CHAPTER IV.

THE LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE OF THE LENAPE.

§ 1. Literature of the Lenape Tongue--Campanius; Penn; Thomas, Zeisberger; Heckeweider, Roth, Ettwein; Grube, Dencke; Luckenbach; Henry; Vocabularies, a native letter.

§ 2. General Remarks on the Lenape.

§ 3. Dialects of the Lenape.

§ 4. Special Structure of the Lenape.--The Root and the Theme; Prefixes; Suffixes; Derivatives, Grammatical Notes.

§ 1. _Literature of the Lenape Tongue._

The first study of the Delaware language was undertaken by the Rev. Thomas Campanius (Holm), who was chaplain to the Swedish settlements, 1642-1649. He collected a vocabulary, wrote out a number of dialogues in Delaware and Swedish, and even completed a translation of the Lutheran catechism into the tongue. The last mentioned was published in Stockholm, in 1696, through the efforts of his grandson, under the title, LUTHERI CATECHISMUS, _Ofwersatt pä American-Virginiske Spräket_, 1 vol., sm. 8vo, pp. 160. On pages 133-154 it has a _Vocabularium Barbaro-Virgineorum_, and on pages 155-160, _Vocabula Mahakuassica_. The first is the Delaware as then current on the lower river, the second the dialect of the Susquehannocks or Minquas, who frequently visited the Swedish settlements.

Although he managed to render all the Catechism into something which looks like Delaware, Campanius' knowledge of the tongue was exceedingly superficial. Dr. Trumbull says of his work: "The translator had not learned even so much of the grammar as to distinguish the plural of a noun or verb from the singular, and knew nothing of the "transitions" by which the pronouns of the subject and object are blended with the verb."[151]

At the close of his "History of New Sweden," Campanius adds further linguistic material, including an imaginary conversation in Lenape, and the oration of a sachem. It is of the same character as that found in the Catechism.

After the English occupation very little attention was given to the tongue beyond what was indispensable to trading. William Penn, indeed, professed to have acquired a mastery of it. He writes: "I have made it my business to understand it, that I might not want an interpreter on any occasion."[152] But it is evident, from the specimens he gives, that all he studied was the trader's jargon, which scorned etymology, syntax and prosody, and was about as near pure Lenape as pigeon English is to the periods of Macaulay.

An ample specimen of this jargon is furnished us by Gabriel Thomas, in his "Historical and Geographical Account of the Province and Country of Pensilvania; and of West-New-Jersey in America," London, 1698, dedicated to Penn. Thomas tells us that he lived in the country fifteen years, and supplies, for the convenience of those who propose visiting the province, some forms of conversation, Indian and English. I subjoin a short specimen, with a brief commentary:--

1. _Hitah takoman?_ Friend, from whence com'st? 2. _Andogowa nee weekin._ Yonder. 3. _Tony andogowa kee weekin?_ Where Yonder? 4. _Arwaymouse._ At Arwaymouse. 5. _Keco kee hatah weekin?_ What hast got in thy house? 6. _Nee hatah huska weesyouse og_ I have very fat venison and _huska chetena chase og huska_ good strong skins, with very _orit chekenip._ good turkeys. 7. _Chingo kee beto nee chasa ag_ When wilt thou bring me skins _yousa elka chekenip?_ and venison, with turkeys? 8. _Haiapa etka nisha kishquicka._ To morrow, or two days hence.

1. _Hitah_ for _n'ischu_ (Mohegan, _nitap_), my friend; _takoman_, Zeis. _takomun_, from _ta_, where, _k_, 2d pers. sing.

2. _Andogowa_, similar to _undachwe_, he comes, Heck.; _nee_, pron. possess. 1st person; _weekin_ = _wikwam_, or wigwam. "I come from my house."

3. _Tony_, = Zeis. _tani_, where? _kee_, pron. possess. 2d person.

4. _Arwaymouse_ was the name of an Indian village, near Burlington, N.J.

5. _Keco_, Zeis. _koecu_, what? _hatah_, Zeis. _hattin_, to have.

6. _Huska_, Zeis. _husca_, "very, truly;" _wees_, Zeis. _wisu_, fatty flesh, _youse_, R. W. _jous_, deer meat; _og_, Camp. _ock_, Zeis. _woak_ and; _chetena_, Zeis. _tschitani_, strong; _chase_, Z. _chessak_, deerskin; _orit_, Zeis. _wulit_, good; _chekenip_, Z. _tschekenum_, turkey.

7. _Chingo_, Zeis. _tschingatsch_, when; _beto_, Z. _peten_, to bring; _etka_, R. W., _ka_, and.

8. _Halapa_, Z. _alappa_, to-morrow; _nisha_, two; _kishquicka_, Z. _gischgu_, day, _gischguik_, by day.

The principal authority on the Delaware language is the Rev. David Zeisberger, the eminent Moravian missionary, whose long and devoted labors may be accepted as fixing the standard of the tongue.

Before him, no one had seriously set to work to master the structure of the language, and reduce it to a uniform orthography. With him, it was almost a lifelong study, as for more than sixty years it engaged his attention. To his devotion to the cause in which he was engaged, he added considerable natural talent for languages, and learned to speak, with almost equal fluency, English, German, Delaware and the Onondaga and Mohawk dialects of the Iroquois.

The first work he gave to the press was a "Delaware Indian and English Spelling Book for the Schools of the Mission of the United Brethren," printed in Philadelphia, 1776. As he did not himself see the proofs, he complained that both in its arrangement and typographical accuracy it was disappointing. Shortly before his death, in 1806, the second edition appeared, amended in these respects. A "Hymn Book," in Delaware, which he finished in 1802, was printed the following year, and the last work of his life, a translation into Delaware of Lieberkuhn's "History of Christ," was published at New York in 1821.

These, however, formed but a small part of the manuscript materials he had prepared on and in the language. The most important of these were his Delaware Grammar, and his Dictionary in four languages, English, German, Onondaga and Delaware.

The MS. of the Grammar was deposited in the Archives of the Moravian Society at Bethlehem, Pa. A translation of it was prepared by Mr. Peter Stephen Duponceau, and published in the "Transactions of the American Philosophical Society," in 1827.

