occurred a division of their people, some, as Nanticokes and Shawnees, going to the south, others to the west, and later, the majority toward the east, arriving finally at the Salt sea, the Atlantic ocean. Thence a portion turned north and east, and encountered the Iroquois. Still later, the three sub-tribes of the Lenape settled themselves definitely along the Delaware river, and received the geographical names by which they were known, as Minsi, Unami and Unalachtgo (see ante, p. 36). They were often at war with the Iroquois, generally successfully. Rumors of the whites had reached them, and finally these strangers approached the river, both from the north (New York bay) and the south. Here the song closes.

FOOTNOTES:

[246] _American Journal of Science_, Vol. XL, p. 237.

[247] Samuel F. Haven, _Archaeology of the United States_, p. 40.

[248] _The Good Book; or the Amenities of Nature. Printed for the Eleutherium of Knowledge_. Philadelphia, 1840, pp. 77, 78. This "Eleutherium," so far as I can learn, consisted of nobody but Monsieur Rafinesque himself. Among his manifold projects was a "Divitial System", by which all interested could soon become large capitalists. He published a book on it (of course), which might be worth the attention of a financial economist. The solid men of Philadelphia, however, like its scholars, turned a deaf ear to the words of the eccentric foreigner.

[249] _The American Nations_, etc., p. 78.

[250] Ibid, p. 123.

[251] Tanner's _Narrative_, p. 359.

[252] _American Nations_, p. 122.

[253] Ibid, p. 151.

[254] "My friend, Mr. Ward, took me to Cynthiana in a gig, where I surveyed other ancient monuments." Rafinesque, _A Life of Travels and Researches_, p. 74. (Phila., 1836.)

[255] _American Journal of Science_, Vol. XL, p. 237, note.

[256] The American Nations, p. 151.

[257] _Correspondence between the Rev. John Heckewelder and Peter S Duponceau, Esq._, p. 410.

[258] _The American Nations_, p. 125.

THE WALUM OLUM or RED SCORE, of the LENÂPÉ.

I.

1. At first, in that place, at all times, above the earth,

2. On the earth, [was] an extended fog, and there the great Manito was.

3. At first, forever, lost in space, everywhere, the great Manito was.

4. He made the extended land and the sky.

5. He made the sun, the moon, the stars.

6. He made them all to move evenly.

7. Then the wind blew violently, and it cleared, and the water flowed off far and strong.

8. And groups of islands grew newly, and there remained

9. Anew spoke the great Manito, a manito to manitos,

10. To beings, mortals, souls and all,

11. And ever after he was a manito to men, and their grandfather.

12. He gave the first mother, the mother of beings.

13. He gave the fish, he gave the turtles, he gave the beasts, he gave the birds.

14. But an evil Manito made evil beings only, monsters,

15. He made the flies, he made the gnats.

16. All beings were then friendly.

17. Truly the manitos were active and kindly

18. To those very first men, and to those first mothers; fetched them wives,

19. And fetched them food, when first they desired it.

20. All had cheerful knowledge, all had leisure, all thought in gladness.

21. But very secretly an evil being, a mighty magician, came on earth,

II.

22. And with him brought badness, quarreling, unhappiness,

23. Brought bad weather, brought sickness, brought death.

24. All this took place of old on the earth, beyond the great tide-water, at the first.

1. Long ago there was a mighty snake and beings evil to men.

2. This mighty snake hated those who were there (and) greatly disquieted those whom he hated.

3. They both did harm, they both injured each other, both were not in peace.

4. Driven from their homes they fought with this murderer.

5. The mighty snake firmly resolved to harm the men.

6. He brought three persons, he brought a monster, he brought a rushing water.

7. Between the hills the water rushed and rushed, dashing through and through, destroying much.

8. Nanabush, the Strong White One, grandfather of beings, grandfather of men, was on the Turtle Island.

9. There he was walking and creating, as he passed by and created the turtle.

10. Beings and men all go forth, they walk in the floods and shallow waters, down stream thither to the Turtle Island.

III.

11. There were many monster fishes, which ate some of them.

12. The Manito daughter, coming, helped with her canoe, helped all, as they came and came.

13. [And also] Nanabush, Nanabush, the grandfather of all, the grandfather of beings, the grandfather of men, the grandfather of the turtle.

14. The men then were together on the turtle, like to turtles.

15. Frightened on the turtle, they prayed on the turtle that what was spoiled should be restored.

16. The water ran off, the earth dried, the lakes were at rest, all was silent, and the mighty snake departed.

1. After the rushing waters (had subsided) the Lenape of the turtle were close together, in hollow houses, living together there.

2. It freezes where they abode, it snows where they abode, it storms where they abode, it is cold where they abode.

3. At this northern place they speak favorably of mild, cool (lands), with many deer and buffaloes.

4. As they journeyed, some being strong, some rich, they separated into house-builders and hunters;

5. The strongest, the most united, the purest, were the hunters.

6. The hunters showed themselves at the north, at the east, at the south, at the west.

7. In that ancient country, in that northern country, in that turtle country, the best of the Lenape were the Turtle men.

8. All the cabin fires of that land were disquieted, and all said to their priest, "Let us go".

9. To the Snake land to the east they went forth, going away, earnestly grieving.

14. Wihlamokkicholenluchundi, Wematam akomen luchundi.

15. Witehen wemiluen wemaken nihillen.

16. Nguttichin lowaniwi, Nguttichin wapaniwi, Agamunk topanpek Wulliton epannek.

17. Wulelemil w'shakuppek, Wemopannek hakhsinipek, Kitahikan pokhakhopek.]

10. Split asunder, weak, trembling, their land burned, they went, torn and broken, to the Snake Island.

11. Those from the north being free, without care, went forth from the land of snow, in different directions.

12. The fathers of the Bald Eagle and the White Wolf remain along the sea, rich in fish and muscles.

13. Floating up the streams in their canoes, our fathers were rich, they were in the light, when they were at those islands.

14. Head Beaver and Big Bird said, "Let us go to Snake Island," they said.

15. All say they will go along to destroy all the land.

16. Those of the north agreed, Those of the east agreed. Over the water, the frozen sea, They went to enjoy it.

17. On the wonderful, slippery water, On the stone-hard water all went, On the great Tidal Sea, the muscle-bearing sea.

IV.

18. Ten thousand at night, All in one night, To the Snake Island, to the east, at night, They walk and walk, all of them.

