CHAPTER XXII

LETTING IN THE POPULATION[3]

[3] This chapter follows, in part, F. L. Paxson, "The Pacific Railroads and the Disappearance of the Frontier in America," in Ann. Rep. of the Am. Hist. Assn., 1907, Vol. I, pp. 105-118.

"Veil them, cover them, wall them round-- Blossom, and creeper, and weed-- Let us forget the sight and the sound, The smell and the touch of the breed!"

Thus Kipling wrote of "Letting in the Jungle," upon the Indian village. The forces of nature were turned loose upon it. The gentle deer nibbled at the growing crops, the elephant trampled them down, and the wild pig rooted them up. The mud walls of the thatched huts dissolved in the torrents, and "by the end of the Rains there was roaring Jungle in full blast on the spot that had been under plough not six months before." The white man worked the opposite of this on what remained of the American desert in the last fifteen years of the history of the old frontier. In a decade and a half a greater change came over it than the previous fifty years had seen, and before 1890, it is fair to say that the frontier was no more.

The American frontier, the irregular, imaginary line separating the farm lands and the unused West, had become nearly a circle before the compromise of 1850. In the form of a wedge with receding flanks it had come down the Ohio and up the Missouri in the last generation. The flanks had widened out in the thirties as Arkansas, and Missouri, and Iowa had received their population. In the next ten years Texas and the Pacific settlements had carried the line further west until the circular shape of the frontier was clearly apparent by the middle of the century. And thus it stood, with changes only in detail, for a generation more. In whatever sense the word "frontier" is used, the fact is the same. If it be taken as the dividing line, as the area enclosed, or as the domain of the trapper and the rancher, the frontier of 1880 was in most of its aspects the frontier of 1850.

The pressure on the frontier line had increased steadily during these thirty years. Population moved easily and rapidly after the Civil War. The agricultural states abutting on the line had grown in size and wealth, with a recognition of the barrier that became clearer as more citizens settled along it. East and south, it was close to the rainfall line which divides easy farming country from the semi-arid plains; west, it was a mountain range. In either case the country enclosed was too refractory to yield to the piecemeal process which had conquered the wilderness along other frontiers, while its check to expansion and hindrance to communication became of increasing consequence as population grew.

Yet the barrier held. By 1850 the agricultural frontier was pressing against it. By 1860 the railway frontier had reached it. The former could not cross it because of the slight temptation to agriculture offered by the lands beyond; the latter was restrained by the prohibitive cost of building railways through an entirely unsettled district. Private initiative had done all it could in reclaiming the continent; the one remaining task called for direct national aid.

The influences operating upon this frontier of the Far West, though not making it less of a barrier, made it better known than any of the earlier frontiers. In the first place, the trails crossed it, with the result that its geography became well known throughout the country. No other frontier had been the site of a thoroughfare for many years before its actual settlement. Again, the mining discoveries of the later fifties and sixties increased general knowledge of the West, and scattered groups of inhabitants here and there, without populating it in any sense. Finally the Indian friction produced the series of Indian wars which again called the wild West to the centre of the stage for many years.

All of these forces served to advertise the existence of this frontier and its barrier character. They had coöperated to enlarge the railway movement, as it respected the Pacific roads, until the Union Pacific was authorized to meet the new demand; and while the Union Pacific was under construction, other roads to meet the same demands were chartered and promoted. These roads bridged and then dispelled the final barrier.

Congress provided the legal equipment for the annihilation of the entire frontier between 1862 and 1871. The charter acts of the Northern Pacific, the Atlantic and Pacific, the Texas Pacific, and the Southern Pacific at once opened the way for some five new continental lines and closed the period of direct federal aid to railway construction. The Northern Pacific received its charter on the same day that the Union Pacific was given its double subsidy in 1864. It was authorized to join the waters of Lake Superior and Puget Sound, and was to receive a land grant of twenty sections per mile in the states and forty in the territories through which it should run. In the summer of 1866 a third continental route was provided for in the South along the line of the thirty-fifth parallel survey. This, the Atlantic and Pacific, was to build from Springfield, Missouri, by way of Albuquerque, New Mexico, to the Pacific, and to connect, near the eastern line of California, with the Southern Pacific, of California. It likewise was promised twenty sections of land in the states and forty in the territories. The Texas Pacific was chartered March 3, 1871, as the last of the land grant railways. It received the usual grant, which was applicable only west of Texas; within that state, between Texarkana and El Paso, it could receive no federal aid since in Texas there were no public lands. Its charter called for construction to San Diego, but the Southern Pacific, building across Arizona and New Mexico, headed it off at El Paso, and it got no farther.

To these deliberate acts in aid of the Pacific railways, Congress added others in the form of local or state grants in the same years, so that by 1871 all that the companies could ask for the future was lenient interpretation of their contracts. For the first time the federal government had taken an active initiative in providing for the destruction of a frontier. Its resolution, in 1871, to treat no longer with the Indian tribes as independent nations is evidence of a realization of the approaching frontier change.

The new Pacific railways began to build just as the Union Pacific was completed and opened to traffic. In the cases of all, the development was slow, since the investing public had little confidence in the existence of a business large enough to maintain four systems, or in the fertility of the semi-arid desert. The first period of construction of all these roads terminated in 1873, when panic brought transportation projects to an end, and forbade revival for a period of five years.

Jay Cooke, whose Philadelphia house had done much to establish public credit during the war and had created a market of small buyers for investment securities on the strength of United States bonds, popularized the Northern Pacific in 1869 and 1870. Within two years he is said to have raised thirty millions for the construction of the road, making its building a financial possibility. And although he may have distorted the isotherm several degrees in order to picture his farm lands as semi-tropical in their luxuriance, as General Hazen charged, he established Duluth and Tacoma, gave St. Paul her opportunity, and had run the main line of track through Fargo, on the Red, to Bismarck, on the Missouri, more than three hundred and fifty miles from Lake Superior, before his failure in 1873 brought expansion to an end.

For the Northwest, the construction of the Northern Pacific was of fundamental importance. The railway frontier of 1869 left Minnesota, Dakota, and much of Wisconsin beyond its reach. The potential grain fields of the Red River region were virgin forest, and on the main line of the new road, for two thousand miles, hardly a trace of settled habitation existed. The panic of 1873 caught the Union Pacific at Bismarck, with nearly three hundred miles of unprofitable track extending in advance of the railroad frontier. The Atlantic and Pacific and Texas Pacific were less seriously overbuilt, but not less effectively checked. The former, starting from Springfield, had constructed across southwestern Missouri to Vinita, in Indian Territory, where it arrived in the fall of 1871. It had meanwhile acquired some of the old Missouri state-aided roads, so as to get track into St. Louis. The panic forced it to default, Vinita remained its terminus for several years, and when it emerged from the receiver's hands, it bore the new name of St. Louis and San Francisco.