The quadrilingual dictionary has never been printed. The MS. was presented, along with others, in 1850, to the library of Harvard College, where it now is. The volume is an oblong octavo of 362 pages, containing about 9000 words in the English and German columns, but not more than half that number in the Delaware.

A number of other MSS. of Zeisberger are also in that library, received from the same source. Among these are a German-Delaware Glossary, containing 51 pages and about 600 words; a Delaware-German Phrase Book of about 200 pages; Sermons in Delaware, etc., mostly incomplete studies, but of considerable value to the student of the tongue.[153]

Associated with Zeisberger for many years was the genial Rev. John Heckewelder, so well known for his pleasant "History of the Indian Nations of Pennsylvania," his interpretations of the Indian names of the State, and his correspondence with Mr. Duponceau. He certainly had a fluent, practical knowledge of the Delaware, but it has repeatedly been shown that he lacked analytical power in it, and that many of his etymologies as well as some of his grammatical statements are erroneous.

Another competent Lenapist was the Rev. Johannes Roth. He was born in Prussia in 1726, and educated a Catholic. Joining the Moravians in 1748, he emigrated to America in 1756, and in 1759 took charge of the missionary station called Schechschiquanuk, on the west bank of the Susquehanna, opposite and a little below Shesequin, in Bradford county, Pennsylvania. There he remained until 1772, when, with his flock, fifty-three in number, he proceeded to the new Gnadenhütten, in Ohio. There a son was born to him, the first white child in the area of the present State of Ohio. In 1774 he returned to Pennsylvania, and after occupying various pastorates, he died at York, July 22d, 1791.

Roth has left us a most important work, and one hitherto entirely unknown to bibliographers. He made an especial study of the _Unami dialect_ of the Lenape, and composed in it an extensive religious work, of which only the fifth part remains. It is now in the possession of the American Philosophical Society, and bears the title:--

EIN VERSUCH! der Geschichte unsers Herrn u. Heylandes JESU CHRISTI in dass Delawarische übersetzt der _Unami_ _von der Marter Woche an_ bis zur Himmelfahrt unsers Herrn im Yahr 1770 u. 72 zu Tschechschequanüng an der Susquehanna. Wuntschi mesettschawi tipatta lammowewoagan sekauchsianup. Wulapensuhalinen, Woehowaolan Nihillalijeng mPatamauwoss.

The next page begins, "Der fünfte Theil," and § 86, and proceeds to § 139. It forms a quarto volume, of title, 9 pages of contents in German and English, and 268 pages of text in Unami, written in a clear hand, with many corrections and interlineations.

This is the only work known to me as composed distinctively in the Unami, and its value is proportionately great as providing the means of studying this, the acknowledged most cultivated and admired of the Lenape dialects.

It will be the task of some future Lenape scholar to edit its text and analyze its grammatical forms. But I believe that Algonkin students will be glad to see at this time an extract from its pages.

I select § 96, which is the parable of the marriage feast of the king's son, as given in Matthew xxii, 1-14.

1. Woak Jesus wtabptonalawoll woak lapi nuwuntschi And Jesus he-spoke-with-them and again he-began

Enendhackewoagannall nelih woak wtellawoll. parables them-to and he-said-to-them.

2. Ne Wusakimawoagan Patamauwoss wtellgigui} mallaschi} The his-kingdom God it-is-like

mejauchsid Sakima, na Quisall mall'mtauwan certain king, his-son be-made-for-him

Witachpungewiwuladtpoàgan. marriage.

3. Woak wtellallocàlan wtallocacannall, wentschitsch nek And he-sent-out his-servants the-bidding the

Elendpannik lih Witachpungewiwuladtpoàgannung those-bidden to marriage

wentschimcussowoak; those-who-were-bidden,

tschuk necamawa schingipawak. but they they-were-unwilling.

4. Woak lapi wtellallocàlan pih wtallocacannall woak And again he-sent-out other servants and

wtella {panni} Mauwnoh nen Elendpanmk, {penna } {wolli}; {schita} he-said-to-them those the-bidden

Nolachtuppoágan 'nkischachtuppui, nihillalachkik Wisuhengpannik The-feast I-have-made-the-feast, they-are-killed they-fattened-them

auwessissak nemætschi nhillapannick woak weemi beasts the-whole I-killed-them and all

ktakocku 'ngischachtuppui, peeltik lih I-have-finished come to

Witachpungkewiwuladtpoàgannung. marriage.

5. Tschuk necamawa mattelemawoawollnenni, woak ewak But they they-esteemed-it-not and went

ika, mejauchsid enda wtakihàcannung, napilli nihillatschi away certain thither to-his-plantation-place other

{M'hallamawachtowoagannung} { Nundauchsowoagannung }. to-merchandise-place

6. Tschuk allende wtahunnawoawoll neca allocacannall But some they-seized-them those servants

{ quochkikimawoawoll } {popochpoalimawoawoll} woak wumhillawoawoll necamawa. they-beat-them and they-killed-them they.

7. Elinenni na Sakima pentanke, nannen lachxu, When the king heard therefore he-was-angry,

woak wtellallokalan Ndopaluwinuwak, woak wumhillawunga and he-sent-them warriors and he-slew

jok Nehhillowetschik, woak wulusumen Wtutèn'nejuwaowoll. these murderers, and he-destroyed their-cities.

{woll } 8. Nannen wtella {panni} nelih wtallocacannall: Ne Then he-said-to-them to his-servants The

Witachpungkewiwuladtpoagan khella nkischachtuppui, tschuk marriage truly I-have-prepared-it but

{attacu uchtàpsiwunewo } nek Elendpannick { wtopielgique juwunewo}. the those-bidden are-not-to-sit-down-worthy.

9. Nowentschi allmussin ikali mengichungi Ansijall, woak Therefore go-ye-away thither to-some-places roads and

winawammoh lih Witachpungkewiwuladtpoagan; na natta ask-ye-them to marriage those

aween _kiluwa_ mechkaweek (oh). whom ye find.

10. Woak nek Allocacannak iwak ikali menggichüngi And the servants they-went thither to-some-places

Aneijall, woak mawehawoawoll peschuwoawak na natta roads and they-brought-them-together those

aween machkawoachtid, Memannungsitschik woak Wewulilossitschik, whom they-found-them the-bad-ones and the good-ones

woak nel Ehendachpuingkill weemi tæphikkawachtinewo. and the at-the-tables all they-seated.