19. The men from the north, the east, the south, The Eagle clan, the Beaver clan, the Wolf clan, The best men, the rich men, the head men, Those with wives, those with daughters, those with dogs,

20. They all come, they tarry at the land of the spruce pines; Those from the west come with hesitation, Esteeming highly their old home at the Turtle land.

1. Long ago the fathers of the Lenape were at the land of spruce pines.

2. Hitherto the Bald Eagle band had been the pipe bearer,

3. While they were searching for the Snake Island, that great and fine land.

4. They having died, the hunters, about to depart, met together.

5. All say to Beautiful Head, "Be thou chief."

6. "Coming to the Snakes, slaughter at that Snake hill, that they leave it."

7. All of the Snake tribe were weak, and hid themselves in the Swampy Vales.

8. After Beautiful Head, White Owl was chief at Spruce Pine land.

9. After him, Keeping-Guard was chief of that people.

10. After him, Snow Bird was chief, he spoke of the south,

11. That our fathers should possess it by scattering abroad.

12. Snow Bird went south, White Beaver went east.

13. The Snake land was at the south, the great Spruce Pine land was toward the shore;

14. To the east was the Fish land, toward the lakes was the buffalo land.

15. After Snow Bird, the Seizer was chief, and all were killed,

16. The robbers, the snakes, the evil men, the stone men.

* * * * *

17. After the Seizer there were ten chiefs, and there was much warfare south and east.

18. After them, the Peaceable was chief at Snake land.

19. After him, Not-Black was chief, who was a straight man.

20. After him, Much-Loved was chief, a good man.

21. After him, No-Blood was chief, who walked in cleanliness.

22. After him, Snow-Father was chief, he of the big teeth.

23. After him, Tally-Maker was chief, who made records.

24. After him, Shiverer-with-Cold was chief, who went south to the corn land.

25. After him, Corn-Breaker was chief, who brought about the planting of corn.

26. After him, the Strong-Man was chief, who was useful to the chieftains.

27. After him, the Salt-Man was chief; after him the Little-One was chief.

28. There was no rain, and no corn, so they moved further seaward.

29. At the place of caves, in the buffalo land, they at last had food, on a pleasant plain.

30. After the Little-One (came) the Fatigued; after him, the Stiff-One.

31. After him, the Reprover; disliking him, and unwilling (to remain),

32. Being angry, some went off secretly, moving east.

33. The wise ones who remained made the Loving-One chief.

34. They settled again on the Yellow river, and had much corn on stoneless soil.

35. All being friendly, the Affable was chief, the first of that name.

36. He was very good, this Affable, and came as a friend to all the Lenape.

37. After this good one, Strong-Buffalo was chief and pipe-bearer.

38. Big-Owl was chief; White-Bird was chief.

39. The Willing-One was chief and priest, he made festivals.

40. Rich-Again was chief, the Painted-One was chief.

41. White-Fowl was chief; again there was war, north and south.

42. The Wolf-wise-in-Counsel was chief.

43. He knew how to make war on all; he slew Strong-Stone.

44. The Always-Ready-One was chief; he fought against the Snakes.

45. The Strong-Good-One was chief; he fought against the northerners.

46. The Lean-One was chief; he fought against the Tawa people.

47. The Opossum-Like was chief; he fought in sadness,

48. And said, "They are many; let us go together to the east, to the sunrise."

49. They separated at Fish river; the lazy ones remained there.

50. Cabin-Man was chief; the Talligewi possessed the east.

51. Strong-Friend was chief; he desired the eastern land.

52. Some passed on east; the Talega ruler killed some of them.

53. All say, in unison, "War, war".

54. The Talamatan, friends from the north, come, and all go together.

55. The Sharp-One was chief; he was the pipe-bearer beyond the river.

56. They rejoiced greatly that they should fight and slay the Talega towns.

57. The Starrer was chief, the Talega towns were too strong.

58. The Fire-Builder was chief; they all gave to him many towns.

V.

59. The Breaker-in-Pieces was chief; all the Talega go south.

60. He-has-Pleasure was chief; all the people rejoice.

61. They stay south of the lakes; the Talamatan friends north of the lakes.

62. When Long-and-Mild was chief, those who were not his friends conspired.

63. Truthful-Man was chief; the Talamatans made war.

64. Just-and-True was chief; the Talamatans trembled.

1. All were peaceful, long ago, there at the Talega land.

2. The Pipe-Bearer was chief at the White river.

3. White-Lynx was chief; much corn was planted.

4. Good-and-Strong was chief, the people were many.

5. The Recorder was chief, he painted the records.

6. Pretty-Blue-Bird was chief, there was much fruit.

7. Always-There was chief, the towns were many.

8. Paddler-up-Stream was chief, he was much on the rivers.

9. Little-Cloud was chief, many departed,

10. The Nanticokes and the Shawnees going to the south.

11. Big-Beaver was chief, at the White Salt Lick.

12. The Seer, the praised one, went to the west.

13. He went to the west, to the southwest, to the western villages.

14. The Rich-Down-River-Man was chief, at Talega river.

15. The Walker was chief; there was much War.

16. Again with the Tawa people, again with the Stone people, again with the northern people.

17. Grandfather-of-Boats was chief, he went to lands in boats.

18. Snow-Hunter was chief; he went to the north land.

19. Look-About was chief; he went to the Talega mound-mountains.

20. East-Villager was chief; he was east of Talega.

* * * * *

21. A great land and a wide land was the east land,

22. A land without snakes, a rich land, a pleasant land.

23. Great Fighter was chief, toward the north.

24. At the Straight river, River-Loving was chief.

25. Becoming-Fat was chief at Sassafras land.

26. All the hunters made wampum again at the great sea.

27. Red-Arrow was chief at the stream again.

28. The Painted-Man was chief at the Mighty Water.

29. The Easterners and the Wolves go northeast.

30. Good-Fighter was chief, and went to the north.

31. The Mengwe, the Lynxes, all trembled.

32. Again an Affable was chief, and made peace with all,

33. All were friends, all were united, under this great chief.

36. Great-Beaver was chief, remaining in Sassafras land.

37. White-Body was chief on the sea shore.

38. Peace-Maker was chief, friendly to all.

39. He-Makes-Mistakes was chief, hurriedly coming.

40. At this time whites came on the Eastern sea.

* * * * *

41. Much-Honored was chief; he was prosperous.

42. Well-Praised was chief; he fought at the south.

43. He fought in the land of the Talega and Koweta.

44. White-Otter was chief; a friend of the Talamatans.

45. White-Horn was chief; he went to the Talega,

46. To the Hilini, to the Shawnees, to the Kanawhas.

47. Coming-as-a-Friend was chief; he went to the Great Lakes,

48. Visiting all his children, all his friends.

49. Cranberry-Eater was chief, friend of the Ottawas.

50. North-Walker was chief; he made festivals.

51. Slow-Gatherer was chief at the shore.

52. As three were desired, three those were who grew forth,

52. _bis._ The Unami, the Minsi, the Chikini.

