Chapter 7

Language

Before commencing to describe the more salient features of the Khasi language, its grammar, and syntax, it seems to be of importance to show how intimately connected Khasi is with some of the languages of Further India. In the middle of the last century Logan pointed out affinity between Khasi and these languages, but it has been left to Professor Kuhn to prove this connection to demonstration. The examples of comparative vocabularies which follow are taken from Kuhn's "_Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde Hinterindiens_," Sir George Scott's "Upper Burma Gazetteer," and Sir George Campbell's lists. It will be seen from the collections of words that follow how Khasi possesses many words in common with Mon or Talaing, Khmêr, Suk, Stieng, Bahnar, Annam, Khamen-Boram, Xong, Samre, Khmu, Lemet, Palaung, and Wa. There is some correspondence, although perhaps to a lesser degree, between Khasi and the Ho-Munda languages and those of Malacca and the Nancowry language of the Nicobar Islands.

Let us now examine the table of numerals. The Khasi word for 1 is _wei_, but in the Amwi dialect of Khasi it is _mi_. In Khmu the word is _mui_, also in Suk; in Mon _mwoi_ and in Xong _moi_. The word for 2 is identical in Khasi and Lemet, viz., _ar_. The word for 3, viz. _lai_, is identical in Khasi and Wa: also compare Lemet _lohe_. Khasi _saw_ and Lakadong _thaw_ for 4 are, however, deviating forms. In the case of 5, if we cut out the prefix _m_ in the Mon word _m'san_, we have fairly close agreement with the Khasi _san_. In the numeral 6, if we cut out the prefix _hin_ of the Khasi (_hin_)_riw_, and the initial _t_ of Mon and Suk _t'rou, trou_, we have close agreement. In the Khasi words for 7 and 8 the syllable _hin_ is but a prefix. This is also probably the case in the Khasi word (_khyn_)_dai_ for 9, and the _shi_ in the Khasi word _shiphew_, 10, merely means one.

Numerals.

Sue. Mon or Suk. Stieng. Bahnar. Annam. Khmen Xong. Samre. Talaing. Boran.

1 mue mwoi mui muôi moin, môt mnay moi moe ming 2 bar ba bar bar bar hai bar pra pra 3 pei pi pe pêi peng ba peh pe pe 4 puon pan puon puôn puôn bôn pon pôn pon 5 sung m'sun sung pram (po)dam nam pram pram pram 6 thpat t'rou trou prou (to)trou sau krong dam kadon 7 thpol t'pah pho poh (to)po bay grul kanul kanul 8 thkol dc'am tam pham (to)ngam tam kati kati katai 9 thke d'ceit kin ên (to)xin chin kansar kasa katea 10 muchit cah chit jemat min muoi uai rai rai jet jit chuk

Khan. Lomei. Palaung. Wa. Dialects of Khasi. Khasi. Lakadong. Amwi. Synteng. Mymar or Jirang.

1 mui mus(mos) lé te wei bi mi wi mi 2 bar ar è(a) ra(a) ar a o ar ir 3 pe lohe oé lai lai loi la la lei 4 puon pun(pon) phun pon saw thaw siá so so 5 pfuong pan phan hpawn(fan) san than san san san 6 tol tal to laiya(lia) (hin)riw thro thrau ynro threi 7 kul pul phu a-laiya (hin)iew (hum)thloi ynthla ynniaw ynthlei (alia) 8 ti ta ta s'te(su'te) phra humpya humphyo phra humpyir 9 kash tim tim s'ti(su'ti) (khyn)dai hunsulai hunshia khyndo khyndai 10 kan kel ken(ko) kao (shi)phew shiphai shipho (shi)phaw shiphi

It will be seen that there is considerable similarity in the numerals of the different languages up to six, the correspondence being most strongly marked in the numerals 1, 2, 5, and 6. If we remember that primitive people seldom can count higher than the number of digits of one hand, the dissimilarity in the numerals, as the end of the decade is approached, is probably explained. As the different people speaking these languages advanced in civilization they learned to count further; but by this time they had become in some cases like those of the Khasis, the Palaungs, and Mons, widely separated from one another. As they advanced in civilization, and found the necessity of an improved notation, they manufactured numerals which differed from one another, although they retained the first few numerals they had made use of in their days of savagery. Let us now study some extracts from Kuhn's interesting comparative vocabulary. [42] We find many instances of agreement. I give some examples:--

_Heaven_.--Palaung, _pleng_; Khmêr, _plieng_ (rain); Xong, _pleng_; Khasi, _bneng_. Mynnar (Jirang) _phanliang_ seems to be very near Khmer _phlieng_, and Palaung, and Xong _pleng_.

_Day_ (Sun)--Khmêr, _thngay_; Mon, _tuyai_; Annam; _ngay_; Lemet, _ngay pri_; Palaung, _sengei_; Khasi, _sngi_; Lakadong, _sngoi_; Kol _singi_.

_Year_.--Mon, _snam_; Annam, _nam_; Stieng, _so'nam_; Bahnar, _sandm_; Khasi, _snem_.

_Lightning_:--Mon, _l'li_; Khasi, _leilih_.

_Stone, Rock_.--Mon, _tma_, _k'maw_; Stieng, _to'mâu_; Bahn, _tmo, temo_; Khmêr, _thma_; Xong, _tmo_; Palaung, _mau_; Ba, _maou_; Khasi, _maw_; Wa, _hsi-mo_, _hsi-mao_. Also compare Mynnar (Jirang) _smaw_.