11. Nannen mattemikæùh na Sakima, nek Elendpannik Then he-entered-in the king the those-bidden

mauwi pennawoawoll, woak wunewoawoll uchtenda mejauchsid he-saw-them and he-saw-him there certain

Lenno, na matta uchtellachquiwon witachpungkewi man the not wearing a marriage

Schakhokquiwan. coat.

12. Woak wtellawoll neli, Elanggomêllen, ktelgiquiki And he-said-to-him to-him Friend like

matte attemikēn jun (_or_ tá elinàquo wentschi jun not ashamed here not like therefore here

k'mattîmikeen,); woak {müngachsa} mattacu witachpungkewi thou-art-ashamed and { ilik } not marriage

Schakhokquiwan ktellachquiwon? Necama tschuk k'pettúneù. coat thou wearest He but He-mouth-shuts.

13. Nannen w'tellawoll na Sakima nelih Wtallocacannüng; Then he-said-to-them the king to-them his-servants

Kachpiluh nan/woan Wunachkall woak W'sittall, woak Fasten-ye-him his-hands and his-feet and

lannéhewik quatschemung enda achwipegnunk, nitschlenda throw-him where in pitch-darkness even-some

Lipackcuwoagan woak Tschætschak koalochinen. weeping and teeth-gnashing

14. Ntitechquoh macheli moetschi wentschimcussuwak, Because many they-are-called

tschuk tatthiluwak achnaeknuksitschik. but they-are-few the-chosen

The asterisk occurs in the original apparently to indicate that a word is superfluous or doubtful. The interlined translation I have supplied from the materials in the mission-Delaware dialect, but my resources have not been sufficient to analyze each word; and this, indeed, is not necessary for my purpose, which is merely to present an example of the true Unami dialect.

The Moravian Bishop, John Ettwein, was another of their fraternity who applied himself to the study of the Delaware. Born in Europe in 1712, he came to the New World in 1754, and died at the great age of ninety years in 1802. He prepared a small dictionary and phrase book, especially rich in verbal forms. It is an octavo MS. of 88 pages, without title, and comprises about 1300 entries. This manuscript exists in one copy only, in the Moravian Archives at Bethlehem.

Bishop Ettwein also prepared for General Washington, in 1788, an account of the traditions and language of the natives, including a vocabulary. This was found among the Washington papers by Mr. Jared Sparks, and was published in the "Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Historical Society," 1848.

One of the most laborious of the Moravian missionaries was the Rev. Adam Grube. His life spanned nearly a century, from 1715, when he was born in Germany, until 1808, when he died in Bethlehem, Pa. Many years of this were spent among the Delawares in Pennsylvania and Ohio. He was familiar with their language, but the only evidence of his study of it that has come to my knowledge is a MS. in the Harvard College Library, entitled, "Einige Delawarische Redensarten und Worte." It has seventy-five useful leaves, the entries without alphabetic arrangement, some of the verbs accompanied by partial inflections. The only date it bears is "Oct. 10, 1800," when he presented it to the Rev. Mr. Luckenbach, soon to be mentioned.

After the War of 1812 the Moravian brother, Rev. C. F. Dencke, who, ten years before had attempted to teach the Gospel to the Chipeways, gathered together the scattered converts among the Delawares at New Fairfield, Canada West. In 1818 he completed and forwarded to the Publication Board of the American Bible Society a translation of the Epistles of John, which was published the same year.

He also stated to the Board that at that time he had finished a translation of John's Gospel and commenced that of Matthew, both of which he expected to send to the Board in that year. A donation of one hundred dollars was made to him to encourage him in his work, but for some reason the prosecution of his labors was suspended, and the translation of the Gospels never appeared (contrary to the statements in some bibliographies).

It is probable that Mr. Dencke was the compiler of the Delaware Dictionary which is preserved in the Moravian Archives at Bethlehem. The MS. is an oblong octavo, in a fine, but beautifully clear hand, and comprises about 3700 words. The handwriting is that of the late Rev. Mr. Kampman, from 1840 to 1842 missionary to the Delawares on the Canada Reservation. On inquiring the circumstances connected with this MS., he stated to me that it was written at the period named, and was a copy of some older work, probably by Mr. Dencke, but of this he was not certain.

While the greater part of this dictionary is identical in words and rendering with the second edition of Zeisberger's "Spelling Book" (with which I have carefully compared it), it also includes a number of other words, and the whole is arranged in accurate alphabetical order.

Mr. Dencke also prepared a grammar of the Delaware, as I am informed by his old personal friend, Rev. F. R. Holland, of Hope, Indiana; but the most persistent inquiry through residents at Salem, N. C., where he died in 1839, and at the Missionary Archives at Bethlehem, Pa., and Moraviantown, Canada, have failed to furnish me a clue to its whereabouts. I fear that this precious document was "sold as paper stock," as I am informed were most of the MSS. which he left at his decease! A sad instance of the total absence of intelligent interest in such subjects in our country.

The Rev. Abraham Luckenbach may be called the last of the Moravian Lenapists. With him, in 1854, died out the traditions of native philology. Born in 1777, in Lehigh county, Pennsylvania, he became a missionary among the Indians in 1800, and until his retirement, forty-three years later, was a zealous pastor to his flock on the White river, Indiana, and later, on the Canada Reservation. His published work is entitled "Forty-six Select Scripture Narratives from the Old Testament, embellished with Engravings, for the Use of Indian Youth. Translated into Delaware Indian, by A. Luckenbach. New York. Printed by Daniel Fanshaw, 1838." 8vo, pp. xvi, 304.

After his retirement in Bethlehem, he edited, in 1847, the second edition of Zeisberger's "Collection of Hymns," the first of which has already been mentioned.

A short MS. vocabulary, in German and Delaware, is in the possession of his family, in Bethlehem, and some loose papers in the language.

One of the most recent students of the Delaware was Mr. Matthew G. Henry, of Philadelphia. In 1859 and 1860 he compiled, with no little labor, a "Delaware Indian Dictionary," the MS. of which, in the library of the American Philosophical Society, forms a thick quarto volume of 843 pages, with a number of maps. It is in three parts; 1, English and Delaware; 2, Delaware and English; 3, Delaware Proper Names and their Translations.