53. Man-Who-Fails was chief; he fought the Mengwe.

54. He-is-Friendly was chief; he scared the Mengwe.

55. Saluted was chief; thither,

56. Over there, on the Scioto, he had foes.

57. White-Crab was chief, a friend of the shore.

58. Watcher was chief, he looked toward the sea.

59. At this time, from north and south, the whites came.

60. They are peaceful, they have great things, who are they?

FOOTNOTES:

[259] Read, _woak_.

[260] Var _moshalguat_.

[261] Var. _showoken_.

[262] Var. _menakinep_.

[263] Var _wapanahan_.

[264] Var _mixtisipi_.

NOTES

The references to authorities on Algonkin picture-writing are the Appendix to _Tanner's Narrative of Captivity and Adventures_, Copway's _Traditional History of the Ojibway Nation_, and Schoolcraft's _Synopsis of Indian Symbols_, in Vol. I of his _History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes_. I have not pursued an investigation of the symbols beyond the first chant.

1. Rafinesque translates _wemiguna_ "all sea water." The proper form is _wemmguna_, "at all times" (Anthony). The symbol is that of the sky and clouds above the earth. Compare Copway, p. 134; Schoolcraft, _Synopsis_, Fig. 17.

2. _Kwelik_, a dialectic form of _quenek_, Z. long, stretched out. _Kitanito_, a compound of _kehtan_, great, and _manito_, mysterious being, is rendered by Raf. as Creator; _wit_ is the substantive verbaffix.

Heckewelder (MSS.) distinguishes between the synthetic form, _ketanittowit_, which he translates "Majestic Being," and the analytic form, _kitschi manito_, which he renders "Supreme Wonder-doer." In the latter, the sense of _manito_ is brought out. In the Delaware and related dialects it conveys the idea of making, or doing (_maniton_, to make, Zeisberger, _Gram._, p. 222; _maranito taendo_, make a fire, Campamus; Chipeway, _win ma-nitawito_ he himself makes it, or, can make it).

The idea of making or creating is at the bottom of many native titles to supernatural powers, as the Shawnee _We-shellaqua_, "he that made us all." (Rev. David Jones, Journal of Two Visits, etc., p. 62.) See notes to line four. The Algonkin root, _etu_, he does, he acts, he makes, would therefore seem to be a radical of the word. (See Howse, _Gram. of the Cree Lang_., p. 160.)

Dr. Trumbull, on the other hand, believes the only radical to be _an_, = _el_ or _al_, in the sense of "to be more than," "to surpass," "to exceed;" and maintains that the syllable _it_, of the theme _manit_, is a formative suffix. (In _Old and New_, March, 1870.)

Heckewelder, in his translation "wonder-doer," recognizes the force of both elements, and from the analogous expressions I have quoted, is probably correct. The element _an_ is thus an intensive prefix to the real root _it_, and the compound radical thus formed in the third person, singular, _månito_, means "he or it does or acts in a surpassing or extraordinary manner."

_Essop_, pl. _essopak_, frequently recurring words, are suppositive (see p. 90) forms of the verb _lissin_, "to be or do so, to be so situated, disposed, _or_ acting" (Zeisberger, _Gram._ p. 117). The terminal _p_ is the sign of the preterite. They are dialectic for _elsitup_ and _elsichtitup_.

The symbol of a head with rays represents a manito. Schoolcraft, _Synopsis_, Fig. 10.

3. Squier omits the word _elumamek_. These terms are formal epithets applied to the highest divinity. See page 158.

Squier also adds that Fig. 3 represents the sun, and is the symbol of the Great Spirit. Both these statements are incorrect. The oval is the earth-plain, with its four cardinal points, and the dot in the centre signifies the spirit. See Copway, p. 135.

4. _Sohalawak_ is not a Delaware form, but is a true Algonkin word, as seen in the Cree _ooseh-ayoo_, animate, _ooseh-taw_, inanimate, he, it, makes, produces. (Howse, _Cree Grammar_, p. 166.) It appears in the Shawnee _w'shellaqua_, quoted in notes to verse 2; in the Minsi dialect the corresponding word is _kwishelmawak_; _owak_ is a mistake for _woak_, and Rafinesque translates it "much air." _Awasagamak_, heaven, sky, literally, "the land or place beyond," from _awossi_, beyond; but Dr. Trumbull prefers a derivation from a root signifying "light," _Del. waseleu_, it is clear or bright (Trans. Am. Philol. Soc., 1872, p. 164); this latter appears to me overstrained. The symbol is the earth surmounted by the sky.

5. The symbol represents the sun, moon and stars in the sky, which is repeated with change of relative positions in the next verse. In Minsi, the fifth line would read, _Kwishelmawak kischohk nipahenk alankwewak_.

7. On the termination _wagan_ see page 101. The prefix _ksh_, properly _k'sch_, is intensive, as it is an abbreviation of _kitschi_, great, large. Thus _sokelan_, it rains, _k'schilan_, it rains very hard.

The symbol seems to indicate the waters flowing off.

8. Mr. Anthony renders this line in Minsi:--

_Pilikin_ _ameni-menayen_ _epit_, Grew-clean groups of islands where they are,

That is, that the islands rose dry and clean from the water, as they now are found.

_Delsin-epit_; the first part of this compound, properly _w'dell-sinewo_, is the indicative present, 3d p. pi., of _lissin_, to be thus, or so situated; _epit_ is what Zeisberger (_Gram._ p. 115) calls the "adverbial" form of _achpin_, to be there, in a particular place. This adverbial is really the suppositive form of the verb, after the vowel-change has taken place. (See above, page 107.)

Former renderings of the line are: "It looks bright, and islands stood there" (Rafinesque). "All was made bright, and the islands were brought into being" (Squier).

The symbol is a three cornered point of land, rising above the water under the sky.

9. _Manito manitoak_, "made the makers'," Raf.; "made the Great Spirits," Squier. Either of these renderings is defensible, as will appear from the senses of _manito_, above given.

This line can be read in Minsi, _Lapi-up Kehtanitowit man'ito mani'towak_, Again-he-spake, Great-Spirit, a spirit, spirits. The symbol represents the communion of the spirits. Compare Tanner, _Narrative_, p. 359, fig. 24.