_Water_.--Palaung, _em_; Khasi, _um_; Lakadong, _am_; Amwi, _am_; Mynnar (Jirang), _um_; Rumai, _om_. Probably the Stieng _um_, to bathe, can be connected with the Khasi word for water.

_Sea, pond_, or _tank_--Khmêr, _ping_; Khasi, _pung_.

_Rice_.--Mon, _sro_, paddy, seems to be in connection with Khmer, _srur_ (spoken _srau_ or _srou_). Xong _ruko_ is in Palaung _rekao, sakao_, or _takao_. These words remind us of the Khasi _khaw_, which seems to be borrowed from the Shan _khaw_ (_hkao hsau_).

_Dog_.--The common word for this animal will be found to be nearly the same in sound in many of these languages, e.g. Suk. _cho_; Stieng, _sou_; Bahnar, _ko, cho_; Annam, _cho_; Xong, _tcho_; Mi, _khmu_; Lemet, _so_; Palaung, _tsao, hsao_; Khasi; _ksew_. The Mon _khluiw_ is the same as the Khasi _ksew_, if _l_ is changed into _s_. The Lakadong and Synteng dialects of Khasi have _ksaw_, and Mynnar (Jirang) _ksow_.

_Rat, mouse_.--Mon, _kni, gni_; Stieng, _ko'nei_; Bahnar, _kone_; Khasi, _khnai_.

_Swine_.--Bahnar _niung_ is evidently Khasi _'niang_, the abbreviated form of _sniang_.

_Tiger_.--Mon, _kla_; Stieng, _klah_; Bahnar, _kla_; Khmêr, _khla_ and Khasi, _khla_ are evidently the same. With this compare the Kol _kula, kula, kula_.

_Bird_.--Sue, _kiem_; Mon, _g'cem_, _ka-teim_; Hüei, _chiem_; Stieng, _chum_; Bahnar, Annam, _chim_; Xong, _chiem_; Palaung and Wa, _hsim_, and Khasi _sim_ are clearly the same. Also compare Mynnar (Jiraug), _ksem_ which is very near to Mon, _g'cem_.

_Fowl_.--Hüei, _kat, yar_; Suk, _yer_; Bahnar, _ir_;. Stieng _iêr_; Khmu, _yer_; Lemet, _er_; Palaung, _her_, and Khasi, _siar_, abbreviated into _'iar_, are probably the same.

_Fish_.--The word _ka_ or _kha_ runs through the following languages:--Mon, Stieng, Bahnar, Annam, Khmu, Lemet, Palaung, Wa; and if we cut off the first syllable of the Khasi word for fish, _dohkha_, we find _'kha_, which is the same word as in the languages above mentioned, with an aspirate added. The Khasi _doh_ merely means flesh, and the word _dokkha_ is very frequently abbreviated, cf. _'kha saw, 'kha iong_.

_Crab_.--Mon, _kh'tam_; Khmêr, _ktam_; Khasi, _tham_. If we add the gender sign to the Khasi word, it becomes _ka tham_, and we have exact correspondence.

_Woman_.--Mon, _brou_ or _brao_. Is this the same as the Khasi (_ka_) _briw_?

_Child_.--So, _kón_; Suk, _kon_; Mon, _kon_; Hüei, _kuon_; Annan, _kon_; Khmêr, _kun_; Khasi, _khun_. Compare Nancowry, _kon_.

_Eye_.--The word _mat, mat, mat_, run through several of these languages, e.g. Mon, _mat_; Huei, _mat_; Stieng; _mat_; Bahnar _mat_; Annam, _mat_; Khasi, _khmat_ (dialectic _mat_). In Nancowry compare _olmat_, eye, and _okmat_, eyebrow, and (_e_)_mat_ (_hen_) _mat_ (_drug_), _mat_, of the Nicobar dialects, also Semang _mat, met, med_. Kuhn remarks that the word _mat_ is common for "_sight_," and "eye" all over the Malay Archipelago. It should be remarked that in the Amwi and Lakadong dialects of Khasi the word is _mat_.

_Nose_.--If we cut off the aspirate _kh_ from the Khasi _khmut_, which thus becomes _mut_, we find some correspondence between Mon, _muh_ (_mu_); Stieng (_tro_), _muh_; Bahnar, _muh_. Here also compare Ho _mua, muta_; Mundari, _mun_; Uraon, _moy_. In the Anwi and Lakadong dialects of Khasi the word is _mur-kong_.

_Hand_.--Xong, _ti_; Mon, _toi_; Annam, _tay_, Khmer, _te_ (from _sang te_, finger); Palaung, _tae, tai_, and Khasi, _kti_ (with prefix _k_) closely correspond. The forms _ta_ and _toi_ of Amwi, and Lakadong, respectively, still more closely correspond with the Mon-Khmer languages than with Khasi. Here compare Nancowry _tei_ and _ti_, or _ti_ of the Kol languages.

_Blood_.--Palaung _hnam_, and Wa _nam_ closely correspond with Khasi _snám_; here compare Khmêr _iham_.

_Horn_:--Mon, _grang_, the horn of an animal, may be compared with the Khasi _reng_.

_Far_.--Distant. Bahnar, _hangai_; Annam, _ngai_; Khmêr, _chhngay_; Lemet, _sngay_; Sue _chngai_ may be compared with the Khasi _jing-ngai_. Amwi _shnjngoi_ seems to be a closer form to the above than Khasi _jing-ngai_. But compare Mynnar (Jirang), _chngi_, which is clearly very close to Sue _chngai_, and Khmer _chhngay_.

_To weep, to cry_.--Mon, _yam_; Khmer, _yam_; Khmu Lemet and Palaung, _yam_, are clearly the same as Khasi _iam_, with which also may be compared Ho _yam_.