It includes, without analysis or correction, the words in Zeisberger's "Spelling Book," Roger William's "Key," Companius' Vocabulary, those in Smith's and Strachey's "Virginia" and various Nanticoke, Mohegan, Minsi and other vocabularies. The derivations of the proper names are chiefly from Heckewelder, and in other cases are venturesome. The compilation, therefore, while often useful, lacks the salutary check of a critical, grammatical erudition, and in its present form is of limited value.

Some of the later vocabularies collected by various travelers offer points for comparison, and may be mentioned here.

In 1786 Major Denny[154] at Fort McIntosh, Ohio, collected a number of Delaware words, principally from Shawnee Indians. A comparison shows many of them to be in a corrupt form, owing either to the ignorance of the Shawnee authority, or to the inaccuracy of Major Denny in catching the sounds.

While engaged on the Pacific Railroad survey, in 1853, Lieut. Whipple[155] collected a vocabulary of a little over 200 words from a Delaware chief, named Black Beaver, in the Indian Territory, which was edited, in 1856, by Prof. Turner. It is evidently a pure specimen, and, as the editor observes, "agrees remarkably" with earlier authentic vocabularies.

In the second volume of Schoolcraft's large work[156] is a vocabulary of about 350 words, obtained by Mr. Cummings, U. S. Indian Agent. The precise source, date and locality are not given, but it is evidently from some trustworthy native, and is quite correct.

Some small works for the schools of the Baptist missions among the Delawares in Kansas were prepared by the Rev. J. Meeker. They appear to be entirely elementary in character.

It will be observed that in this list not a single native writer is named. So far as I have ascertained, though many learned to write their native tongue, not one attempted any composition in it beyond the needs of daily life.

To make some amends for this, and as I wished to obtain an example of the Lenape of to-day, I asked Chief Gottlieb Tobias, an educated native on the Moravian Reservation in Canada, to give me in writing his opinion of the Delaware text of the WALUM OLUM, which I had sent him. This he obligingly did, and added a translation of his letter. The two are as follows, without alteration:--

MORAVIANTOWN, Sept. 26, 1884.

I, GOTTLIEB TOBIAS,

Nanne ni ngutschi nachguttemin, jun awen eet ma elekhigetup. Woak alende nenostamen woak alende taku eli wtallichsin elewondasik wiwonalatokowo pachsi wonamii lichsu woak pachsi pilli lichsoagan. Taku ni nenostamowin. Lamoe nemochomsinga achpami eet newinachke woak chash tichi kachtin nbibindameneb nin lichsoagan. Mauchso lenno woak mauchso chauchshissis woak juque mauchso chauchshissis achpo pomauchsu igabtshi lue wiwonallatokowo won bambil alachshe. Woak lue lamoe ni enda. Mimensiane ntelsitam alowi ayachichson won elhagewit woak ehelop ne likhiqui. Gichgi wonami lichso shuk tatcamse woak gichgi minsiwi lichso.

TRANSLATION.

Then I will try to answer this (which) some one at some time wrote. And some I understand, and some not, because his language is called Wonalatoko, half Unami and half another language. I do not understand it. Long ago my grandfather about 48 years ago I heard it that language. One man and one old woman and now another old woman here lives yet who uses this Wonalatoko language just like this book and she said, I of old time when I was a child heard more difficult dialect than the present, and many at that time partly Unami he speak, but sometimes also partly Minsi he speak.

The drift of Chief Tobias' letter is highly important to this present work, though his expressions are not couched in the most perfect English. It will be noted that he recognizes the text of the WALUM OLUM to be a native production composed in one of the ancient southern dialects of the tongue, the Unami (Wonami) or the Unalachtgo (Wonalatoko). I shall recur to this when discussing the authenticity of that document on a later page.

§ 2. _General Remarks on the Lenape._

The Lenape language is a well-defined and quite pure member of the great Algonkin stock, revealing markedly the linguistic traits of this group, and standing philologically, as well as geographically, between the Micmac of the extreme east and the Chipeway of the far West.

These linguistic traits, common to the whole stock, I may briefly enumerate as follows:--

1. All words are derived from simple, monosyllabic roots, by means of affixes and suffixes.

2. The words do not come within the grammatical categories of the Aryan language, as nouns, adjectives, verbs and other "parts of speech," but are "indifferent themes," which may be used at will as one or the other. To this there appear to be a few exceptions.

3. Expressions of being (_i.e._, nominal themes) undergo modifications depending on the ontological conception as to whether the thing spoken of is a living or a lifeless object. This forms the "animate and inanimate," or the "noble and ignoble" declensions and conjugations. The distinction is not strictly logical, but largely grammatical, many lifeless objects being considered living, and the reverse. This is the only modification of the kind known, true grammatical gender not appearing in any of these tongues.

4. Expressions of action (_i. e._, verbal themes) undergo modifications depending on the abstract assumption as to whether the action is real or conjectural. If the latter, it is indicated by a change in the vowel of the root. This leads to a fundamental division of verbal modes into _positive_ and _suppositive_ modes.

5. The expression of action is subordinate to that of being, so that the verbal elements of a proposition are secondary to the nominal or pronominal elements, and the subjective relation becomes closely akin to, or identical with, that of possession.[157]

6. The conception of number is feebly developed in its application to inanimate objects, which often have no grammatical plurals. The inclusive and exclusive plurals are used in the first person.

7. The genius of the language is _holophrastic_--that is, its effort is to express the relationship of several ideas by combining them in one word. This is displayed: 1, in nominal themes, by _polysynthesis_, by which several such themes are welded into one, according to fixed laws of elision and euphony; and 2, by _incorporation_, where the object (or a pronoun representing it) and the subject are united with the verb, forming the so-called "transitions," or "objective conjugations."

8. There is no relative pronoun, so that the relation of minor to major clauses is left to be indicated either by position or the offices of a simple connective.

9. The language of both sexes is identical, those differences of speech between the males and females, so frequently observed in other American tongues, finding no place in the Algonkin.

10. No independent verb-substantive is found, and, as might be anticipated, no means of predicating existence apart from quality and attribute.