10. Raf. and Squier absurdly translate _angelatawiwak_, angels. It is from a familiar Del. verb, _angeln_, to die. Compare Abnaki _8anangmes8ak_, "revenants," Rasles, and _w'tanglowagan_, his death, Zeis. The form in the text, according to Mr. Anthony, has the sense, "things destined to die," mortal, perishable. He gives the line in Minsi as follows:--

_Aweniwak_ _angelatawawak_ _wtschitsch'wankwak_ _wemiwak_, Beings mortals souls and all

The _wak_ of the last word is not the plural but the conjunction "and;" as in the Latin, _omniaque_.

11. Raf. translates _jinwis_ as "man-being," and Squier thinks it the Chipeway _inini_, men; but it appears to be the adverb _janwi_, ever, always. The symbol is apparently that of birth, or being born. Compare Tanner, _Narr._, p. 351, fig. 1, with that meaning, an armless figure with wide spread legs.

12. The pictograph is a woman, with breasts, but armless. The "first mother" here represented was an important personage in the mythology of the Chipeways and neighboring tribes. She was called "the grandmother of mankind" (_Me-suk-kum-me-go-kwa_, in Dr. James' orthography), and it was to her that Nanabush (Manibozho), imparted the secrets of all roots, herbs and plants. Hence, the medicine men direct their songs and addresses to her whenever they take anything from the earth which is to be used as a medicine. Tanner's _Narrative_, p. 355.

13. The figure of a square, the world, with the four varieties of animals named.

14. The bad spirit was, in Algonkin mythology, the water god, and was represented as a serpent-like figure. See Copway, pp. 134, 135. Schoolcraft, _Synopsis_, figs. 93, 100.

_Amangamek_, plural form of the compound _amangi_, great; _namaes_ fish; but _amangi_ has the associate idea of terrifying, frightful, hence the reference is to some mythical water monster (Cree, _am_, faire peur, Lacombe).

Raf. translates both _nakowak_ in this line, and _nakowa_, in II, 6, as "black snake." They can have no such meaning, black, in Lenape, being _suckeu_, and in none of the Algonkin dialects does _nak_ mean black.

16. The figure represents the earth-plain under the form of the area of a lodge, with central fire and the people in it, typifying friendliness. Comp. Tanner, _Narr._, p. 348, fig. I.

V. 16 pursues the topic of v. 13, and it looks as if v. 14 and 15 should be transposed to follow v. 20.

17. The former renderings are.--

"Thou being Kiwis, good God Wunand, and the good makers were such."--_Rafinesque._

"There being a good god, all spirits were good."--_Squier._

Rafinesque mistook the adverb _kiwis_ for a proper name.

18. Raf. translates _nijini_, the Jins, and _nantinewak_, fairies, and Squier follows him in the latter, but could not go as far as the former! As seen in the vocabulary, I attach wholly different notions to these words. The two figures united refer to the sexual relation. Compare Tanner, _Narr._, pp. 371, figs. 8, 9.

19. _Gattamin_ cannot mean "fat fruit," as Raf. translates it. He has evidently mistaken the explanation given by Heckewelder, of Catawissa, _Gattawisu_, becoming fat, and thought that _gatta_, was fat, whereas _wisu_ is "fat." (Zeis. _Gram._, p. 229.) _Wakon_ is understood by Rafinesque as the proper name of the evil spirit, connecting it with the Dakota _wakan_, divine, supernatural.

20. The dream of "the good old times," the happy epoch of yore, when men dwelt in peace and prosperity, was, as I have shown, page 135, a myth of the Delawares, and George Copway tells us that the Chipeway legends also recalled it with delight. (_Traditional History of the Ojibway Nation_, pp. 98 and 169-175.)

21. The symbol is the same as that of the "bad spirit under the earth," given by Copway, p. 135.

A similar figure is given by Copway to signify "bad," p. 135. I do not understand its allusion.

22. _Mattalogas_; the prefix is the negative _matta_, no, not, and generally conveys a bad sense, as _matteleman_, to despise one, _mattelendam_, to be uneasy. Zeis.

_Pallalogasin_, to sin, from _palli_, elsewhere, other than, hence _pallhiken_, to shoot amiss, to miss the mark, to go wrong.

_Maktaton_, unhappiness. There is a relation in Lenape between the negative _matta_, in Minsi, _machta_, and the words for bad, ugly, evil, and the like; _machtisisu_, here it is bad, or ugly. _Zeisb._ It would seem to be an intuitive recognition of the profound philosophical maxim that evil is ever a negation; that Mephistopheles is, as he says in Faust--

"Der Geist der stets vernemt"

23. The symbol is apparently trees on hills, bent by a storm, and beneath a death's head.

24. The picture seems to be two countries connected by a bridge.

_Atak kitahican_, = _attach_, beyond, above; _kitahican_, the ocean, literally "the great tidal sea." It is possible this has reference to the deluge, which is described in the next section; but usually _kitahican_ meant the ocean.

II.

1. _Maskanako_; the Lenape words would be _mechek_, great, _achgook_, snake; but _maska_ is more allied to the Cree _maskaw_, strong, hard, solid. Raf. translates the close of the line "when men had become bad."

2. _Schingalan_, to hate; from the adjective _schingi_, disliking, unwilling. This is the contrary of _wingi_, liking, willing. Both are from the subjective radical _n_ or _ni_, I, _Ego_, the latter with the prefix _wĕl_, signifying pleasurable sensation (see page 104).

_Shawelendamep_, preterite form, strengthened by the prefix _ksch_, of the verb _acquiwelendam_, Zeis., to disquiet, to trouble; it has not the passive sense given in Rafinesque's translation. All verbs terminating in _elendam_ signify a disposition of mind, the root being again the subjective _n_, ego. Raf. translates: "This strong snake had become the foe of the Jins, and they became troubled, hating each other."

3. _Palliton_, from _palli_, elsewhere (from what was intended), hence "to spoil something, to do it wrong," and later "to fall out, to fight."

_Lungundowin_, from _langan_, easy, light to do, Chipeway, _nin nangan_, I find it light, of no trouble; hence, "_peace_" as being a time free from trouble; and by a third application of the idea, _elangomellan_, friends, those who are at peace with us.

4. Raf. translates this line: "Less men with dead-keeper fighting," which is a total misunderstanding of the words. On the derivation of _nihanlowit_ see _ante_, page 102.

6. On _nakowa_, see I, line 14. Here I consider it a derivative from _nacha_, three, and both the sense of the line and the symbol, with three marks to the right of the figure, indicate this meaning. The three antagonists are the monster, the waters, and the Great Snake himself.