It is interesting to note that the Amwi and Lakadong dialects of Khasi, which are spoken by the people who dwell on the southern slopes of the Jaintia Hills, seem more closely to correspond with the Mon-Khmer forms than even with Khasi. The Mynnar or Jirang dialect of Khasi, spoken on the extreme north of the hills, also appears to possess some words which are very similar indeed to some of the Mon-Khmer forms given by Professor Kuhn. Unfortunately, I had time to collect but a few words of this interesting dialect, as I arrived in the portion of the country inhabited by these people only a short time before submitting this monograph to Government. The Mynnar dialect appears to be akin to the Synteng, Lakadong, and Amwi forms of speech. The Mynnars observe also the Synteng ceremony of "_Beh-ding-khlam_," or driving away the demon of cholera, so that although now inhabiting a part of the country a considerable distance away from that of the Synteng, it is not unlikely that they were originally connected with the latter more closely.

Professor Kuhn comes to the conclusion that there is a distinct connection between Khasi, Mon or Talaing, Khmêr, and the other languages of Indo-China that have been mentioned, which is to be seen not only from similarities in some of the numerals, but from the convincing conformities of many other words of these languages. He goes on to add that more important than these contacts of the mono-syllabic languages of Indo-China with mono-syllabic Khasi is their affinity with the Kol, and Nancowry poly-syllabic languages and with that of the aboriginal inhabitants of Malacca, i.e. the languages of the so-called Orang-Outang, or men of tile woods, Sakei, Semung, Orang-Benua, and others; and that although it is not, perhaps, permissible to derive at once from this connection the relation of the Khasi Mon-Khmêr mono-syllabic group with these poly-syllabic languages, it seems to be certain that a common substratum lies below a great portion of the Indo-Chinese languages as well as those of the Kol and Ho-Munda group. More important than connections between words is, as Dr. Grierson points out in his introduction to the Mon-Khmêr family, the order of the words in the sentence. In both Khasi and Mon that order is subject, verb, object. Taking this fact in conjunction with the similarities of the Khasi and Mon vocabularies, we may conclude that it is proof positive of the connection between Khasi and Mon, or Talaing. In Munda, however, this order is subject, object, verb. Tiffs is a very important difference, for, as Dr. Grierson points out, "the order of words in a sentence follows the order of thought of the speaker; it follows therefore that the Mundas think in an order of ideas different from those of the Khasis and the Mons." Dr. Grierson comes to the stone conclusion with respect to these languages as Professor Kuhn, which is as follows:--"Owing to the existence of these differences we should not be justified in assuming a common origin for the Mon-Khmêr languages on the one hand, and for the Munda, Nancowry, and Malacca languages on the other. We may, however, safely assume that there is at the bottom of all these tongues a common substratum, over which there have settled layers of the speeches of other peoples, differing in different localities. Nevertheless, this substratum was so firmly, established as to prevent its being entirely hidden by them, and frequent undeniable traces of it are still discernible in languages spoken in widely distant tracts of Nearer and Further India. Of what language this original substratum consisted we are not yet in a position to say. Whatever it was, it covered a wide area, larger than the area covered by many families of languages in India at the present day. Languages With this common substratum are now spoken, not only in the modern Province of Assam, in Burma, Siam, Cambodia, and Anam, but also over the whole of Central India, as far west as the Berars." Grierson, having agreed regarding the existence of this common substratum, does not finally determine whether the ancient substratum was the parent of the present Munda language, or of the Mon-Khmêr language. He says, "It cannot have been the parent of both, but it is possible that it was the parent of neither." We are thus still in a state of uncertainty as to what was the origin of these languages.

The brief description which follows of some of the more prominent characteristics of the Khasi language is based chiefly on Sir Charles Lyall's skeleton Grammar contained in Vol. II. of Dr. Grierson's "Linguistic Survey of India." It does not pretend to be an exhaustive treatise on the language; for this students are referred to the excellent grammar compiled by the Rev. H. Roberts.

_The Article_.--There are four articles in Khasi; three in the singular, _u_, (masculine), _ka_ (feminine), and _i_ (diminutive of both genders); and one in the plural for both genders, _ki_.

All Khasi nouns take a pronominal prefix to denote the gender, i.e. the third personal pronoun, _u_ (masculine), _ka_ (feminine), _i_ (diminutive). The great majority of inanimate nouns are feminine, and all abstract nouns. The sun (day), _ka sngi_, is feminine, the moon (month), _u b'nai_, is masculine. Sometimes the word varies in meaning according to the gender, e,g. _u ngap_, a bee; _ka ngap_, honey.

_Genders_.--Names of mountains, stones, plants, fruits, stem, and the moon, are masculine, e.g.:--

_U kyllang_, the Kyllang rock. _U mawlein_, quartz. _U phan_, potato. _U soh niamtra_, orange. _U'lur duti_, the morning star. _U'tiw kulap_, rose. _U b'nai_, the moon.

Names of rivers, lakes, books, places, the sun, and' all abstract nouns are feminine, e.g.:--

_Ka wah_, river. _Ka nan_, lake. _Ka kitap_, book. _Ka Shillong_, Shillong. _Ka sngi_, sun _Ka jingsneng_, advice.

The article _i_ is used either as a diminutive, as _i khunlung_, a baby, or for denoting endearment, as _i mei_, mother.

_Number_.--_U, ka_, and _i_ stand for the singular number, e.g. _u khla_ (a tiger), _ka khoh_ (a Khasi basket), _i khun_ (a child). _Ki_ is the sign of the plural, as _Ki maw_, the stones. _Ki_ in some few instances is used honorifically, as _ki Siem_, the king, _ki kthaw_, the father-in-law.