The Texas Pacific represented a consolidation of local lines which expected, through federal incorporation, to reach the dignity of a continental railroad. It began its construction towards El Paso from Shreveport, Louisiana, and Texarkana, on the state line, and reached the vicinity of Dallas and Fort Worth before the panic. It planned to get into St. Louis over the St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and Southern, and into New Orleans over the New Orleans Pacific. The borderland of Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri became through these lines a centre of railway development, while in the near-by grazing country the meat-packing industries shortly found their sources of supply.

The panic which the failure of Jay Cooke precipitated in 1873 could scarcely have been deferred for many years. The waste of the Civil War period, and the enthusiasm for economic development which followed it, invited the retribution that usually follows continued and widespread inflation. Already the completion of a national railway system was foreshadowed. Heretofore the western demand had been for railways at any cost, but the Granger activities following the panic gave warning of an approaching period when this should be changed into a demand for regulation of railroads. But as yet the frontier remained substantially intact, and until its railway system should be completed the Granger demand could not be translated into an effective movement for federal control. It was not until 1879 that the United States recovered from the depression following the crisis. In that year resumption marked the readjustment of national currency, reconstruction was over, and the railways entered upon the last five years of the culminating period in the history of the frontier. When the five years were over, five new continental routes were available for transportation.

The Texas and Pacific had hardly started its progress across Texas when checked by the panic in the vicinity of Fort Worth. When it revived, it pushed its track towards Sierra Blanca and El Paso, aided by a land grant from the state. Beyond Texas it never built. Corporations of California, Arizona, and New Mexico, all bearing the name of Southern Pacific, constructed the line across the Colorado River and along the Gila, through lands acquired by the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. Trains were running over its tracks to St. Louis by January, 1882, and to New Orleans by the following October. In the course of this Southern Pacific construction, connection had been made with the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé at Deming, New Mexico, in March, 1881, but through lack of harmony between the roads their junction was of little consequence.

The owners of the Southern Pacific opened an additional line through southern Texas in the beginning of 1883. Around the Galveston, Harrisburg, and San Antonio, of Texas, they had grouped other lines and begun double construction from San Antonio west, and from El Paso, or more accurately Sierra Blanca, east. Between El Paso and Sierra Blanca, a distance of about ninety miles, this new line and the Texas and Pacific used the same track. In later years the line through San Antonio and Houston became the main line of the Southern Pacific.

A third connection of the Southern Pacific across Texas was operated before the end of 1883 over its Mojave extension in California and the Atlantic and Pacific from the Needles to Albuquerque. The old Atlantic and Pacific had built to Vinita, gone into receivership, and come out as St. Louis and San Francisco. But its land grant had remained unused, while the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé had reached Albuquerque and had exhausted its own land grant, received through the state of Kansas and ceasing at the Colorado line. Entering Colorado, the latter had passed by Las Animas and thrown a branch along the old Santa Fé trail to Santa Fé and Albuquerque. Here it came to an agreement with the St. Louis and San Francisco, by which the two roads were to build jointly under the Atlantic and Pacific franchise, from Albuquerque into California. They built rapidly; but the Southern Pacific, not relishing a rival in its state, had made use of its charter privilege to meet the new road on the eastern boundary of California. Hence its Mojave branch was waiting at the Needles when the Atlantic and Pacific arrived there; and the latter built no farther. Upon the completion of bridges over the Colorado and Rio Grande this third eastern connection of the Southern Pacific was completed so that Pullman cars were running through into St. Louis on October 21, 1883.

The names of Billings and Villard are most closely connected with the renascence of the Northern Pacific. The panic had stopped this line at the Missouri River, although it had built a few miles in Washington territory, around its new terminal city of Tacoma. The illumination of crisis times had served to discredit the route as effectively as Jay Cooke had served to boom it with advertisements in his palmy days. The existence of various land grant railways in Washington and Oregon made the revival difficult to finance since its various rivals could offer competition by both water and rail along the Columbia River, below Walla Walla. Under the presidency of Frederick Billings construction revived about 1879, from Mandan, opposite Bismarck on the Missouri, and from Wallula, at the junction of the Columbia and Snake. From these points lines were pushed over the Pend d'Oreille and Missouri divisions towards the continental divide. Below Wallula, the Columbia Valley traffic was shared by agreement with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which, under the presidency of Henry Villard, owned the steamship and railway lines of Oregon. As the time for opening the through lines approached, the question of Columbia River competition increased in serious aspect. Villard solved the problem through the agency of his famous blind pool, which still stands remarkable in railway finance. With the proceeds of the pool he organized the Oregon and Transcontinental as a holding company, and purchased a controlling interest in the rival roads. With harmony of plan thus insured, he assumed the presidency of the Northern Pacific in 1881, in time to complete and celebrate the opening of its main line in 1883. His celebration was elaborate, yet the _Nation_ remarked that the "mere achievement of laying a continuous rail across the continent has long since been taken out of the realm of marvels, and the country can never feel again the thrill which the joining of the Central and Union Pacific lines gave it."

The land grant railways completed these four eastern connections across the frontier in the period of culmination. Private capital added a fifth in the new route through Denver and Ogden, controlled by the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy and the Denver and Rio Grande. The Burlington, built along the old Republican River trail to Denver, had competed with the Union Pacific for the traffic of that point since June, 1882. West of Denver the narrow gauge of the Denver and Rio Grande had been advancing since 1870.

General William J. Palmer and a group of Philadelphia capitalists had, in 1870, secured a Colorado charter for their Denver and Rio Grande. Started in 1871, it had reached the new settlement at Colorado Springs that autumn, and had continued south in later years. Like other roads it had progressed slowly in the panic years. In 1876 it had been met at Pueblo by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé. From Pueblo it contested successfully with this rival for the grand cañon of the Arkansas, and built up that valley through the Gunnison country and across the old Ute reserve, to Grand Junction. From the Utah line it had been continued to Ogden by an allied corporation. A through service to Ogden, inaugurated in the summer of 1883, brought competition to the Union Pacific throughout its whole extent.

The continental frontier, whose isolation the Union Pacific had threatened in 1869, was easily accessible by 1884. Along six different lines between New Orleans and St. Paul it had been made possible to cross the sometime American desert to the Pacific states. No longer could any portion of the republic be considered as beyond the reach of civilization. Instead of a waste that forbade national unity in its presence, a thousand plains stations beckoned for colonists, and through lines of railway iron bound the nation into an economic and political unit. "As the railroads overtook the successive lines of isolated frontier posts, and settlements spread out over country no longer requiring military protection," wrote General P. H. Sheridan in 1882, "the army vacated its temporary shelters and marched on into remote regions beyond, there to repeat and continue its pioneer work. In rear of the advancing line of troops the primitive 'dug-outs' and cabins of the frontiersmen, were steadily replaced by the tasteful houses, thrifty farms, neat villages, and busy towns of a people who knew how best to employ the vast resources of the great West. The civilization from the Atlantic is now reaching out toward that rapidly approaching it from the direction of the Pacific, the long intervening strip of territory, extending from the British possessions to Old Mexico, yearly growing narrower; finally the dividing lines will entirely disappear and the mingling settlements absorb the remnants of the once powerful Indian nations who, fifteen years ago, vainly attempted to forbid the destined progress of the age." The deluge of population realized by Sheridan, and let in by the railways, had, by 1890, blotted the uninhabited frontier off the map. Local spots yet remained unpeopled, but the census of 1890 revealed no clear division between the unsettled West and the rest of the United States.