7. The repetition of the words is to add force to the phrase.

8. This is an important line, as indicating the origin of the Walam Olum. _Nanaboush_ is not the Delaware form of the name of the Algonkin hero-god, so far as known, but the Chipeway _Nanabooshoo_, Tanner, _Nanibajou_, McKinney, properly _Nānâboj_, the Trickster, the Cheater, allied to Chip. _nin nanabanis_, I am cheated. This term, like the Cree _Wisakketjâk_, which has the same meaning (_fourbe_, _trompeur_, Lacombe), was applied to the hero-god of these nations on account of his exhaustless ingenuity in devising tricks, ruses, disguises and transformations, to overcome the various other divine powers with whom he came in conflict. This seemingly depreciatory term arose from the same admiration of versatility of powers which has imparted such universal popularity to the story of the wily (πολυτροπος) Ulysses, and the trickery of Master Reynard.

The appearance of this form of the name indicates that the version of the legend here given has been influenced by Chipeway associations, as, indeed, we might expect, since it was obtained in Indiana, where the Delawares were in constant intercourse with their Chipeway neighbors.

_Tulapit menapit = tulpe epit, menatey epit_, "it was then at the turtle, it was then at the island." The form _Tula_ has given rise to the strangest theorizing about this line, as, of course, the antiquaries could not resist the temptation to see in it a reference to the Tula or Tollan of Aztec mythology, the capital city of the Toltecs and the home of Quetzalcoatl.

The similarity of the words is purely fortuitous. The Lenape word _tulpe_ means turtle or tortoise, especially, says Zeisberger, a water or sea turtle. In their mythology, as I have already shown (ante, p. 134) the earth was supposed to be floating on a boundless ocean, as a turtle floats on the surface of a pond. Hence, symbolically, the turtle represents the dry land.

_Maskaboush_ = Chip. _mashka_, strong, _wabos_, usually translated hare or rabbit, but really "White One." I have fully explained this mistaken sense of the word in _American Hero Myths_, pp. 41, 42, and elsewhere.

9. The Algonkin myth relates that Michabo or Nanaboj after having formed the earth on the primal ocean, walked round and round it, and by this act increased it constantly in size.

Rafinesque's translation is:--"Being born creeping, he is ready to move and dwell at _Tula_;" and in his note to the line he adds, "_Tula_ is the ancient seat of the Toltecas and Mexican nations in Asia; the _Tulan_ or _Turan_ of Central Tartary."

The entire absence of connected meaning in this and other lines of Rafinesque's translation is strong evidence that he did not fabricate the text; otherwise he would certainly have assigned it some coherent sense.

The turtle is, as usual, the symbol of the land or earth (see page 133).

12. _Manito-dasin_, the Divine Maiden, or the Daughter of the Gods, as it might be freely translated. The reference is to the Virgin who at the beginning of things descended from heaven, and alighting on the back of the turtle became the mother of Nanaboj and his brothers. She was well known in Eastern Algonkin mythology, as I have already shown. (See above, p. 131.)

13. This and the three following verses form, observes Rafinesque, a rhymed hymn to Nanabush.

14. In this line the men are referred to as _Linapi_, not _lennowak_ as before. Here then begins the particular history of the Lenape tribe, whose chief sub-tribe was the Turtle clan.

The meaning of the line is very obscure. It seems to refer to the origin of the Unami, or Turtle sub-tribe of the Delawares.

16. _Kwamipokho_, translated by Raf. "plain and mountain," does not appear to me to bear any such rendering. I take it as a form of _champeecheneu_, Z. "it is still or stagnant water," the appropriateness of which to the context is evident.

_Sitwalikho_, Raf. renders "path of cave," deriving it obviously from _tsit_, foot, and _woalheu_, a hole. It has no sort of meaning in this rendering, and I assume, therefore, that it is a derivative from _tschitqui_, silent.

_Maskan wagan_, probably an error for _maskanakon_, as in v. I.

_Palliwi, palliwi_, "is elsewhere, is elsewhere," or, "is foiled, is overcome."

III.

1. _Wittank talli_: in the MS. these words are first translated "dwelling town there," but the last two words are erased and "of Talli" substituted. This is one of a number of instances where Rafinesque altered his first translations, which is further evidence that he did not manufacture the text. In this instance, as frequently, he altered it for the worse. _Wittank_ is from _witen_, to go with or be with, Zeis., and _talli_ is the adverb "there."

3. _Meshautang_, "many deer" (see Vocabulary), translated by Rafinesque, "game."

_Siliewak_, rendered by Rafinesque _sili_, cattle, _ewak_, they go. The _wak_ is the terminal "and" (see notes to I. v. 10). The word _sisile_, in modern Delaware _sizil'ia_ (Whipple's Vocabulary), means "buffalo." Its older form is seen in the MS. vocab. of the New Jersey Indians, 1792, where it is _sisiliamuus_. This is a compound of the generic termination _muus_, Cree, _mustus_ (whence our word "moose"), meaning any large quadruped, and probably the prefix _tschilani_ strong powerful with an intensive reduplication

4. _Powalessin_ from the same root as _powwow_ (see page 70). The course of thought was that the dreamer (_powwow_) became wise beyond his followers and hence obtained power and riches though not of a martial character.

_Elowichil_ hunters _allowin_ to hunt, doubtless connected with _alluns_ an arrow.

5, 6. A note in the MS states that the symbols of these two verses were united together in the original drawings.

7. In this verse the pre-eminence of the Turtle sub-tribe the Unami is asserted to have obtained from the most ancient times.

8. The verses 8, 9, 10 are referred in Rafinesque's free translation to the Snake people. They seem to me to be descriptive of the grief of the Lenape on leaving their ancient home.

12. _Pokhapokhapek_, Gaping Sea, Raf. Both this and the preceding word are descriptive of the sea referred to as offering means of subsistence _namaes_ fish _pocqueu_ muscles or clams being the two main food products of the water for the Indians.

The location of this productive spot I leave for future investigators to determine. The Detroit River and the Thousand Isles in the St. Lawrence are the most appropriate localities to my mind.

13. The last word of the line is given in the MS. both as _menakinep_ and _akomenep_ the latter a later interlineation. I prefer the former.

_Wapasinep_, may mean 'at the East' as well as 'in the light.' The latter is a metaphor, common in the native tongues for prosperity.

Verses 13 to 20 inclusive were printed by Rafinesque in the original and called by him, the poem on the passage to America, as he understood this narrative to refer to the period when the ancestors of the Lenape crossed Behring straits from Asia to America on the ice.