_Cases_ are eight in number, and are denoted by prefixes. The declension of the noun _lum_ (hill) is given below by way of example:--

Singular. Plural Nominative _u lum_ _ki lum_ Accusative _ia u lum_ _ia ki lum_ Instrumental _da u lum_ _da ki lum_ Dative _ia, ha_, or _ia, ha_, or _sha u lum_ _sha ki lum_ Ablative _na u lum_ _na ki lum_ Genitive _jong u lum_ _jong ki lum_ Locative _ha u lum_ _ha ki lum_ Vocative _ko lum_ _ko phi ki lum_

The sign of the genitive case, _jong_, is sometimes omitted for the sake of brevity, e.g. _u ksew nga_ (my dog) for _u ksew jong nga_. The preposition _la_ gives also the force of the possessive case, e.g. _la ka jong ka jong_ (their own). There are some nouns which change their form, or rather are abbreviated when used in the vocative case, e.g. _ko mei_, not _ko kmei_ = Oh mother; _ko pa_, not _ko kpa_ = Oh father. These, however, are all of them nouns showing relationships.

_Pronouns_.--Personal pronouns are _nga_ (I), _ngi_ (we), _me_ (thou, masculine) _pha_ (thou, feminine), _phi_, (you, masculine or feminine), _u_ (he, it), _ka_ (she, it), _i_ (diminutive form of _u_ or _ka_), and _ki_ (they).

The emphatic form of the personal pronoun is formed by prefixing _ma_, e.g. _ma-nga_, _ma-u_, after a verb, but not after a preposition, e.g. _dei-ma-nga_ = it is I. But _ai, ia ma nga_ is an incorrect form.

_The Reflexive Pronoun_ is formed by the word _lade_ (self) being suffixed to the personal pronoun, as _u leh sniu ia lade_ = he does himself harm, or by the addition of the word _hi_ (self) to the personal pronoun, as _phi hi pbi ong_ (you yourself).

_The Relative Pronoun_ is formed by the suffix _ba_, added to any of the personal pronouns, as _kaba_, _uba, kiba_ (who, which).

_The Demonstrative Pronoun_ is formed by the addition of the particles denoting the position of things with reference to the speaker, e.g. (1) near = this, _ne_ (_u-ne_, _kane_, _i-ne, ki-ne_); (2) in sight, but further off = that, _to_ (_uto_, &c.); (3) further away, but still visible = that _tai_ (_u-tai_, &c.); (4) out of sight or only contemplated in the mind = that, _ta_ (_u-ta_, &c.); (5) above = that, _tei_ (_u-tei_, &c.); (6) below = this, _thi_ (_ka-thi_, &c.); _katai-tai, katei-tei, kathie-thie_ point to an object at a great distance but within sight.

_The Interrogative Pronoun_ is the article followed by _no_ or _ei_ (e.g. _u-no, kano_, who), _u-ei, ka-ei_ (who, which). _Ei_ is often used without the "article," and _no_ (which is restricted to persons) when declined, regularly drops the "article," e.g. _jong-no_ whose? _ia-no_, whom? _sha-no_, to whom? What? neuter, is _aiuh_, and also _kaei_.

_Adjectives_ are formed by prefixing _ba_ to the root, thus _bha_ goodness; _ba-bha_, good; _sniu_, badness; _ba-sniu_, bad. When _ba_ is dropped, the word in no longer an adjective but a verb, and in some cases a noun, e.g. _uba khraw_ (adj.) = big, great; _u khraw_ = he becomes great. An adjective may be formed without any of the prefixes _ba, uba_, &c., e.g. _ka miau-tuh_ = a thieving cat.

An adjective follows the noun it qualifies, and agrees with the noun it qualifies in gender and number.

_Comparison_.--The comparative is formed by adding _kham_ before an adjective, followed by _ban ia_ (than), or simply _ia_, and the superlative by adding such adverbs of intensity as _tam, eh, eh than, tam eh, shikaddei_, which are followed generelly by _ia_ or _ban ia_.

_Numerals_.--In Khasi the cardinal number always precedes the noun (e.g. _lai sin_, three times,) The following are the first ten numerals.

1. _Wei_. 2. _Ar_. 3. _Lai_ 4. _Sau_. 5. _San_. 6. _Hinriu_. 7. _Hinnieu_. 8. _Phra_. 9. _Khyndai_. 10. _Shipheu_.

The word _khad_ is prefixed for forming the numerals from 11 to 19, e.g. _khad-wei, khad-ar_, eleven, twelve, &c.

The verbal root (which never varies) may be simple or compound. The compound roots are (1) _Causals_, formed by prefixing _pyn_ to the simple root; as _iap_, die; _pyniap_, kill. (2) _Frequentatives_, formed by prefixing _iai_; as _iam_, weep; _iai iam_, weep continually. (3) _Inceptives_, by prefixing _man_; as _stad_, be wise; _manstad_, grow wise. (4) _Reciprocals_, by prefixing _ia_; as _ieit_, love; _ia-ieit_, love one another. (5) _Intensives_, by prefixing tim particle _kyn, lyn, syn, tyn_. Any noun or adjective may be treated as a verbal root by means of a prefix of these five classes. Thus _kajia_, a quarrel (Hindustani loan word, _qazía_;) _ia kajio_, to quarrel with one another; _bynta_, share; _pyn-ia-bynta_ (reciprocal catmal), to divide between several persons. It should be mentioned with reference to the second class or frequentative verbs, that they sometimes take the prefixes, or particles as Roberts prefers to call them, _dem, dup, nang, shait, ksaw_ in place of _iai_, e.g. _dem-wan_, to come after; _dup-teh_, to practise; _nang-wad_, to go on searching; _shait pang_, to be always ill; _ksaw-bam_, to be in the habit of devouring. There are two verbs for "to be," _long_, implying existence absolutely, and _don_, implying limited existence, and also meaning "to have." There is only one form of conjugation for all verbs. Tense and mood are indicated by prefixes, number and person by the subject. When the subject is a noun the pronoun is inserted before the verb. The following is the conjugation of the verb "to be" in the present, past, and future tenses:--