§ 3. _Dialects of the Lenape._

Two slightly different dialects prevailed among the Delawares themselves, the one spoken by the Unami and Unalachtgo, the other by the Minsi. The former is stated by the Moravian missionaries to have had an uncommonly soft and pleasant sound to the ear[158], and William Penn made the same remark. It was also considered to be the purer and more elegant dialect, and was preferred by the missionaries as the vehicle for their translations.

The Minsi was harsher and more difficult to learn, but would seem to have been the more archaic branch, as it is stated to be a key to the other, and to preserve many words in their integrity and original form, which in the Unami were abbreviated or altogether dropped. The Minsi dialect was closely akin to the Mohegan.

How far the separation of the Delaware dialects had extended may be judged from the subjoined list of words. They are selected, as showing the greatest variation, from a list of over one hundred, prepared by Mr. Heckewelder for the American Philosophical Society, and preserved in MS. in its library.

The comparison proves that the differences are far from extensive, and chiefly result from a greater use of gutturals.

COMPARISON OF THE UNAMI AND MINSI DIALECTS.

_Unami_. _Minsi_. God Patamawos Pachtamawos Earth hacki achgi Valley pasaeck pachsajech Beard wuttoney wuchtoney Tooth wipit wichpit Blood mocum mochcum Night ipocu ipochcu Pretty schiki pschickki Small tangeto tschankschisu Stone assinn achsun The Sea kithanne gichthanne Light woacheu woashe´jeek Black süksit neesachgissit Chief saki´ma wajauwe Green asgask asgasku No, not matta machta

What differences there were have been retained and perhaps accentuated in modern times, if we may judge from the names of consanguinity obtained by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan on the Kansas Reservation in 1860. These are given in part in the annexed table, and the Mohegan is added for the sake of extending the comparison.

_Delaware._ _Minsi._ _Mohegan._

My grandfather no mohómus na māhomis´ nuh māhome´ My grandmother noo home´ na nóhome no ome´ My father noh´h na no´uh noh My mother ugā´hase nain guk´ n'guk My son n'kweese´ nain gwase´ n'diome´ My daughter n´dānuss nain dāness´ ne chune´ My grandchild noh whese´ nain no whasé nā hise´ My elder brother nah hāns nain n´hans n tā kun´ My elder sister na mese´ nain nawesé nā mees My younger brother nah eese umiss nain hisesamus´ nhisum

A noteworthy difference in the Northern and Southern Lenape dialects was that the latter possessed the three phonetic elements _n_, _l_ and _r_, while the former could not pronounce the _r_, and their neighbors, the Mohegans, neither the _l_ nor the _r_.

The dialect studied by Campanius and Penn, and that in southern New Jersey presented the _r_ sound where the Upper Unami and Minsi had the _l_. Thus Campanius gives _rhenus_, for _lenno_, man; and Penn _oret_, for the Unami _wulit_, good.

The dialectic substitution of one of these elements for another is a widespread characteristic of Algonkin phonology. Roger Williams early called attention to it among the tribes of New England.[159]

Tracing it to its origin, it clearly arises from the use of "alternating consonants," so extensive in American languages. In very many of them it is optional with the speaker to employ any one of several sounds of the same class. This is the case with these letters in Cree, which, for various reasons, may be considered the most archaic of all the Algonkin dialects. In its phonetics, the _th_, _y_, _l_, _n_ and _r_ are "permuting" or "alternating" letters.[160]

Often, too, the sound falls between these letters, so that the foreign ear is left in doubt which to write.

That this is the case with the Delaware is evident from some of the more recent vocabularies where the _r_ is not infrequent. The following words, from the vocabulary in Major Denny's _Memoir_, illustrate this:--

Stone _seegriana_ Buffalo _serelea_ Beaver _thomagru_ Above _hoqrunog_, etc.

Even Mr. Lewis A. Morgan, who had considerable practice in writing the sounds of the Indian languages, inserts the _r_ in a number of pure Delaware words he collected in Kansas.[161]

Another difficulty presents itself in the sibilants. They are not always distinguished.

Mr. Horatio Hale writes me on this point: "In Minsi, and perhaps in all the Lenape dialects, the sound written _s_ is intermediate between _s_ and _th_ (the Greek _Θ_). This element is pronounced by placing the tongue and teeth in the position of the theta, and then endeavoring to utter _s_".

The guttural, represented in the Moravian vocabularies by _ch_, was softened by the English likewise to the _s_ sound, as it appears also to have been by the New Jersey tribes.[162]

In connection with dialectic variation, the interesting question arises as to the rapidity of change in language. With regard to the Lenape we are enabled to compare this for a period covering more than two centuries. To test it, I have arranged the subjoined table of words culled from three writers at about equidistant points in this period. Each wrote in the orthography of his own tongue, and this I have not altered. The words from Campanius are from the southern dialect, which preferred the _r_ to the _l_, and this substitution should be allowed for in a fair comparison.

COMPARISON OF THE DELAWARE AT INTERVALS DURING 210 YEARS.

_Campanius._ _Zeisberger_ _Whipple._ 1645. 1778. 1855. Swedish German English Orthography. Orthography. Orthography.

Man rhenus lenno lenno Woman âquaeo ochque h'que'i Father nωk nooch (my) nuuh Mother kahaess gahowes gaiez Head kwijl wil wil Hair mijrack milach milakh Ear hittaock w'hittawak (pl.) howitow Eye schinck w'ushgink tukque´ling Nose wiküwan w'ikiwan ouiki´o Mouth tωn w'doon ouitun Tongue hijrano w'ilano ouilano Tooth wippit w'epit ouipita Hand alænskan w'anach puck-alenge Foot zijt sit zit Heart chitto, kitte ktee (thy) huté House wickωmen wiquoam ouigwam Pipe hopockan hopenican haboca Sun chisogh gischuch kishu'h Star aranck alank alanq' Fire taenda tindey tundaih Water bij mbi bih Snow kuun guhn ku´no

COMPARISON OF DELAWARE NUMERALS.

_Campanius._ _Thomas._ _Zeisberger._ _Whipple._ 1645. 1695. 1750. 1855.