New states in plains and mountains marked the abolition of the last frontier as they had the earlier. In less than ten years the gap between Minnesota and Oregon was filled in: North Dakota and South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Washington. In 1890, for the first time, a solid band of states connected the Atlantic and Pacific. Farther south, the Indian Country succumbed to the new pressure. The Dawes bill released a fertile acreage to be distributed to the land hungry who had banked up around the borders of Kansas, Arkansas, and Texas. Oklahoma, as a territory, appeared in 1890, while in eighteen more years, swallowing up the whole Indian Country, it had taken its place as a member of the Union. Between the northern tier of states and Oklahoma, the middle West had grown as well. Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, the last creating eleven new counties in its eastern third in 1889, had seen their population densify under the stimulus of easy transportation. Much of the settlement had been premature, inviting failure, as populism later showed, but it left no area in the United States unreclaimed, inaccessible, and large enough to be regarded as a national frontier. The last frontier, the same that Long had described as the American Desert in 1820, had been won.

NOTE ON THE SOURCES

The fundamental ideas upon which all recent careful work in western history has been based were first stated by Frederick J. Turner, in his paper on _The Significance of the Frontier in American History_, in the _Annual Report of the Am. Hist. Assn._, 1893. No comprehensive history of the trans-Mississippi West has yet appeared; Randall Parrish, _The Great Plains_ (2d ed., Chicago, 1907), is at best only a brief and superficial sketch; the histories of the several far western states by Hubert Howe Bancroft remain the most useful collection of secondary materials upon the subject. R. G. Thwaites, _Rocky Mountain Exploration_ (N.Y., 1904); O. P. Austin, _Steps in the Expansion of our Territory_ (N.Y., 1903); H. Gannett, _Boundaries of the United States and of the Several States and Territories_ (_Bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey_, No. 226, 1904); and _Organic Acts for the Territories of the United States with Notes thereon_ (56th Cong., 1st sess., Sen. Doc. 148), are also of use.

The local history of the West must yet be collected from many varieties of sources. The state historical societies have been active for many years, their more important collections comprising: _Publications of the Arkansas Hist. Assn._, _Annals of Iowa_, _Iowa Hist. Record_, _Iowa Journal of Hist. and Politics_, _Collections of the Minnesota Hist. Soc._, _Trans. of the Kansas State Hist. Soc._, _Trans. and Rep. of the Nebraska Hist. Soc._, _Proceedings of the Missouri Hist. Soc._, _Contrib. to the Hist. Soc. of Montana_, _Quart. of the Oregon Hist. Soc._, _Quart. of the Texas State Hist. Assn._, _Collections of the Wisconsin State Hist. Soc._ The scattered but valuable fragments to be found in these files are to be supplemented by the narratives contained in the histories of the single states or sections, the more important of these being: T. H. Hittell, _California_; F. Hall, _Colorado_; J. C. Smiley, _Denver_ (an unusually accurate and full piece of local history); W. Upham, _Minnesota in Three Centuries_; G. P. Garrison, _Texas_; E. H. Meany, _Washington_; J. Schafer, _Hist. of the Pacific Northwest_; R. G. Thwaites, _Wisconsin_, and the _Works_ of H. H. Bancroft.

The comprehensive collection of geographic data for the West is the _Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean_, made by the War Department and published by Congress in twelve huge volumes, 1855-. The most important official predecessors of this survey left the following reports: E. James, _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the Years 1819, 1820, ... under the Command of Maj. S. H. Long_ (Phila., 1823); J. C. Frémont, _Report of the Exploring Expeditions to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1842, and to Oregon and North California in the Years 1843-'44_ (28th Cong., 2d sess., Sen. Doc. 174); W. H. Emory, _Notes of a Military Reconnoissance from Ft. Leavenworth ... to San Diego ..._ (30th Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc. 41); H. Stansbury, _Exploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah ..._ (32d Cong., 1st sess., Sen. Ex. Doc. 3). From the great number of personal narratives of western trips, those of James O. Pattie, John B. Wyeth, John K. Townsend, and Joel Palmer may be selected as typical and useful. All of these, as well as the James narrative of the Long expedition, are reprinted in the monumental R. G. Thwaites, _Early Western Travels_, which does not, however, give any aid for the period after 1850. Later travels of importance are J. I. Thornton, _Oregon and California in 1848 ..._ (N.Y., 1849); Horace Greeley, _An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the Summer of 1859_ (N.Y., 1860); R. F. Burton, _The City of the Saints, and across the Rocky Mountains to California_ (N.Y., 1862); R. B. Marcy, _The Prairie Traveller, a Handbook for Overland Expeditions_ (edited by R. F. Burton, London, 1863); F. C. Young, _Across the Plains in '65_ (Denver, 1905); Samuel Bowles, _Across the Continent_ (Springfield, 1861); Samuel Bowles, _Our New West, Records of Travels between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean_ (Hartford, 1869); W. A. Bell, _New Tracks in North America_ (2d ed., London, 1870); J. H. Beadle, _The Undeveloped West, or Five Years in the Territories_ (Phila., 1873).

The classic account of traffic on the plains is Josiah Gregg, _Commerce of the Prairies, or the Journal of a Santa Fé Trader_ (many editions, and reprinted in Thwaites); H. M. Chittenden, _History of Steamboat Navigation on the Missouri River_ (N.Y., 1903), and _The American Fur Trade of the Far West_ (N.Y., 1902), are the best modern accounts. A brilliant sketch is C. F. Lummis, _Pioneer Transportation in America, Its Curiosities and Romance_ (_McClure's Magazine_, 1905). Other works of use are Henry Inman, _The Old Santa Fé Trail_ (N.Y., 1898); Henry Inman and William F. Cody, _The Great Salt Lake Trail_ (N.Y., 1898); F. A. Root and W. E. Connelley, _The Overland Stage to California_ (Topeka, 1901); F. G. Young, _The Oregon Trail_, in _Oregon Hist. Soc. Quarterly_, Vol. I; F. Parkman, _The Oregon Trail_.