Present. Past. Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

1 2 3 4 5 6 _Nga long_ _Ngi long_ _Nga la long_ _Ngi la long_ _Ngan long_ _Ngin long_ I am We are I was We were I shall be We shall be

_Me_ (mas.) or _Phi long_ _Me_ or _pha _Phi la long_ _Men_ or _phan _Phin long_ _pha_ (fem.) la long_ long_ _long_ Thou art Ye are Thou wast Ye were Thou shalt be You shall be

_U _(mas.) or _Ki long_ _U _or _ka _Ki la long_ _U'n_ or _ka'n _Kin long_ _ka_ (fem.) la long_ long_ _long_ He or she is They are He or she was They were He or she will They will be be

The above simple tenses are made definite or emphatic by various means. _La_, sign of the past, when added to _lah_, sign of the potential, has the sense of the pluperfect, e.g. _nga la lah long_, I had been. _Yn_ abbreviated into _'n_ emphasizes the future, the particle _sa_ also indicates the future; _da_ is the usual sign of the subjunctive mood, _lada, la, lymda, tad, ynda, ban, da_ are other signs of this mood. The sign of the infinitive is _ba'n_. The imperative is either (1) the simple root, or (2) the root compounded with some word such as _to_.

_Participles_.--The present participle is formed by prefixing _ba_ to the root, e.g. _ba long_, being. The imperfect participle is formed by prefixing such words as _ba u, ka da, da kaba_, &c. The perfect participle is formed by putting such particles as _ba la, haba la, da kaba la_ before the verb. Verbal nouns of agency are formed by prefixing _nong_ to the root, e.g. _u nong knia_ (the sacrificer). The _Passive Voice_ is formed by using the verb impersonally, and putting the subject into the Accusative case with _ia_.

_Potentiality_ is indicated by the verb _lah_, necessity by the verb _dei; dang_ and _da_ show the indefinite present.

The _negative_ is indicated by the particles _ym_, contracted into _'m, shym_, and _pat_. _Ym_ is put before the verb, e.g. _'ym don briew_ = there is no one; with a pronoun it is contracted, e.g. _u'm wan_, he does not come. It follows the sign of the future, e.g. _phi'n y'm man_, you will not come. _Shym_ and _pat_ are neptive particles, and are used with _negative verbs_ in the past tense, e.g. _u'm shymla man_, he did not come.

_The use of the word "jing."_--One of the most striking features of the language is the use of the word _jing_, which is employed to create a verbal noun out of a verb: for instance, take the verb _bam_, to eat; if we prefix _jing_ we have _jingbam_, food. _Bat_, to hold; _jing-bat_, a handle. The use of the word _nong_ has already been noticed under the heading "verbs." As an example of another common prefix, it may again be mentioned here. Thus, _nong-ai-jingbam_ means a table servant, literally one who gives food. Again, _nong-bat_, a holder, literally, one who holds.

_Syntax_.--The order of words in the sentence is usually (1) subject, (2) verb, and (3) object, in fact, the same as in English, and in this respect it differs entirely from the order in the languages derived from Sanskrit, and that of the languages of the Thibeto-Burman group, as far as I have been able to ascertain. For instance, in the Kachari or Boro language the order in the sentence is (1) subject, (2) object, (3) verb. In Khasi when emphasis is needed, however, the object occasionally precedes the berb, e.g. _ia u soh u la die_, he has sold the fruit, literally, the fruit he has sold. As stated before, adjectives follow the nouns they qualify, e.g. _u lum bajyrong_, a high mountain, literally, the hill that is high. Interrogative adverbs may either precede or follow the verb, e.g. _naei phi wan_, or _phi wan naei_, where do you come from?

No account of the Khasi language would be complete without some reference to the adverbs which are so very numerous in Khasi. U Nissor Singh, in his admirable little book of "Hints on the Study of the Khasi Language," writes, "Adverbs are so numerous in the Khasi language that I shall not attempt to enumerate them all in this small book. Many of the adverbs, indeed, belong to the untranslatables of the language. We are never in want of a specific term to express the appropriate degree of any quality." To learn how to use the right adverb at the right time is one of the niceties of the language. There is a peculiarity about some of the adverbs of place which should be mentioned: e.g. _Hangto_, there (within sight); _hangne_, here; _hangta_, there (out of sight); _hangai_, there (at some distance); _hangtei_, there (upwards); _hangthi_, there (downwards); also the interrogative adverbs _hangno, nangno_, whence, contain the inherent root _nga_, and it seems possible that this _nga_ is the first personal pronoun I. If this is so, _hangto_ would mean literally "to me there," _hangthi_ "to me down there," and similarly _nangno, nangne_ would mean "from where to me there" and "from there to me here."