1 Ciútte Kooty Ngutti Co´te 2 Nissa Nisha Nischa Ni´sha 3 Náha Natcha Nacha Naha´ 4 Nævvo Neo Newo Ne´ewah 5 Pareenach Pelenach Palenach Pahle´nah'k 6 Ciuttas Kootash Guttasch Cot´tasch 7 Nissas Nishash Nischasch Ni´shasch 8 Haas Choesh Chasch Hasch 9 Paeschum Peshonk Peschkonk Pes´co 10 Thæren Telen Tellen Te´len

I have no doubt that if a Swede, a German and an Englishman were to-day to take down these words from the mouth of a Delaware Indian, each writing them in the orthography of his own tongue, the variations would be as numerous as in the above list, except, perhaps, the ancient and now disused _r_ sound. The comparison goes to show that there has probably been but a very slight change in the Delaware, in spite of the many migrations and disturbances they have undergone. They speak the language of their forefathers as closely as do the English, although no written documents have aided them in keeping it alive. This is but another proof added to an already long list, showing that the belief that American languages undergo rapid changes is an error.

The dialect which the Moravian missionaries learned, and in which they composed their works, was that of the Lehigh Valley. That it was not an impure Minsi mixed with Mohegan, as Dr. Trumbull seems to think[163], is evident from the direct statements of the missionaries themselves, as well as from Heckewelder's Minsi vocabularies, which show many points of divergence from the printed books. Moreover, among the first converts from the Delaware nation were members of the Unami or Turtle tribe, and Zeisberger was brought into immediate contact with them[164]. We may fairly consider it to have been the upper or inland Unami, which, as I have said, was recognized by the nation as the purest, or at least the most polished dialect of their tongue. It stood midway between the Unalachtgo and Southern Unami and the true Minsi.

FOOTNOTES:

[151] _Transactions of the American Philological Association_, 1872, p. 158.

[152] Penn, Letter to the Free Society of Traders, 1683, Sec. xii.

[153] On the literary works of Zeisberger, see Rev. E. de Schweinitz, _Life of Zeisberger_, chap, xlviii, who gives a full account of all the printed works, but does not describe the MSS.

[154] Major Ebenezer Denny's "Journal" in _Memoirs of the Hist. Soc. of Penna_., Vol. VII, pp. 481-86.

[155] _Report upon the Indian Tribes_, by Whipple, Ewbank and Turner, p. 56 (Washington, 1855).

[156] _History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes_, Vol. II, p. 470.

[157] I am aware that in this proposition I am following the German and French linguists, Steinthal, F. Müller, Adam, Henry, etc., and not our own distinguished authority on Algonkin grammar, Dr J Hammond Trumbull, who, in his essay "On the Algonkin Verb," has learnedly maintained another opinion (_Transactions of the American Philological Association_, 1876, p. 146). I have not been able, however, to convince myself that his position is correct. The formative elements of the Algonkin paradigms appear to me simply attached particles, and not true inflections Their real character is obscured by phonetic laws, just as in the Finnish when compared with the Hungarian.

[158] "Ungemein wohlkhngend." Loskiel, _Geschichte der Mission_, p. 24. An early traveler of English nationality pronounced it "sweet, of noble sound and accent." Gabriel Thomas, _Hist. and Geog. Account of Pensilvania and West New Jersey_, p. 47 (London, 1698).

[159] _Key into the Language of North America_, p. 129. See, also, Mr. Bickering's remarks on the same subject, in his Appendix to Rasles' _Dictionary of the Abnaki_.

[160] Howse, _Grammar of the Cree Language_, p. 316.

[161] See his _Ancient Society_, pp. 172-73.

[162] The native name of William Penn offers an instance of this phonetic alteration. It is given as _Onas_. The proper form is _Wonach_. It literally means the tip or extremity of anything; as _wonach-sitall_, the tips of the toes; _wonach-gulinschall_, the tips of the fingers. The inanimate plural form _wolanniall_, means the tail feathers of a bird. To explain the name _Penn_ to the Indians a feather was shown them, probably a quill pen, and hence they gave the translation _Wonach_, corrupted into _Onas_.

[163] _Trans. Am. Philol. Assoc._, 1872, p. 157.

[164] De Schweinitz, _Life of Zeisberger_, p. 131.

§ 4. _Special Structure of the Lenape._

_The Root and the Formation of the Theme._--As they appear in the language of to-day, the Lenape radicals are chiefly monosyllables, which undergo more or less modifications in composition. They cannot be used alone, the tongue having long since passed from that interjectional condition where each of these roots conveyed a whole sentence in itself.

Whether they can be resolved back into a few elementary sounds, primitive elements of speech, I shall not discuss. This has been done for the Cree roots by Mr. Joseph Howse[165], and most of the radicals of that tongue are identical with those of the Lenape. Some of his conclusions appear to me hazardous and hypothetical; and certainly many of his supposed analogies drawn from European tongues are extravagant.

As in other idioms, so in Lenape, two or more radicals may be compounded to form a combination, which, in turn, performs the offices of a radical in the construction of themes.

This combination is formed either by prefixes or suffixes. The prefixes are generally adjectival in signification, while the suffixes are usually classificatory. A number of these are secondary roots, which are themselves capable of further analysis.

As so much of the strength of the languages depends on this plan of word building, I have drawn off a list of a few of the more frequent affixes of the Lenape, with their signification:--

_Lenape Prefixes._

_awoss-_, beyond, the other side of. _eluwi-_, most, a superlative form. _gisch-_, see page 102. _kit-_, great, large. _lappi-_, again, indicates repetition. _lenno-_, male, man. _lippoe-_, wise, shrewd; as _lippoeweno_, a shrewd man. _mach-_, evil, bad, hurt. _matt-_, negative and depreciatory; as _mattaptonen_, to speak uncivilly. _ni-_, see page 101. _ochque-_, she, female. _pach-_, division, separation; _pachican_, a knife; _pachat_, to split. _pal-_, negative, as dis- or in-, from _palli_ otherwheres. _tach-_, pairs or doubles. _tschitsch-_, indicates repetition. _wit-_, with or in common. _wul-_, or _wel-_, see page 104.

Many of these are abbreviated to the extent that a single significant letter is all that remains, as _min_ in _msim_, hickory nut; _pakihm_, cranberry; and so _acki_ to _k_, _hanne_ to _an_, as _kitanink_ (Kittanning), from _gitschi_, great; _hanne_, flowing river; _ink_, locative, "at the place of the great river."