Railway transportation in the Far West yet awaits its historian. Some useful antiquarian data are to be found in C. F. Carter, _When Railroads were New_ (N.Y., 1909), and there are a few histories of single roads, the most valuable being J. P. Davis, _The Union Pacific Railway_ (Chicago, 1894), and E. V. Smalley, _History of the Northern Pacific Railroad_ (N.Y., 1883). L. H. Haney, _A Congressional History of Railways in the United States to 1850_; J. B. Sanborn, _Congressional Grants of Lands in Aid of Railways_, and B. H. Meyer, _The Northern Securities Case_, all in the _Bulletins_ of the University of Wisconsin, contain much information and useful bibliographies. The local historical societies have published many brief articles on single lines. There is a bibliography of the continental railways in F. L. Paxson, _The Pacific Railroads and the Disappearance of the Frontier in America_, in _Ann. Rep. of the Am. Hist. Assn._, 1907. Their social and political aspects may be traced in J. B. Crawford, _The Crédit Mobilier of America_ (Boston, 1880) and E. W. Martin, _History of the Granger Movement_ (1874). The sources, which are as yet uncollected, are largely in the government documents and the files of the economic and railroad periodicals.

For half a century, during which the Indian problem reached and passed its most difficult places, the United States was negligent in publishing compilations of Indian laws and treaties. In 1837 the Commissioner of Indian Affairs published in Washington, _Treaties between the United States of America and the Several Indian Tribes, from 1778 to 1837: with a copious Table of Contents_. After this date, documents and correspondence were to be found only in the intricate sessional papers and the _Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs_, which accompanied the reports of the Secretary of War, 1832-1849, and those of the Secretary of the Interior after 1849. In 1902 Congress published C. J. Kappler, _Indian Affairs, Laws, and Treaties_ (57th Cong., 1st sess., Sen. Doc. 452). Few historians have made serious use of these compilations or reports. Two other government documents of great value in the history of Indian negotiations are, Thomas Donaldson, _The Public Domain_ (47th Cong., 2d sess., H. Misc. Doc. 45, Pt. 4), and C. C. Royce, _Indian Land Cessions in the United States_ (with many charts, in 18th _Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Am. Ethnology_, Pt. 2, 1896-1897). Most special works on the Indians are partisan, spectacular, or ill informed; occasionally they have all these qualities. A few of the most accessible are: A. H. Abel, _History of the Events resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi_ (in _Ann. Rep. of the Am. Hist. Assn._, 1906, an elaborate and scholarly work); J. P. Dunn, _Massacres of the Mountains, a History of the Indian Wars of the Far West_ (N.Y., 1886; a relatively critical work, with some bibliography); R. I. Dodge, _Our Wild Indians ..._ (Hartford, 1883); G. E. Edwards, _The Red Man and the White Man in North America from its Discovery to the Present Time_ (Boston, 1882; a series of Lowell Institute lectures, by no means so valuable as the pretentious title would indicate); I. V. D. Heard, _History of the Sioux War and Massacres of 1862 and 1863_ (N.Y., 1863; a contemporary and useful narrative); O. O. Howard, _Nez Perce Joseph, an Account of his Ancestors, his Lands, his Confederates, his Enemies, his Murders, his War, his Pursuit and Capture_ (Boston, 1881; this is General Howard's personal vindication); Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson, _A Century of Dishonor, a Sketch of the United States Government's Dealings with Some of the Indian Tribes_ (N.Y., 1881; highly colored and partisan); G. W. Manypenny, _Our Indian Wards_ (Cincinnati, 1880; by a former Indian Commissioner); L. E. Textor, _Official Relations between the United States and the Sioux Indians_ (Palo Alto, 1896; one of the few scholarly and dispassionate works on the Indians); F. A. Walker, _The Indian Question_ (Boston, 1874; three essays by a former Indian Commissioner); C. T. Brady, _Indian Fights and Fighters_ and _Northwestern Fights and Fighters_ (N.Y., 1907; two volumes in his series of _American Fights and Fighters_, prepared for consumers of popular sensational literature, but containing much valuable detail, and some critical judgments).

Nearly every incident in the history of Indian relations has been made the subject of investigations by the War and Interior departments. The resulting collections of papers are to be found in the congressional documents, through the indexes. They are too numerous to be listed here. The searcher should look for reports from the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Interior, or the Postmaster-general, for court-martial proceedings, and for reports of special committees of Congress. Dunn gives some classified lists in his _Massacres of the Mountains_.

There is a rapidly increasing mass of individual biography and reminiscence for the West during this period. Some works of this class which have been found useful here are: W. M. Meigs, _Thomas Hart Benton_ (Phila., 1904); C. W. Upham, _Life, Explorations, and Public Services of John Charles Frémont_ (40th thousand, Boston, 1856); S. B. Harding, _Life of George B. Smith, Founder of Sedalia, Missouri_ (Sedalia, 1907); P. H. Burnett, _Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer_ (N.Y., 1880; by one who had followed the Oregon trail and had later become governor of California); A. Johnson, _S. A. Douglas_ (N.Y., 1908; one of the most significant biographies of recent years); H. Stevens, _Life of Isaac Ingalls Stevens_ (Boston, 1900); R. S. Thorndike, _The Sherman Letters_ (N.Y., 1894; full of references to frontier conditions in the sixties); P. H. Sheridan, _Personal Memoirs_ (London, 1888; with a good map of the Indian war of 1867-1868, which the later edition has dropped); E. P. Oberholtzer, _Jay Cooke, Financier of the Civil War_ (Phila., 1907; with details of Northern Pacific railway finance); H. Villard, _Memoirs_ (Boston, 1904; the life of an active railway financier); Alexander Majors, _Seventy Years on the Frontier_ (N.Y., 1893; the reminiscences of one who had belonged to the great firm of Russell, Majors, and Waddell); G. R. Brown, _Reminiscences of William M. Stewart of Nevada_ (1908).

Miscellaneous works indicating various types of materials which have been drawn upon are: O. J. Hollister, _The Mines of Colorado_ (Springfield, 1867; a miners' handbook); S. Mowry, _Arizona and Sonora_ (3d ed., 1864; written in the spirit of a mining prospectus); T. B. H. Stenhouse, _The Rocky Mountain Saints_ (London, 1874; a credible account from a Mormon missionary who had recanted without bitterness); W. A. Linn, _The Story of the Mormons_ (N.Y., 1902; the only critical history of the Mormons, but having a strong Gentile bias); T. J. Dimsdale, _The Vigilantes of Montana, or Popular Justice in the Rocky Mountains_ (2d ed., Virginia City, 1882; a good description of the social order of the mining camp).

INDEX

Acton, Minnesota, Sioux massacre at, 235.

Alder Gulch mines, Idaho, 168.

Anthony, Major Scott J., 259.

Apache Indians, 247, 267, 268, 292, 312; treaty of 1853 with, 124; troubles with, in Arizona, 162-163; last struggles of, against whites, 368-369.

Arapaho Indians, 247, 248, 252, 256 ff., 263, 267, 292; Medicine Lodge treaty with, 292-293; issue of arms to, 312-313; join in war of 1868, 313-318; Custer's defeat of, 317-318.