Adverbs generally follow the words they modify, as _u'n leit mynta_ = he will go now, but there are exceptions to the above rule, such as interrogative adverbs. The following come before those they modify: _tang shu, la dang_ (as soon as, when); _kham, shait_ (used to, ever); _pat_ or _put_ (yet) ; and _shym_ (not); but _shuh_ (more) goes last. Adverbs of past time are formed by prefixing _myn_, e.g. _mynhynne_, a short time ago. Adverbs of future time are formed by prefixing _la_. The particles _man_, _man la_, and _hala_ denote repetition.

The Khasis are exceedingly fond of using double words [43] which add much to the finish and polish of a sentence. Old people especially have a predilection this way. It is one of the great diffuculties of the language to learn how to use such double words correctly. The following are some examples:--

Nouns.

kajain ka nep cloth. ka kot ka sla paper. ka lynti ka syngking road. ka iing ka sem house. u babu, u phabu babu. u tymen u san elder. ka stih, ka wait arms (lit.: shield and sword). u badon ba em a well to do person. ka spah ka phew wealth u kha-u-man a relation on the father's side.

Verbs.

pynsyk-pynsain to comfort. ia shoh ia dat to scuffle. byrngem-byrait to threaten. shepting-shepsmiej to be afraid. ihthuh-ihthaw to be familiar. kyrpad-kyrpon to beg. ia lum-ia lang to assemble.

Adjectives.

basniw-basmeh bad. basmat-basting active. donbor-donsor powerful. don burom-don surom noble. bakhraw-batri pertaining to a noble family. baduk-basuk poor, needy. babok-basot righteous. bariwbha-riwmiat. wealthy.

Adverbs.

hur-hur delicately. hain-hain brilliantly (red). prum-prum, prem-prem prominently. rymbiaw-rymboin shrikingly. nior-nior, iar-iar weakly. parum-pareh many. sip-sip, sap-sap having no taste.

The Mikirs appear to have borrowed a small portion of their vocabulary from the Khasis. The following are quoted as examples of possible common roots:--

Mikir. Khasi. belly pòk kpoh. strike (_v_.) chòk shoh. father po kpa. come (_v_.) vàng wán. rice beer hor hiar. maternal uncle ni-lur kni.

The Lynngam dialect differs so much from the standard Khasi that some remarks regarding the former will not be out of place. Dr. Grierson, on pages 17 to 19 of his Volume II. of the "Linguistic Survey of India," has indicated some of these differences, which may be recapitulated here as follows. Some of the commonest verbs vary considerably from those used in the standard dialect. There are also many minor differences of pronunciation. A man is _u breo_, not _u briew_, a son is a _u khon_, not _u khun_. Standard _ng_ is often represented by _nj_. Thus _doinj_ for _ding_, fire. A final _h_ often appears as _k_, and an initial _b_ as _p_. Thus, _baroh_ (Standard), all, becomes in Lynngam _prok_. Standard _ei_ becomes _aw_. Thus _wei_ = _waw_, one; _dei = daw_, necessary. The articles are frequently omitted. The pronoun _u_ is used for the plural as well as the singular, instead of the Standard plural _ki_. The diminutive _i_ is used with inanimate nouns. This is also sometimes the case in the Standard form.

_Nouns_.--The prefix of the Accusative-dative is _se_ or _sa_, often contracted to _s'_ instead of _ia_ (Standard). The prefix of the Dative is _hanam, hnam_, or _tnam_. The Standard Dative-locative prefix _ha_ is also used, and may be spelt _he_ or _hy_. _Ta_ or _te_ are also found. For the genitive, besides the Standard _jong_, are found _ha, am-ba, am_, and _am-nam. Am-nam_ and _am_ also mean "from."

The plural sometimes takes the suffix _met_.

_Adjectives_.--The usual word for male is _korang_, and for "female" _konthaw_, in place of the Standard _shynrang_ and _kynthei_ respectively. The following are examples of comparisons:--_Re-myrriang_, good; _Mai-myrriang_, better; _U re-myrriang_, best. The Standard _tam_ is also used for the superlative.

_Pronouns_.--The Personal Pronouns are:--

Singular Plural 1st Person, ne biaw, iaw. 2nd Person, mi, mei phiaw. 3rd Person u, ju, u-ju kiw.

The Nominative of the pronoun of the second person singular is given once as _ba-mi_, and once as _ma-mi_. The _ma_ or _ba_ is the Standard emphatic prefix _ma_.

Demonstrative Pronouns appear to be _be, tei_ that, and _uni_, or _nih_, this. _Be_ is used as a definite article in the phrase _be jawmai_, the earthquake.

_The Relative Pronoun_ is _u-lah_, who.

_Interrogative Pronouns_ are _net, u-iet_, who? and _met_, what?

_Verbs_.--The pronoun which is the subject of a verb may either precede or follow it. Thus _ne rip_, I strike; _rip biaw_, we strike. The words meaning to be are _re, im_, and _meit_ in addition to the Standard _long_. Like the Standard _don, im_, corresponding to Synteng _em_, also means to have. As in the Standard, the Present Tense is formed by using the bare root.

The Past Tense is formed in one of five ways, viz.:--

1. By suffixing _let_, as in _ong-let_, said. 2. By suffixing _lah-let_, as in _dih-lah-let_, went. 3. By prefixing _lah_, and suffixing _let_, as in _lah-ong-let_, said. 4. By prefixing _lah_, as in _lah-kyllei_, asked. 5. By prefixing _yn_ (_yng, ym_), as in _yn-nai_, gave; _yng-kheit_, shook; _um-pait_, broke; _yn-jai_, fell.