_Lenape Suffixes._

_-ak_, wood, from _tachan_; _kuwenchak_, pine wood. _-aki_, place, land. _-ammen_, acceptance, adoption; _wulistamen_, I accept it as good, I believe it. See page 104. _-ape_, male, man. From a root _ap_, to cover (carnally). In Chipeway applied only to lower animals. _-atton_, or _hatton_, to have, to put somewhere. The radical is _ãt_. Also a prefix, as, _hattape_, the bow; lit., what the man has. _-bi_, tree; _machtschibi_, papaw tree. _-chum_, a quadruped. _-elendam_, a verbal termination, signifying a disposition of mind. The root is _en, ne, ni_, I; "it is to me so." _-goot_, a snake; from _achgook_, a serpent. _-hanna_, properly _hannek_, a river; from the root, which appears in Cree as _anask_, to stretch out along the ground; _mechhannek_, a large stream.

Heckewelder derives this from _amkamme_, a river. The terminal _k_ is, however, part of the root, and not the locative termination. The word is allied to Del. _quenek_, long.

_-hikan_, tidal water; _kittahikan_, the ocean; _shajahikan_, the sea shore. _-hilleu_, it is so, it is true; impersonal form from _lissin_. _-hittuck_, river, water in motion. _-igan_, instrumental; also _shican_ and _can_. A participial termination used with inanimate objects. _-in_ or _ini_, of the kind; like; predicative form of the demonstrative pronoun. _-ink_ or _unk_, place where. _-is_ or _-it_, diminutive termination. _-leu_, it is so, it is true. _-meek_, a fish; _maschilamek_, a trout. _-min_, a fruit. _-peek_, a body of still water; _menuppek_, a lake. _-sacunk_, an outlet of a stream into another; also _saquik_. _-sipu_, stream; lit., stretched, extended. _-tin_, with, or in common. _-tit_, diminutive termination; _amentit_, a babe. _-wagan_, abstract verbal termination; _machelemuxowagan_, the being honored. _-wehelleu_, a bird. _-wi_, the verb-substantive termination, predicating being; _tehek_, cold; _tehekwi_, he or it is cold. _-wi_, negative termination in certain verbal forms. _-xit_, indicates the passive recipient of the action; _machelemuxit_, the one who is honored.

The analysis of a series of derivatives from the same root offers a most instructive subject for investigation in the Lenape. Not only does it reveal the linguistic processes adapted, but it discloses the psychology of the native mind, and teaches us the associations of its ideas, and the range of its imaginative powers. By no other avenue can we gain access to the intimate thought-life of this people. Here it is unfolded to us by evidence which is irrefragable.

These considerations lead me to present a few examples of the derivatives from roots of different classes.

EXAMPLES OF LENAPE DERIVATIVES.

_Subjective Root_ NI, _I, mine_.

1. In a good sense. _Nihilleu_, it is I, _or_, mine. _Nihillatschi_, self, oneself. _Nihillapewi_, free (_ape_, man = I am my own man). _Nihillapewit_, a freeman. _Nihillasowagan_, freedom, liberty. _Nihillapeuhen_, to make free, to redeem. _Nihillapeuhoalid_, the Redeemer, the Saviour.

2. In a bad sense. _Ni´hillan_, he is mine to beat, I beat him. _Nihil´lan_, I beat him to death, I kill him. _Nihillowen_, I put him to death, I murder him. _Nihillowet_, a murderer. _Nihillowewi_, murderous.

3. In a demonstrative sense. _Ne_, pl. _nek_, or _nell_, this, that, the. _Nall, nan, nanne, nanni_, this one, that one. _Nill_, these. _Naninga_, those gone, with reference to the dead.

4. In a possessive sense. _Nitaton_, in-my-having, I can, I am able, I know how. _Nitaus_, of-my-family, sister-in-law. _Nitis_, of-mine, a friend, a companion. _Nitsch!_ my child! exclamation of fondness.

The strangely conflicting ideas evolved from this root already attracted the attention of Mr. Duponceau[166]. That the notions for freedom and servitude, murderer and Saviour, should be expressed by modifications of the same radical is indeed striking! But the psychological process through which it came about is evident on studying the above arrangement.

_Objective-intensive root_ GISCH _or_ KICH (_Cree_, KIS or KIK).

Signification--successful action.

1. Applied to persons.

A. Initial successful action. _Gischigin_, to begin life, to be born. _Gischihan_, to form, to make with the hands. _Gischiton_, to make ready, to prepare. _Gischeleman_, to create with the mind, to fancy. _Gischelendam_, to meditate a plan, to lie.

B. Continuous successful action. _Gischikenamen_, to increase, to produce fruit. _Giken_, to grow better in health. _Gikeowagan_, life, health. _Gikey_, long-living, old, aged,

C. Final successful action. _Gischatten_, finished, ready, done, cooked. _Gischiton_, to make ready, to finish. _Gischpuen_, to have eaten enough. _Gischileu_, it has proved true. _Gischatschimolsin_, to have resolved, to have decreed. _Gischachpoanhe_, baked, cooked (the bread is).

2. Applied to things.

A. Initial successful action. _Gischuch_, sun, moon, day, month. The idea appears to be the beginning of a period of time with the collateral notion of prosperous activity. The correctness of the derivation is shown by the next word. _Gischapan_, day-break, beginning day-light. From _wapan_, the east, or light. _Gischuchwipall_, the rays of the sun. _Gischcu_, or _Gisckquik_, day.

B. Continuous successful action. _Gischten_, clear, light, shining. _Gischachsummen_, to shine, to enlighten. _Gischuten_, warm, tepid.

Numerous other derivatives could be added, but the above are sufficient to show the direction of thoughts flowing from this root. Howse considers it identical with the root _kitch_, great, large[167]. This would greatly increase its derivatives. They certainly appear allied. In Cree, Lacombe gives _kitchi_, great, and _kije_, finished, perfect, both being terms applied to divinity[168].