Arapahoe, county of, 141.

Arickara Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Arizona, beginnings of, 158 ff.; erection of territory of, 162.

Arkansas, boundaries of, 28-29; admission as a state, 40.

Army, question of control of Indian affairs by, 324-344.

Assiniboin Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Atchison, Senator, 129.

Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railway, 347, 384.

Atlantic and Pacific Railway, 375, 376, 377; becomes the St. Louis and San Francisco, 378.

Augur, General C. C., 292, 295, 359.

Auraria settlement, Colorado, 142.

Bannack City, mining centre, 168.

Bannock Indians, 295.

Beadle, John H., on western railways and their builders, 332-333, 335.

Bear Flag Republic, the, 105.

Becknell, William, 56.

Beckwith, Lieut. E. G., Pacific railway survey by, 203-206.

Bell, English traveller, on railway building in the West, 329-331.

Benton, Thomas Hart, 58; interest of, in railways, 193-194.

Bent's Fort, 65, 66.

Billings, Frederick, 382.

Blackfoot Indians, 264.

Black Hawk, Colorado, village of, 145.

Black Hawk, Indian chief, 17.

Black Hawk War, 21, 25-26, 37.

Black Hills, discovery of gold in, 359; troubles with Indians resulting from discovery, 361 ff.

Black Kettle, Indian chief, 255-261; leads war party in 1868, 313; death of, 317.

Blind pool, Villard's, 383.

Boisé mines, 165.

Boulder, Colorado, 145.

Bowles, Samuel, on railway terminal towns, 332, 333.

Box family outrage, 307.

Bridge across the Mississippi, the first, 210.

Bridger, "Jim," 274.

Brown, John, murder of Kansans by, 134.

Brulé Sioux Indians, 264, 266.

Bull Bear, Indian chief, 309.

Bureau of Indian Affairs, 31, 123, 341 ff.

Burlington, capital of Iowa territory, 45; description of, in 1840, 47-48.

Burnett, governor of California, 117.

Bushwhacking in Kansas during Civil War, 231.

Butterfield, John, mail and express route of, 177 ff.

Byers, Denver editor, 144; quoted, 149, 150.

Caddo Indians, 28.

California, early American designs on, 104-105; becomes American possession, 105; discovery of gold in, and results, 108-113; population in 1850, 117; local railways constructed in, 219; Central Pacific Railway in, 220, 222.

Camels, experiment with, in Texas, 176.

Camp Grant massacre, 162.

Canals, land grants in aid of, 215, 217.

Canby, E. R. S., 228, 233; murder of, 367.

Carleton, Colonel J. H., 160, 233.

Carlyle, George H., 250-251.

Carrington, Colonel Henry B., 274-275.

Carson, Kit, 285.

Carson City, 157-158.

Carson County, 157.

Cass, Lewis, 21, 23.

Census of Indians, in 1880, 351.

Central City, Colorado, 145.

Central Overland, California, and Pike's Peak Express, 186.

Central Pacific of California Railway, 220, 222; description of construction of, 325-335.

Cherokee Indians, 28-29.

Cherokee Neutral Strip, 29.

Cheyenne, founding of, 301; consequence of, as a railway junction, 334.

Cheyenne Indians, massacre of, at Sand Creek, 260-261; assigned lands in Indian Territory, 263; Medicine Lodge treaty with, 292-293; issue of arms to, 312-313; begin war against whites in 1868, 313; Custer's defeat of, 317-318.

Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railway, 383.

Chickasaw Indians, 28-29.

Chief Joseph, leader of Nez Percé Indians, 363-365; military skill shown by, in retreat of Nez Percés, 366-367.

Chief Lawyer, 363-364.

Chinese labor for railway building, 326-327.

Chippewa Indians, 26-27.

Chittenden, Hiram Martin, 70-71, 93.

Chivington, J. M., 229-230, 257; massacre of Indians at Sand Creek by, 260-261.

Civil War, the West during the, 225 ff.

Claims associations, 47.

Clark, Governor, 20, 21, 25.

Clemens, S. L., quoted, 186-187.

Cody, William F., 184.

Colley, Major, Indian agent, 255, 258, 262.

Colorado, first settlements in, 142-145; movement for separate government for, 146 ff.; Senate bill for erection of territory of, 151, 154; boundaries of, 154; admission of, and first governor, 154-155; during the Civil War, 228-230.

Colorado-Idaho plan, 151.

Comanche Indians, 28, 124, 252, 253, 263, 267, 268, 292.

Comstock lode, the, 157.

Conestoga wagons, 41, 64.

Connor, General Patrick E., 274.

Cooke, Jay, railway promotion and later failure of, 376-377.

Cooper, Colonel, 57.

Council Bluffs, importance of, as a railway terminus, 334.

Council Grove, rendezvous of Santa Fé traders, 59, 63-64.

_Crédit Mobilier_, the, 335.

Creek Indians, 28-29.

Crocker, Charles, 220; activity of, as a railway builder, 327.

Crook, General George, 368-369.

Crow Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Culbertson, Alexander, 200.

Cumberland Road, 41, 215, 325.

Custer, General, 304, 306, 307 ff., 310, 316, 359; commands in attack on Cheyenne, 316-318; romantic character of, and death in Sioux war, 362.

Dakota, erection and growth of territory of, 166-167; Idaho created from a part of, 167.

Dawes bill of 1887, for division of lands among Indians, 354-355; effect of, on Indian reserves, 356.

Delaware Indians, settlement of, in the West, 24, 127.

Demoine County created, 42.

Denver, settlement of, 142; early caucuses and conventions at, 147-149.

Denver and Rio Grande Railway, 383-384.

Desert, tradition of a great American, 11-13; disappearance of tradition, 119; Kansas formed out of a portion of, 137; final conquest by railways of region known as, 384-386.

Digger Indians, 203-204.

Dillon, President, 336.

Dodge, Henry, 35-36, 37-38, 44, 328-329.

Dole, W. P., Indian Commissioner, 239.

Donnelly, Ignatius, 237.

Douglas, Stephen A., 128, 213-214.

Downing, Major Jacob, 252, 260.

Dubuque, lead mines at, 34; as a mining camp, 42.

Dubuque County created, 42.

Education of Indians, 351-352.

Emigrant Aid Society, 130.

Emory, Lieut.-Col., survey by, 208.

Erie Canal, 10, 21, 24, 38, 325.

Evans, Governor, war against Indians conducted by, 253 ff.; quoted, 269.

Ewbank Station massacre, 250.

Fairs, agricultural, for Indians, 352-353.

Falls line, 5.

Far West, Mormon headquarters at, 90.

Fetterman, Captain W. J., 274, 277-278, 279; slaughter of, by Indians, 280-281.

Fiske, Captain James L., 188.

Fitzpatrick, Indian agent, 122-124.

Fort Armstrong, purchase at, of Indian lands, 26.