The Future is formed in a very peculiar way. The Standard _yn_ is inserted into the middle of the root, immediately after the first consenant. Thus _rip_, strike; _rynip_, will strike. If the root is a compound, it is inserted between the two members, as in _pan-yn-sop_, will fill. Here observe that the Standard causative prefix _pyn_ becomes _pan_ in Lynngam. The Infinitive the same form as the Future.

Dr. Grierson points out the following most noteworthy fact with reference to the formation of the Lynngam Future and Infinitive, i.e., that similar infixes occur in Malay in the Nancowry dialect of Nicobar, and the Malacca aboriginal languages.

The prefix of the Imperative is _nei_, as in _nei-ai_, give; _nei-lam_, bring. The usual negative particle is _ji_, which is suffixed, e.g. _um-ji_ is not.

Numerals.

Lynngam Standard (Khasi). 1. Waw, shi Wei, shi. 2. Ar-re or a-re Ar. 3. Lai-re Lai. 4. Saw-re Saw. 5. San-de San. 6 Hyrrew-re Hinriw. 7. Hynnju-re Hinniew. 8. Phra-re Phra. 9. Khondai-re Khyndai. 10. Shi-phu Shi-phew.

The peculiarity about the Lynngam numerals is the suffix _re_, and the numeral "five" _de_. None of the other dialects of Khasi posess this peculiarity. Dr. Grierson's Volume may be referred to for a Lynngam Vocabulary. I make the following additions:--

English Lynngam Khasi (Standard). Hearth paw ka dypei Earthen pot kheow u khiw Flesh mim ka doh Spoon jamplai ka siang Sleeping-room syrkut ka'rumpei Drinking-gourd longtang u skaw ,, ,, longjak u klong dih-um Broom shipuat u synsar

Clothing

Turban khabong jain brung ka jain spong Ear-ring kurneng ka shohshkor Apron shiliang ka jymphong Haversack jolonjwa [44] ka pla Cap pokhia ka tupia Girdle pun-poh u saipan Under Garment jain tongpan ka jympin (female)

Domestic Terms.

Pestle synraw u synrei Door phyrdaw ka jingkhang Fowl house kjor syar ka sem siar Portion of house in front of the hearth nengiaw ka nongpei Do. behind the hearth shangla ka rumpei Store-house siang ka ieng buh kyba Millet jrai u krai Indian corn soh rikhawu riw hadem Arum chew ka shiriew

Agricultural Implements.

Spade wakhew u mokhiew Bill-hook wait-bah ka wait Lynngam Do. wait-koh ka wait khmut Axe dapam u sdi Basket used in reaping and sowing khyrnai ka koh rit.

CHAPTER A

Exogamous Clans in the Cherra State

1. Basa-iew-moit Intermarriage with Majaw and Hynniewta clans prohibited. 2. Diengdoh Intermarriage with Lalu, Diengdohbah and Diengdohkylla clans prohibited. 3. 'Dkhar 4. Dohling 5. Dulai 6. Dunai 7. Hura 8. Hynniewta 9. Jala 10. Jyrwa 11. Khar Jarain 12. ,, Khlem 13. ,, Khrang 14. ,, Kongor 15. ,, Kyni 16. ,, Lukhi 17. ,, Maw 18. ,, Mawphlang 19. ,, Mu 20. ,, Muid 21. ,, Muti 22. ,, Mylliem 23. ,, Naior 24. ,, Shi-ieng 25. ,, Synteng 26. -- -- 27. Khong-bri 28. ,, hat 29. ,, ji 30. ,, joh 31. ,, kwang 32. ,, kynshen 33. ,, kyntiaj 34. ,, kyshah 35. ,, lam 36. ,, liar 37. ,, longioi 38. ,, lynnong 39. ,, mawpat 40. ,, mukon 41. ,, ngain 42. ,, riat 43. ,, rymmai 44. ,, sdir 45. ,, shir 46. ,, sit 47. ,, sngi 48. ,, sya 49. ,, war 50. ,, wet 51. ,, wir 52. Lyngdoh-Nonglwai 53. Lynden 54. Lynrah 55. Majaw 56. Marbaniang This is one of the myntri clans of Mawsynram State. 57. Malngiang Originally from Maskut in the Jowai Sub-division. 58. Marpna 59. Mawlong 60. Marboh Formerly one of the Khadar Kur clans. Has now become extinct. 61. Mawdkhap 62. Mohkhiew 63. Mynrieng 64. Myrthong 65. Nongbri 66. Nongkynrih One of the myntri clans of the Khyrim State. 67. Nonglait 68. Nongtran 69. Nonglathiang 70. Nongrum One of the myntri clans of the Khyrim State. 71. Nontariang These two clans cannot intermarry. Nongtariang is now one of the Khadar Kur clans in place of the Marboh clan which has become extinct. 72. Padoh 73. Parariang 74. Pohnong 75. Prawai 76. Puria 77. Pompyrthat 78. Rani 79. Rapthap 80. Rynjah One of the myntri clans of the Khyrim State. 81. Samai 82. Shabong 83. Shanpru 84. Shrieh _Shrieh_ means a monkey. Possibly totemistic. 85. Siem Lyngng 86. Sohkhlet 87. Shyngpliang 88. Sumer 89. Swer 90. Syiem 91. Syngai 92. Synrem 93. Thabah 94. Tham _Tham_means a crab. Possibly totemistic. 95. Tohtih 96. Umdor 97. Walang 98. Warkon 99 Khyrwang 100. Ksing