17. _Kitahican_, This is the term given by Zeisberger to the Ocean. The prefix _Kit_ is "great" and the termination _hican_ appears to have been confined to tidal waters (see above p. 21). Elsewhere this termination signifies an instrument. Probably it was applicable to all large bodies of water. On _pokhakhopek_, doubtless a carelessness for _pokhapokhapek_, line 12, see note to the latter.

18. Squier does not give the numerals, but says simply "in vast numbers." No doubt this is the intention of the expression.

20. _Shiwaking_, "the place of spruce firs" (see Vocab). They crossed in mid-winter a broad stream, rich in fish and shell-fish, and arrived at a land covered with forests of spruce. For a long time this appears to have remained their home.

IV.

2. _Sittamaganat_, Raf. translates "Path Leader." The word _tamaganat_ appears in other verses, as _w'tamaganat_, IV, 37; _tamaganat_, IV, 55; _tamaganend_, V, 2. I derive it from the root _tam_, literally to drink, but generally, to smoke tobacco, as in Roger Williams' Key _wut-tammagon_, a pipe (see above, page 49). Hence I take _tamagamat_ to be the pipe-bearer, he who had charge of the Sacred Calumet. If it is objected that this puts the use of tobacco by the Lenape too remote, I reply that we do not know when they began to use it, and moreover, this may be an anachronism of tradition.

13, 14. The lands toward the four cardinal points are described from a centre where the tribe was then located. Neither Rafinesque nor Squier understood this, and their renderings do not mention the territories North and West. From the description, I should place the then location of the tribe in Western New York and Northern Ohio.

16. The four names seem to be appellatives of different tribes. One of the extinct tribes remembered in Chipeway tradition was the _Assigunaik_, Stone People (Schoolcraft, _History and Statistics of the Ind. Tribes_, Vol. I, p. 305).

25. The legend here relates that the cultivation of maize began after they had reached a low latitude, presumably Southern Indiana or Ohio. The legend of the New England Indians was that a crow flew down from the great God Kitantowit, bringing in one ear a grain of corn, in the other a bean, and taught them the cultivation of these plants. (Roger Williams, _Key into the Language of America_, p. 114.) See further, ante, p. 48.

34. _Wisawana_, the Yellow River. There is a small river, so-called, in the State of Indiana, a branch of the Kankakee, called on Hough's "Map of the Indian Names of Indiana" _We-tho-gan_, a corruption of _wisawanna_. (See Hough's map, in _Twelfth Annual Report of the Geology and Natural History of Indiana_, 1883.) When the Minsi made their first migration west, about 1690, they directed their course to this spot, where they were found by Charlevoix in 1721.

36. _Tamenend_, the name of the celebrated chief now better known to us as Tammany, who dealt with William Penn. Heckewelder translates it as "Affable." This is the first of the name. A second is mentioned, V, 32. The friend of Penn was the third.

46. _Towakon pallitonep_, Raf. translates "father snake, he was mad!"

48. Perhaps this line should be translated: "They speak well of the east; many go to the east."

49. _Nemassipi_, Fish River. In the MS. this name was first written _mixtu sipi_. The name "Fish River" was applied to various streams by the Delawares, but never, so far as I know, to the Mississippi. In the present connection it seems to refer either to the St. Lawrence, about the Thousand Isles, or else its upper stream, the Detroit River, both of which were famous fishing spots.

50. _Talligewi_. No name in the Lenape legends has given rise to more extensive discussion than this. It is usually connected with _Alligewi_ and this again with _Alleghany_. This seems supported by Loskiel, who, writing on the authority of Zeisberger, says, "Nun nennen die Delawaren die ganze Gegend, so weit die Gewässer reichen, die in dem Ohio fallen, Alligewinengk, welches so viel bedeutet, als das Land, in welches sie sich aus weit entfernten Orten begeben haben." (_Geschichte der Mission_, etc., p. 164.)

The meaning here assigned to Alligewinengk, "land where they arrived from distant places," is evidently based on the resolution of the compound into _talli_, there, _icku_, to that place, _ewak_, they go, with a locative final. The initial _t_ is often omitted in adverbial compounds of _talli_ (itself a compound of _ta_, locative particle, and _li_, to), as _allamunk_, in there.

Bishop Ettwein gives to the word a different meaning. He writes: "The Delawares call the western country _Alligewenork_, which signifies a War-Path; the river itself they call _Alligewi Sipo_." (_Legends and Traditions_, etc., in _Bull. of the Pa. Hist. Soc._ p. 34.) Here the derivation would be from _palliton_, to fight, _ewak_, they go, and a locative, "they go there to fight." The omission of the initial _p_ was not uncommon, as Campanius gives _ayuta = alliton_, to make war. (_Catechismus_, p. 141.)

Basing his opinion on an expression in the Journal of C. F. Post, to the effect that Alleghany means "fine or fair river," Dr. J. H. Trumbull analyzes it into _wulik, hanne, sipu_, which he translates "best, rapid-stream, long-river" (_Connect. Hist. Soc. Colls._ Vol. II).

Rafinesque, in the MS. of the Walum Olum, gives Talligewi the translation "there found," from _talli_, there, and I know not what word for "found."

There have not been wanting those who would derive the name Alleghany from Iroquois roots, as the Seneca _De-o-na-ga-no_, "cold water" (_Amer. Hist. Mag._ Vol. IV, p. 184). But there is no probability that the word is Iroquois.

Whatever its origin, the name was not confined to the Alleghany river, but included the whole of the Upper Ohio, as the interpreter Post distinctly says.

The Rev. Mr. Heckewelder was of opinion that _Talligewi_ was a word foreign to the Algonkin, a _nomen gentile_ of another tribe, adopted by the Delawares, just as they adopted _Mengwe_ for the Iroquois from the Onondaga _Yenkwe_, men (see above, page 14). It is not necessarily connected with Alleghany, which may be pure Algonkin. He says, "Those people called themselves _Talligeu_ or _Talligewi_." (_Indian Nations_ p. 48.) The accent, as he gives it, _Tallige'wi_, shows that the word is, _Talliké_, with the substantive verb termination, so that _Talligewi_ means, "He is a _Talliké_" or, "It is of (belongs to) the Talliké."

This appears to me the most probable supposition of any I have quoted, and it reduces our quest to that of a nation who called themselves by a name which, to Lenape ears, would sound like _Talliké_. Such a nation presents itself at once in the Cherokees, who call themselves _Tsa'laki_. Moreover, they fill the requirements in other particulars. Their ancient traditions assign them a residence precisely where the Delaware legends locate the Tallike, to wit, on the upper waters of the Ohio (see above, page 17). Fragments of them continued there until within the historic period, and the persistent hostility between them and the Delawares points to some ancient and important contest.