Fort Benton, 163, 164.

Fort Bridger, 301.

Fort C. F. Smith, 275-277.

Fort Hall, 74.

Fort Kearney, 78.

Fort Laramie, 78, 121; treaties with Indians signed at, in 1851, 123-124; conference of Peace Commission with Indians held at (1867), 291.

Fort Larned, conference with Indians at, 308.

Fort Leavenworth, 24, 59.

Fort Philip Kearney, Indian fight at (1866), 274-275; extermination of Fetterman's party at, 280-282.

Fort Pierre, 267.

Fort Ridgely, Sioux attack on, 235-236.

Fort Snelling, 33-34, 48.

Fort Sully conference, 271-272, 273.

Fort Whipple, 162.

Fort Winnebago, 35.

Fort Wise, treaty with Indians signed at, 249.

Forty-niners, 109-118.

Fox Indians, 21, 25, 26, 127.

Flandrau, Judge Charles E., 236-237.

Franklin, town of, 63.

Freighting on the plains, 174 ff.

Frémont, John C., 58; explorations of, beyond the Rockies, 73-75, 195; senator from California, 117.

Fur traders, pioneer western, 70-71.

Galbraith, Thomas J., Indian agent, 238.

Geary, John W., 135.

Georgetown, Colorado, 145.

Geronimo, Indian chief, 369.

Gilpin, William, first governor of Colorado Territory, 155; quoted, 225; responsibility assumed by, during the Civil War, 228-229.

Gold, discovery of, in California, 108-113; in Pike's Peak region, 141-142; in the Black Hills, 359-361.

Grattan, Lieutenant, 265.

Great American desert. _See_ Desert.

Great Salt Lake. _See_ Salt Lake.

Great Salt Lake Valley Carrying Company, 176.

Greeley, Horace, western adventures of, 145, 179, 182.

Gregg, Josiah, 61-62.

Grosventre Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Guerrilla conflicts during the Civil War, 230-233.

Gunnison, Captain J. W., 204-205.

Hancock, General W. S., 306-311.

Hand-cart incident in Mormon emigration, 100-101.

Harney, General, 266.

Harte, Bret, verses by, 338.

Hayt, E. A., Indian Commissioner, 350.

Hazen, General W. B., 320-321.

Helena, growth of city of, 169.

Highland settlement, Colorado, 142.

Holladay, Ben, 186-190, 284; losses from Indians by, 250.

Hopkins, Mark, 220.

Howard, General O. O., 365-366.

Hungate family, murder of, by Indians, 253.

Hunkpapa Indians, 264.

Hunter, General, in charge of Department of Kansas during Civil War, 230-231.

Huntington, Collis P., 220.

Idaho, proposed name for Colorado, 151, 154; establishment of territory of, 166-167.

Idaho Springs, settlement of, 145.

Illinois, opening of, to whites, 21.

Illinois Central Railroad, 210, 216-218.

Independence, town of, 63; outfitting post of traders, 71; Mormons at, 89-90.

Indian agents, position of, in regard to Indian affairs, 304-305; question regarding, as opposed to military control of Indians, 342-343.

Indian Bureau, creation of, 31; transference from War Department to the Interior, 123; history of the, 341 ff.

Indian Commissioners, Board of, created in 1869, 345.

Indian Intercourse Act, 31.

Indian Territory, position of Indians in, during the Civil War, 240-241; breaking up of, following allotment of lands to individual Indians, 357.

Indians, numbers of, in United States, 14; governmental policy regarding, 16 ff.; Monroe's policy of removal of, to western lands, 18-19; treaties of 1825 with, 19-20; allotment of territory among, on western frontier, 20-30; troubles with, resulting from Oregon, California, and Mormon emigrations, 119-123; fresh treaties with at Upper Platte agency in 1851, 123-124; further cession of lands in Indian Country by, in 1854, 127; treatment of, by Arizona settlers, 162-163; danger to overland mail and express business from, 187-188, 250; Digger Indians, 203-204; the Sioux war in Minnesota, 234 ff.; effect of the Civil War on, 240-242; causes of restlessness of, during Civil War, 234 ff.; antagonism of, aroused by advance westward of whites, 244-252; conditions leading to Sioux war, 264 ff.; war with plains Sioux (1866), 273-283; the discussion as to proper treatment of, 284-288; appointment of Peace Commissioner of 1867 to end Cheyenne and Sioux troubles, 289-290; Medicine Lodge treaties concluded with, 292-293; report and recommendations of Peace Commission, 296-298; interval of peace with, 302-303; continued troubles with, and causes, 304 ff.; war begun by Arapahoes and Cheyenne in 1868, 313; war of 1868, 313-318; President Grant appoints board of civilian Indian commissioners, 323, 341 ff.; railway builders' troubles with, 328-329; question of civilian or military control of, 342-344; Board of Commissioners, appointed for (1869), 345; Congress decides to make no more treaties with, 348; mistaken policy of treaties, 348-349; census of, in 1880, 351; agricultural fairs for, 352-353; individual ownership of land by, 354-357; effect of allotment of lands among, on Indian reserves, 356-357; end of Monroe's policy, 357; last struggles of the Sioux, Nez Percés, and Apaches, 361-371.

Inkpaduta's massacre, 51.

Inman, Colonel Henry, quoted, 285.

Iowa, Indian lands out of which formed, 26; territory of, organized, 45.

Iowa Indians, 127.

Jackson, Helen Hunt, work by, 344.

Jefferson, early name of state of Colorado, 147, 149, 151, 153, 155.

Johnston, Albert Sidney, commands army against Mormons, 102; escapes to the South, on opening of the Civil War, 226-227.

Jones and Russell, firm of, 181.

Judah, Theodore D., 219, 220, 326.

Julesburg, station on overland mail route, 182, 331.

Kanesville, Iowa, founding of, 95.

Kansa Indians, 19, 20, 24.

Kansas, reasons for settlement of, 124-125; creation of territory of, 129; the slavery struggle in, 129-131; squatters on Indian lands in, 131-132; further contests between abolition and pro-slave parties, 132-136; admission to the union in 1861, 136; boundaries of, 138; during the Civil War, 230-233.

Kansas-Nebraska bill, 128-129.

Kansas Pacific Railway, 340.

Kaskaskia Indians, 30, 127.

Kaw Indians. _See_ Kansa Indians.

Kearny, Stephen W., 65-66, 78.

Kendall, Superintendent of Indian department, quoted, 165.

Keokuk, Indian chief, 25.

Kickapoo Indians, 24, 127.

Kiowa Indians, 252, 253, 263, 267, 268, 292, 306.

Kirtland, Ohio, temporary headquarters of Mormons, 88.

Labor question in railway construction, 326-327.

Lake-to-Gulf railway scheme, 217.

Land, allotment of, to Indians as individuals, 354-357.

Land grants in aid of railways, 215-218, 222, 325, 329, 336, 375.