CHAPTER B

Exogamous Clans in the Khyrim State

1. Awri 2. Bariang 3. Basa-iew-moit 4. Bhoi 5. Bithai 6. Diengdoh (2) Intermarriage with Masar clan prohibited. 7. 'Dkhar 8. Dumpep 9. Hadem 10. Jasia 11. Khang-shei 12. Khar baino 13. ,, baki 14. ,, bangar Intermarriage with Nong-lwai clan prohibited. 15. Khar bih-khiew Intermarriage prohibited with Khar-umnuid clan 16. Khar bonniud 17. ,, bud 18. ,, buli 19. ,, dint 20. ,, dohling 21. ,, dumpep 22. ,, hi-dint 23. ,, iap 24. ,, Kamni 25. ,, Kongor 26. ,, Kset 27. ,, kynang 28. ,, long 29. ,, luni 30. ,, Malki 31. ,, Masar 32. ,, mawlieh Intermarriage with Khar pomtiah clan prohibited. 33. Khar mihpein 34. ,, mithai 35. ,, mudai 36. ,, mujai 37. ,, mukhi 38. ,, muti 39. ,, mylliem 40. ,, patti 41. ,, pein 42. ,, phan 43. ,, phur 44. ,, pohlong 45. ,, pohshiah 46. ,, pomtiah Intermarriage with Khar mawlieh clan prohibited. 47. Khar pomtih 48. ,, pran 49. ,, ryngi 50. ,, rynta 51. ,, Sati 52. ,, shan 53. ,, shi-ieng 54. ,, shilot 55. ,, shong 56. ,, shrieh 57. ,, sohnoh 58. ,, sugi 59. ,, Umnuid Intermarriage with Khar-bihkhiew clan prohibited. 60. Khar urmut 61. ,, War 62. Khier 63. Khmah 64. Khong-binam 65. ,, blah 66. ,, buh 67. ,, buhphang 68. ,, 'dkhar 69. ,, dup Intermarriage prohibited with Rongsai and Khongree clans. 70. Khong [45] iap 71. ,, iong 72. ,, ji Intermarriage with Pongrup clan prohibited. 73. Khong joh 74. ,, kai 75. ,, khar 76. ,, kiang 77. ,, kib 78. ,, kylla 79. ,, kyndiah 80. ,, lam 81. ,, liam 82. ,, likong 83. ,, litung 84. ,, luni 85. ,, malai 86. ,, mawlow 87. ,, niur 88. ,, noh 89. ,, pdei 90. ,, pnam 91. ,, pnan 92. ,, sdoh 93. ,, siting 94. ,, slit 95. ,, sugi } 96. ,, sni } 97. ,, sti } Intermarriage prohibited also with Lyngdoh clan 98. Khong stia 99. ,, sylla (2) 100. ,, thaw 101. ,, tiang 102. ,, thorem 103. ,, wanduh (2) 104. ,, wet 105. ,, wir 106. Khriam 107. Khynriam 108. Khynriem 109. Khynriem miyat 110. Khynriem mawshorok Intermarriage with Pongrup, Lyndoh and Mawthoh clans prohibited. 111. Khynriem wahksieng 112. Kur Kalang. 113. Lamin 114. Lawai Intermarriage with Lyngdoh clan prohibited. 115. Lawaisawkher 116. Lingshing 117. Liting 118. Lyngbah 119. Lyngdoh Intermarriage with Pongrup and Mawthoh clans prohibited. 120. Lyngiar 121. Mairang 122. Majaid 123. Manar 124. Masar Intermarriage with Diengdoh clan prohibited. 125. Mawiong 126. Mawphlang 127. Mawsharoh 128. Mawthoh Intermarriage with Pongrup and Lyngdoh clans prohibited. 129. Mawwa 130. Morbah 131. Mormein 132. Mukhin 133. Muroh 134. Mylliem 135. Mylliem muthong } 136. ,, Ngap } 137. ,, pdah } Intermarriage between these clans prohibited also with Sohtum clan 138. Mynsong 139. Niengnong 140. Nieng-suh 142. Nongbri Intermarriage with Nong-kynrih clans prohibited. 143. Nongbri Partuh 144. Nonghulew 145. Nong-khlieh 146. Nong-kynrieh Intermarriage with Nongbri clan prohibited. 147. Nong-lwai Intermarriage with Khar-Bangar clan prohibited. 148. Nong-lyer 149. Nong-pinir 150. Nong-pluh 151. Nongrum 152. Nongspung 153. Nongsteng 154. Nongstein 155. Nongtlub 156. Pdei 157. Pohkhla 158. Pohthmi 159. Pongrup Intermarriage with Mawthoh and Lyngdoh clans prohibited. 160. Rumkheng 161. Ruson 162. Rymkheng 163. Ryndong (2) 164. Ryngksai 165. Rynjah Intermarriage with Mawroh clan prohibited. 166. Rynjem 167. Ryntong 168. Ryngngi 169. Shabong 170. Shadap 171. Singting 172. Sohkhleb 173. Sohtum Intermarriage with Mylliemngap, Mylliempdah and Mylliem-muttong clans prohibited. 174. Sonjri 175. Songthiang 176. Sumer 177. Surong 178. Suting 179. Swali 180. Swer 181. Synnah 182. Synteng 183. Synteng-hen 184. Tadong 185. Tangper 186. Tangsang 187. Tarieng 188. Trai-iew 189. Tyngsier 190. Tynsil (2) 191. Tyngsong 192. Umsong 193. Uri-ieng 194. Wallang 195. Warbah Intermarriage with War-shong prohibited. 196. War-Jnem 197. ,, jri 198. ,, khyllew 199. War-malai 200. ,, moi 201. ,, Nongjri 202. Wan-khar 203. War-shong Intermarriage with Warbah prohibited.