Name, location and legends, therefore, combine to identify the Cherokees or Tsalaki with the Tallike, and this is as much evidence as we can expect to produce in such researches. I can see no reason whatever for Dr. Shea's opinion that the Lenape "in their progress eastward drove out of Ohio the Quappas, called by the Algonkins, Alkanzas or Alligewi, who retreated down the Ohio and Mississippi." (Shea, Notes to Alsop's _Maryland_, p. 118.)

The question remains, whether the Tallike were the "Mound Builders." It is not so stated in the WALUM OLUM. The inference rather is that the "Snake people," _Akowini_ or _Akonapi_, dwelt in the river valleys north of the Ohio river, in the area of Western Ohio and Indiana, where the most important earthworks are found--and singularly enough none more remarkable than the immense effigy of the serpent in Adams County, Ohio, which winds its gigantic coils over 700 feet in length on the summit of a bold bluff overlooking Brush Creek.

According to the RED SCORE, the Snake people were conquered by the Algonkins long before the contest with the Tallike began. These latter lay between the position then occupied by the Lenape and the eastern territory where they were found by the whites. In other words, the Tallike were on the Upper Ohio and its tributaries, and they had to be driven south before the path across the mountains was open. For this reason they are called _wapawullaton_, "possessing the East," that is, with reference to the then position of the Lenape in southwestern Ohio.

54. _Talamatan_. This was the Lenape name of the Huron-Iroquois or Wyandots. It is found in the form _Telamatinos_ in a "List of 11 Nations living West of Allegheny" present by deputy at a Conference in Philadelphia, 1759 (_Minutes of the Prov Council of Penna._, Vol. VIII, p. 418). Heckewelder gives _Delamattenos_ (_Ind. Nations_, p. 80).

Rafinesque translates the name in one place by "not Talas," and in another by "not of us," from Len. _matta_, not, Latin _nos_, us. That the Lenape did not speak Latin made no difference in his linguistic theory, as he held all languages to be at core the same! On the Hurons, see above, p. 16.

V.

2. _Wapalaneng_, apparently the White River, Indiana, or else the Wabash.

16. In this line the three tribes are mentioned which were previously named in IV, 44, 45, 46, and the difference in the spelling shows that the chant was written down by one unacquainted with the forms of the language. The correspondent names are:--

IV. V. Akowini, Sinako. Towakon, Towako. Lowanuski, Lowako.

The termination _ako_, uniformly rendered by Rafinesque _snake_, appears to be either the animate plural in _ak_, or the locative _aki_, place or land.

The _Towako_ are probably the Ot-tawa called by the Delaware _Taway_; or the Twightees, called by them _Tawatatwee_ (see "List of 11 Nations," etc., in _Minutes of the Prov. Council of Pa._, Vol. VIII, p. 418).

There is difficulty in reconciling _Akowini_ and _Sinako_. In the former, the prefix _ako_ may be from _achgook_, snake, as Rafinesque and Squier rendered it.

The word _Lowanuski_ appears again in v. 18, where Raf. inserts the note, "Lowushkis are Esquimaux." It means simply "winter land," or "Northern people," and is not likely to have any reference to the Eskimo.

22. "Without snakes," _i. e._, free from enemies.

24. On the derivation of Susquehannah, see page 14.

25. _Winakaking_, Sassafras Land, the native name of eastern Pennsylvania.

29. The Wapings and the Minsi seem to be referred to.

33, 36. The omission of the numbers 34 and 35 is in the original MS.

50. _Ganshowenik_; Raf. translates this "the noisy place, or Niagara." It is a derivative from the root _kan_. See Vocab.

60. _Ewenikiktit_, may be translated "whites" or "Europeans." See Vocabulary.

VOCABULARY.

In the following Vocabulary the meaning placed immediately after the word is that assigned to it in Rafinesque's original MS, the probable composition of it is then added, with its correct rendering. The standard of the language adopted is that of the Moravian missionaries (see above, p. 97). The initials referring to authorities are Z., for Zeisberger, K., for Kampman, H., for Heckewelder, R. W., Roger Williams, C. or Camp., Campamus, etc.

Aan. I, 6. To move; to go; Z. conjugated, _Gram._, p. 142. Chip _am_, he goes; _aunj-eh_, he moves. Cf. _Payat._

Agamunk. III, 16. Over water. _Acawenuck_, over the water. R. W. _Acawmenoakit_, land on the other side of the water, _i. e._ England. R. W. The proper names Accomac, Algonkin, etc., are from the same roots.

Agunouken. III, 13. Always our fathers. _Nooch_, my father, Z. in which _n_ is the possessive _our_ or _my_.

Akhokink. III, 9. Snake land at. Derivatives beginning with _akho_, and some with _ako_ appear to be compounds of _achgook_, Mohegan _ukkok_, the generic name for snake.

Akhomenis. IV, 3. Snake Island. _Menatey_, island, and _achgook_, snake.

Akhonapi. IV, 16. Snaking man. _Achgook_, and _ape_, man, a _nomen gentile_.

Akhopayat. IV, 6. Snake coming. _Achgook_, snake; _payat_, he comes.

Akhopokho. IV, 6. Snake hill. _Achgook_, snake. _Pockhepokink_, a river between hills. Heck.

Akhowemi. IV, 7. Snake all. _Achgook_, snake, and _wemi_, all.

Ako. II, 1, 2. Snake. _Achgook_, snake. See _Akhokink_.

Akolaki. IV, 13, and Akolaking. IV, 18. At beautiful land. _Achgook_, snake; _aki_, land. A form of _Akhokink_, q. v.

Akomen. III, 14, 18. Island snake. _Achgook_, snake; _menatey_, island.

Akomenaki. III, 10. Snake fortified island. _Akomen_, q. v., and _aki_, land.

Akomenep. III, 13. Snake island was. _Akomen_, with the preterit termination.

Akopehella. II, 6. Snake water rushing. _Kschippehellan_, strong stream in a river. Z. See _Pehella_.

Akowetako. V, 43. Coweta snakes. _Weta_, a house, H., and _aki_, land; the Coweta land.

Akowini. IV, 44. Snake beings _or_ like. The Snake people; a _nomen gentile_.

Akpinep. III, 2. Was there. _Achpil_, to stay, abide; _achpiney_, a sleeping place.