Land titles, pioneers' difficulties over, 46-47.

Larimer, William, 147, 152.

Last Chance Gulch, Idaho, mining district, 169.

Lawrence, Amos A., 130.

Lawrence, Kansas, settlement of, 130-131; visit of Missouri mob to, 134; Quantrill's raid on, 232.

Lead mines about Dubuque, 34-35.

Leavenworth, J. H., Indian agent, 306, 308-309.

Leavenworth and Pike's Peak Express Company, 181.

Leavenworth constitution, 135-136.

Lecompton constitution, 135-136.

Lewiston, Washington, founding of, 164.

Linn, Senator, 72-73.

Liquor question in Oregon, 81-82.

Little Big Horn, battle of the, 362.

Little Blue Water, defeat of Brulé Sioux at, 266.

Little Crow, Sioux chief, 235-239.

Little Raven, Indian chief, 306.

Long, Major Stephen H., 11.

McClellan, George B., survey for Pacific railway by, 199.

Madison, Wisconsin, development of, 44, 45.

Mails, carriage of, to frontier points, 174 ff.

Manypenny, George W., 126, 266.

Marsh, O. C., bad treatment of Indians revealed by, 360-361.

Marshall, James W., 108-109.

Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society, 130.

Medicine Lodge Creek, conference with Indians at, 292-293.

Menominee Indians, 27.

Methodist missionaries to western Indians, 72.

Mexican War, Army of the West in the, 65-66.

Miami Indians, 30, 127.

Michigan, territory and state of, 39-40.

Miles, General Nelson A., as an Indian fighter, 366, 370.

Milwaukee, founding of, 44.

Mines, trails leading to, 169-170.

Miniconjou Indians, 265.

Mining, lead, 34-35, 42; gold, 108-113, 141-142, 156-157, 359-361; silver, 157 ff.

Mining camps, description of, 170-173.

Minnesota, organization of, as a territory, 48-49; Sioux war in, in 1862, 234 ff.

Missionaries, pioneer, 72; civilization and education of Indians by, 345-346.

Missoula County, Washington Territory, 168.

Missouri Indians, 127.

Modoc Indians, last war of the, 367.

Modoc Jack, 367.

Mojave branch of Southern Pacific Railway, 381-382.

Monroe's policy toward Indians, 18-19; end of, 357.

Montana, creation of territory of, 169.

Montana settlement, Colorado, 142.

Monteith, Indian Agent, 365.

Mormons, the, 86 ff., 102.

Mowry, Sylvester, 159, 161.

Mullan Road, the, 167, 170.

Murphy, Thomas, Indian superintendent, 312.

Nauvoo, Mormon settlement of, 91-94.

Navaho Indians, 243, 368.

Nebraska, movement for a territory of, 125; creation of territory of, 129; boundaries of, 138.

Neutral Line, the, 21.

Nevada, beginnings of, 156-158; territory of, organized, 158.

New Mexico, the early trade to, 53-69; boundaries of, in 1854, 139; during the Civil War, 229-230.

New Ulm, Minnesota, fight with Sioux Indians at, 236-237.

Nez Percé Indians, 164, 363-365; precipitation of war with, in 1877, 365-366; defeat and disposal of tribe, 366-367.

Niles, Hezekiah, 60, 79.

Noland, Fent, 42-43.

No Man's Land, 357.

Northern Pacific Railway, 375, 376, 377, 382-383.

Oglala Sioux, 281, 291, 360.

Oklahoma, 357, 386.

Omaha, cause of growth of, 334.

Omaha Indians, 25.

Oregon, fur traders and early pioneers, in, 70-72; emigration to, in 1844-1847, 75-76; provisional government organized by settlers in, 79-80; region included under name, 83-84; territory of, organized (1848), 85; population in 1850, 117; boundaries of, in 1854, 139; territory of Washington cut from, 163; railway lines in, 382-383.

Oregon trail, 70-85; course of the, 78-79; the Mormons on the, 86 ff.

Osage Indians, 19, 20.

Oto Indians, 127.

Ottawa Indians, 27.

Overland mail, the, 174 ff.

Owyhee mining district, 165.

Paiute Indians, murder of Captain Gunnison by, 205.

Palmer, General William J., 383.

Panic, of 1837, 43-44; of 1857, 51-52; of 1873, 377-379.

Parke, Lieut. J. G., survey for Pacific railway by, 207-208.

Peace Commission of 1867, to conclude Cheyenne and Sioux wars, 289-290; Medicine Lodge treaties concluded by, 292-293; report of, quoted, 296-298.

Pennsylvania Portage Railway, 325.

Peoria Indians, 30, 127.

Piankashaw Indians, 30, 127.

Pike, Zebulon M., 19, 34, 55.

Pike's Peak, discovery of gold about, 141-142; the rush to, 142-145; reaction from boom, 145-146; origin of Colorado Territory in the Pike's Peak boom, 146-155.

"Pike's Peak Guide," the, 144.

Plum Creek massacre, 250.

Pony express, 158, 182-185.

Pope, Captain John, survey by, 207.

Popular sovereignty, doctrine of, 128.

Poston, Charles D., 159.

Potawatomi Indians, 26-27.

Powder River expedition, 273-274.

Powder River war with Indians, 276-283.

Powell, Major James, 283.

Prairie du Chien, treaty made with Indians at, 20-21; second treaty of (1830), 25.

Prairie schooners, 64.

Pratt, R. H., education of Indians attempted by, 351.

Price's Missouri expedition, 233.

Quantrill's raid into Kansas, 231-232.

Quapaw Indians, 29.

Railways, early craze for building, 40; advance of, in the fifties, 51; first thoughts about a Pacific road, 192 ff.; surveys for Pacific, 192 ff., 197-203; bearing of slavery question on transcontinental, 211-214; Senator Douglas's bill, 213-214; land grants in aid of, 215-218, 222, 325, 329, 336, 375; Indian hostilities caused by advance of the, 283; description of construction of Central Pacific and Union Pacific roads, 325-335; scandals connected with building of roads, 335; description of formal junction of Central Pacific and Union Pacific, 336-337; effect of roads in bringing peace upon the plains, 347; charter acts of the Northern Pacific, Atlantic and Pacific, Texas Pacific, and Southern Pacific, 375; slow development of the later Pacific roads, 376; the five new continental routes and their connections, 379-382; Northern Pacific, 382-383; Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, 383; Denver and Rio Grande, 383-384; disappearance of frontier through extension of lines of, and conquest of Great American Desert, 384-386.

Ration system, pauperization of Indians by, 352.

Real estate speculation along western railways, 333-334.

Red Cloud, Indian chief, 274, 281, 283, 291-292, 294, 360.

Reeder, Andrew H., governor of Kansas Territory, 131-133.

_Report on the Condition of the Indian Tribes_, 286-287.

Rhodes, James Ford, cited, 128.