{L} _General Algonkin root_ 8 {N} I. _Abnaki_, 8RI; _Micmac_, 8E´LI, {R}

_Chippeway_, GWAN-; _Del., two forms_, WUL _and_ WIN. _It conveys the idea of pleasurable sensation._

A. First form, _wul_. _Wulit_, well, good, handsome, fine. _Wullihilleu_, it is good, etc. _Wuliken_, it grows well. _Wulamoe_, he truth-speaks. _Wulamoewagan_, truth. _Wulistamen_, to believe, to accept as truth. _Wulenensin_, to be fine in appearance, to dress. _Wulenensen_, to be fine to oneself, to be proud.

B. Second form, _won_ or _win_. _Winu_, ripe, good to eat. _Wonita_, he is ripe for it, he can, he is able. _Wingan_, sweet, savory. _Winktek_, done, boiled, fit to eat. _Winak_, sassafras. From its sweet leaves. _Wingi_, gladly, willingly. _Winginamen_, to delight in.

The figure 8 in the above represents the "whistled _w_," like the _wh_ in "which," when strongly pronounced.

From this root, as I have already said, is derived also the word WALAM, red paint, from the sense "to be fine in appearance, to dress," as the Indian accomplished that object by painting himself.

_Grammatical Structure of the Lenape._

It would not be worth while for me to enter into the intricacies of Lenape grammar, particularly as I can add little to what is already known.

The Delaware Grammar of Zeisberger remains our only authority, and in spite of its manifest shortcomings and state of incompletion, the unprejudiced student must acknowledge, with Albert Gallatin[169], that it is "most honestly done," and showed the Delaware as it actually was spoken, though perhaps not as scientific linguists think it ought to have been spoken.

A few general observations will be sufficient.

As in other languages of the class, the theme is indifferently nominal, verbal or adjectival; that is, it performs the functions of either of these grammatical categories, according to its connection.

Nominal themes are either animate or inanimate. The characteristic of all animate plurals is _k_ (_ak_, _ik_, _ek_). Inanimate plurals are in _al_, _wall_ or _a_. As usual, the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns is partly logical, partly grammatical, various objects being conceived as animate which are in fact not so.

The possessive relation is generally indicated by placement alone, the possessor preceding the thing possessed, as _lenno quisall_, the man's son; but one could also say _lenno w'quisall_, the man his son.

Adjectives precede nouns, and when used attributively assume a verbal form by adding the termination _wi_, which indicates objective existence (like the Chip. _-win_). Thus, _scattek_, burning; _scattewi w'dehin_, a burning-heart--literally, it-is-a-burning-thing his-heart.

The degrees of comparison are formed by prefixing _allowiwi_, more, and _eluwi_, most. Both of these are from the same radical _ala_ which may perhaps come from the _admirationis particula_, _ala'_ (Abnaki, _ara'_) found in the northern dialects as expressive of astonishment[170].

There being no relative pronoun in Delaware, dependent clauses are either included in the verbal of the major clause, or include it as a secondary.

The scheme of the simple sentence is usually subject-verb-object; but emphasis allows departures from this, as in the following sentence from Bishop Ettwein's MSS.:--

_Jesus wemi amemensall w'taholawak._

Jesus all children he-loved-them.

Of the formal affixes, the inseparable pronouns are the most prominent. They are the same for nouns and verbs, and are--

1st. _n_, I, my, we, our. 2d. _k_, thou, thy, you, your. 3d. _w_ or _o_, he, she, it, his, their.

Past time is indicated by the terminal _p_, with a connective vowel, and future time by _tsch_, which may be either a prefix or suffix, as--

_N'dellsin_, I am thus. _N'dellsineep_, I was thus. _N'dellsintschi_, } or } I shall be thus. _Nantsch n'dellsin_,}

The change or "flattening" of the vowel of the root in suppositive propositions, was recognized as a fact of speech, but not grammatically analyzed by Zeisberger.

Its effect on verbal forms may be seen from the following examples from his _Grammar_:--

_Examples of Vowel Change in Lenape._

_N'dappin_, I am there. _Achpiya_, if I am there. _Epia_, where I am. _N'dellsin_, I am so. _Lissiye_, if I am so. _N'gauwi_, I sleep. _Gewi_, he who sleeps. _N'pommauchsi_, I walk or live. _Pemauchsit_, living. _N'da_, I go. _Eyaya_, when I go. _Eyat_, going.

Another omission in his Grammar is that of the "obviative" and "super-obviative" forms of nouns. These are used in the Algonkin dialects to define the relations of third persons. They prevent such obscurity as appears in the following English sentence: "John's brother called at Robert's, to see his wife." Whose wife is referred to is left ambiguous; but in Algonkin these third persons would have different forms, and there would be no room for ambiguity. In his writings in Lenape, Zeisberger makes use of obviatives, with the terminations _al_ and _l_, but does not treat of them in his Grammar.

As a question in philosophical grammar, it may be doubted whether the Lenape has any true passive voice. Cardinal Mezzofanti was accustomed to deny the presence of any real passives in American languages; and he had studied the Delaware among others.

The sign of the Delaware passive is the suffix _gussu_ or _cusso_. In the Cree dialect, which, as I have already said, preserves the ancient forms most closely, this is _k-ussu_, and is a particle expressing likeness or similarity in animate objects[171]. Hence, probably, the original sense of the Lenape word translated, "I am loved," is "I am like the object of the action of loving."

FOOTNOTES:

[165] _A Grammar of the Cree Language, with which is combined an Analysis of the Chippeway Dialect_, by Joseph Howse, Esq. (London, 1844).

[166] In a note to Zeisberger's _Grammar of the Delaware_, p. 141.

[167] _A Grammar of the Cree Language_, p. 175.

[168] _Dictionnaire de la Langue des Cris_, sub voce.

[169] In _Trans. Amer. Antiq. Society_, Vol. II, p. 223. Zeisberger's statements were criticised by Joseph Howse, _Grammar of the Cree Language_, pp. 109, 310, 313. His strictures and those of the Abbé Cuoq, in his _Etudes Philologiques sur Quelques Langues Sauvages_, Chap. I, were collected and extended by Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull, in his paper on "Some Mistaken Notions of Algonquin Grammar," _Trans. of the American Philological Association_, 1874. There is a needless degree of severity in both these last named productions.

[170] Rasles, _Dictionary of the Abnaki_, p. 550. Dr. Trumbull compares the Mass. _anue_, more than. _Trans. American Philological Association_, 1872, p. 168.

[171] J. Howse: _Grammar of the Cree Language_, p. 111.