Alankwak. I, 5. Stars. _Alank_, star.

Alkosohit. IV, 26. Keeper and preserver. _Allouchsit_, strong and mighty. K.

Allendyachick. IV, 32. Some going. _Alende_, some.

Allendhilla. IV, 52. Some kill. _Alende_, some, and _nihillan_, to kill.

Allendyumek. II, 11. Some of them.

Allowelendam. III, 20. Preferring above all. _Allowelendamen_, to esteem highly. Z.

Allumapi. III, 19. With dogs of man. _Allum_, dog; _ape_, man; men having dogs.

Alokuwi. IV, 46. Lean he. _Alocuwoagan_, leanness. Z.

Amangaki. V, 21. Large land. _Amangi_, great, large. See p. 146, note.

Amangam. II, 6. Monster. _Amangi_. See p. 146, note.

Amangamek. I, 14. Manitos or large reptiles. II, 11. Waters of sea. _Amangemek_, a large fish.

Amokolen. III, 13. Boating. _Amochol_, canoe or boat.

Amigaki. V, 21. Long land. _Amangi_, great; _aki_, land.

Angelotawiwak. I, 10. Angels also. From _angeln_, to die. See note to the passage.

Angomelchik. IV, 4. The friends _or_ friendly souls. _Melechitschant_, soul. Z.; _melih_, corruption, Z., and _angeln_, to die; "the souls departed."

Anup. II, 1. When. _Aanup_, when _or_ if I went. Zeis. _Gram._, p. 143. Doubtful.

Apakachik. III, 6. Spreaders. _Apach tschiechton_, to display, to attach oneself to or upon. K.

Apakchikton. IV, 11. Spreading. See _Apakachik_.

Apendawi. IV, 26. Useful he. _Apendamen_, to make use of; _apensuwi_, useful, enjoyable.

Aptèlendam. III, 9. Grieving. To grieve to death. Zeis.

Askipalliton. V, 43. Must make war. _Aski_, must, obliged, and _palliton_.

Askiwaal. IV. They must go. _Aski_, must, and _aan_ or _aal_, to go.

Assinapi. IV, 16. Stone man. _Assin_, a stone; _ape_, a man; a _nomen gentile._

Atak. I, 24. Beyond. _Attach_, beyond, above. Zeis.

Atam. III, 8. Let us go. _Atam_, let us go. Z. _Gram._

Attagatta. IV, 31. Unwilling. _Atta_, or _matta_, negative prefix; _gatta_, to want, or wish.

Attalchinitis. IV, 62. Not always friend. _Atta_, neg. prefix; _nitap_, friend, or our friend.

Attaminin. IV, 28. No corn. _Atta_, neg. prefix; _min_, berry or corn.

Attasokelan. IV, 28. No raining. _Atta_, neg. prefix; _sokelan_, rain.

Awasagamek. I, 4. Much heaven. _Awosegame_, heaven. Z.

Awesik. I, 13. Beasts. _Awessis_, a beast.

Awolagan. V, 12. Heavenly. _Awullakenim_, to praise. K.

Ayamak. IV, 15, 17. The great warrior. _Ajummen_, to buy, purchase. K.; from _aji_, take it! hence "the Buyer," or "the Seizer".

Chanelendam. III, 20. Doubting. _Tschannelendam_, to consider, to be in doubt. K.

Chichankwak. I, 10. Souls also. _Tschitschank_, soul.

Chihillen. III, 11. Separating. _Tschitschpihieleu_, to split asunder; cf. _chipeu_, it separates.

Chikimini. V, 52. Turkey tribe. See above, p. 37.

Chikonapi. IV, 16. Robbing man, _Cheche_, to rob, R. W., _Key_, p. 102.

Chiksit. III, 5. Holy. _Kschiechek_, clean; _kschiechanchsopannik_, holy. Z.

Chilili. IV, 10, 12, 15. Snow-bird. _Chilili_, snow-bird, Heck. _Ind. Names_, p. 363.

Chingalsuwi. IV, 30. Stiffened he. _Tschingalsu_, stiff.

Chintanes. III, 4. Strong. _Tschintamen_, strong. Z.

Chitanesit. III, 5. Strong. _Tschitani_, strong. K.

Chitanitis. IV, 51. Strong friend. _Tschitani_, strong; _nitis_, friend.

Chitanwulit. IV, 45. Strong and good. _Tschitani_, strong; _wulit_, good.

Cholensak. I, 13. Birds. _Tscholens_, bird.

Dasin. II, 12. Daughter. _N'danūss_, my daughter.

Danisapi. III, 19. Daughters of man. _N'danūss_, my daughter; _ape_, man.

Delsin. I, 8. Is there. _W'dellsin_, he is _or_ does so. Zeis. _Gram._, p. 117.

Delsinewo. III, 5. They are. _W'dellsinewo_, they are or do so. Zeis. _Gram._, p. 117.

Eken. II, 2. Together. Probably an error for _nekama_, those.

Elangomel. V, 38. Friendly to all. _Elangomellan_, my friend. Z.

Elemamik. I, 3. Everywhere, _Elemamek_, everywhere. Z.

Elendamep. I, 20. Thinking. On _elendam_, see above, p. 100.

Eli. I, 21. While. _Eli_, because, then, so, that. K. Also a superlative prefix, as _eli kimi_ very privately.

Elmusichik. IV, 4. The goers. _Elemussit_, he who goes away. Z.

Elowaki. III, 17. Hunting country. _Eluwak_, most powerful. Z. In this word and in _elowapi_, Rafinesque mistook the meaning of the prefix. Compare _elowichik_.

Elowapi. III, 19. Hunting manly. _Eli_, intensive, best or most, and _ape_, man, or perhaps _wapi_, knowing.

Elowichik. III, 4, 5, 6. Hunters. From _allauwin_, to hunt. Z.; _allauwitaa_, let us go hunting. H.

Eluwi. III, 5. Most. The superlative form _eli_, with the substantive verb suffix, _wi_.

Eluwiwulit. IV, 36. The best. From _eluwi_, and _wulit_, good.

Enolowin. IV, 9. Things who. Doubtful, perhaps, _nanne_, those; _owini_, beings, people.

Epallahchund. V, 53. Failer, who fails. _Pallikiken_, to shoot amiss; _palliaan_, to go away.

Epit. I, 8. Being there. I, 24. At. This is a suppositive form from _achpin_, called the "adverbial" by Zeis., _Gram._, p. 115, who translates it "where he is." It may also be translated by the preposition "at." See Heckewelder, _Correspondence with Duponceau_,