Riggs, Rev. S. R., 239.

Riley, Major, 59-60.

Rio Grande, struggle for the, in Civil War, 228-230.

Robinson, Dr. Charles, 130; elected governor of Kansas, 133.

_Rocky Mountain News_, the, 144, 150.

Roman Nose, Indian chief, 309.

Ross, John, Cherokee chief, 241.

Russell, William H., 181, 182, 185.

Russell, Majors, and Waddell, firm of, 181.

St. Charles settlement, Colorado, 142; merged into Denver, 146.

St. Paul, Sioux Indian reserve at, 19; early fort near site of, 33-34; first settlement at, 49.

Saline River raid by Indians, 313, 314.

Salt Lake, Frémont's visit to, 74; settlement of Mormons at, 96; population of, in 1850, 117-118.

Sand Creek, massacre of Cheyenne Indians at, 260-261.

Sans Arcs Indians, 264.

Santa Fé, trade with, 53-69.

Santa Fé trail, Indians along the, 20; beginnings of the (1822), 56-58; course of the, 64-65.

Satanta, Kiowa Indian chief, 306.

Sauk Indians, 21, 25, 26, 127.

Saxton, Lieutenant, 199, 201.

Scandals, railway-building, 335.

Scar-faced Charley, Modoc Indian leader, 367.

Schofield, General John M., 232.

Schools for Indians, 351-352.

Schurz, Carl, policy of, toward Indians, 350.

Seminole Indians, 28-29.

Seneca Indians, 29.

Shannon, Wilson, governor of Kansas, 133, 134.

Shawnee Indians, 23-24, 127.

Sheridan, General, in command against Indians, 310-323; quoted, 384-385.

Sherman, John, quoted on Indian matters, 285, 289.

Sherman, W. T., quoted, 143-144, 298; instructions issued to Sheridan by, in Indian war of 1868, 316.

Shoshoni Indians, 123-124, 295.

Sibley, General H. H., 228, 237-238, 362.

Silver mining, 157 ff.

Sioux Indians, treaty of 1825 affecting the, 21; location of, in 1837, 27; surrender of lands in Minnesota by, 49; treaties of 1851 with, 123-124; war with, in Minnesota, in 1862, 234 ff.; trial and punishment of, for Minnesota outrages, 239-240; bands composing the plains Sioux, 264-265; war with the plains Sioux in 1866, 264-283; lands assigned to, by Fort Laramie treaty of 1868, 294; sources of irritation between white settlers and, in 1870, 359; disturbance of, by discovery of gold in the Black Hills, 359, 361; war with, in 1876, 362-363; crushing of, by United States forces, 363.

Sitting Bull, 361; career of, as leader of insurgent Sioux, 362-363; settles in Canada, 363; returns to United States, 369; death of, 370.

Slade, Jack, 182.

Slavery question, in territories, 128 ff.; bearing of, on transcontinental railway question, 211-214.

Slough, Colonel John P., 229-230.

Smith, Joseph, 87, 90-93.

Smohalla, medicine-man, 365.

Sod breaking, Iowa, 46.

Solomon River raid, 313, 314.

Southern Pacific Railway, 375-376, 379, 381.

South Pass, the gateway to Oregon, 70.

Southport, founding of, 44.

Spirit Lake massacre, 51.

Stanford, Leland, 220, 336.

Stansbury, Lieutenant, survey by, 112, 113, 203; quoted, 114-115.

Steamboats as factors in emigration, 40-41, 49.

Steele, Robert W., governor of Jefferson Territory (Colorado), 150, 152, 153, 155.

Stevens, Isaac I., 197-203.

Stuart, Granville and James, 168.

Subsidies to railways, 222, 325, 329, 375. _See_ Land grants.

Sully, General Alfred, 268, 319.

Surveys for Pacific railway, 192 ff.

Sutter, John A., 104, 107-109.

Sweetwater mines, 301.

Telegraph system, inauguration of transcontinental, 185; freedom of, from Indian interference, 283.

Ten Eyck, Captain, 280.

Texas, railway building in, 375-376, 377 ff.

Texas Pacific Railway, 375-376, 378, 379.

Thayer, Eli, 129-130.

Tippecanoe, battle of, 17.

Topeka constitution, 133.

Traders, wrongs done to Indians by, 234-235.

Treaties with Indians, 19-20, 123-124, 292-293; fallacy of, 348-349. _See_ Indians.

Tucson, 159, 160.

Union Pacific Railway, the, 211 ff.; reason for name, 221; incorporation of company, 221; route of, 221-222; land grants in aid of, 222 (_see_ Land grants); financing of project, 222-223; progress in construction of, 298-299, 301; description of construction of, 325-335.

Utah, territory of, organized, 101-102; boundaries of, 139; partition of Nevada from, 157 ff.; derivation of name from Ute Indians, 295.

Victorio, Indian chief, 369.

Vigilance committees in mining camps, 172.

Villard, Henry, 145, 182, 186, 382-383.

Vinita, terminus of Atlantic and Pacific road, 377.

Virginia City, 158, 168-169.

Wagons, Conestoga, 41, 64; overland mail coaches, 178-179; numbers employed in overland freight business, 190.

Wakarusa War, 133-134.

Walker, General Francis A., 285, 349.

Walker, Robert J., 135.

Washington, creation of territory of, 163; mining in, 164-166; a part of Idaho formed from, 166-167.

Washita, battle of the, 317-318.

Wayne, Anthony, 8, 17.

Wea Indians, 30, 127.

Wells, Fargo, and Company, 186, 190.

Whipple, Lieut. A. W., survey for Pacific railway by, 206-207.

White, Dr. Elijah, 75-76.

White Antelope, Indian chief, 256, 260, 313.

Whitman, Marcus, 72, 77, 80-81.

Whitney, Asa, 193, 212.

Willamette provisional government, 79-80.

Williams, Beverly D., 149.

Williamson, Lieut. R. S., survey by, 208.

Wilson, Hill P., Indian trader, 314.

Winnebago Indians, 26.

Wisconsin, opening of, to whites, 21; territory of, organized, 44.

Wounded Knee, Indian fight at, 370.

Wyeth, Nathaniel J., 72.

Wynkoop, E. W., 255-259, 306, 310, 312-313.

Wyoming, territory of, 299, 302.

Yankton Sioux, the, 25, 166, 264.

Yerba Buena, village of, later San Francisco, 105.

Young, Brigham, 93-94, 96, 97 ff., 206; made governor of Utah Territory, 101-102.

* * * * * *

Transcribers' note:

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unpaired quotation marks were retained. For example, the paragraph beginning on page 311 with "There is little doubt" and ending on page 313 with "sincerity of their protestations" contains an unpaired quotation mark.

Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.

Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.

Text uses both "reconnaissance" and "reconnoissance"; both retained.

Text mostly uses "Santa Fé", so three occurrences of "Sante Fé" have been changed.