xix. 14) has been interpreted to apply to all kinds of slander about
those absent or dead. Our respect for the memory of the dead is expressed in the Latin maxim, “De mortuis nil nisi bonum;” or in the Hebrew, אחרי מות קדשים אמור [41] “After their death say of them ‘saints.’” Similar maxims are the following: “We must not refute the lion after his death;” מיתה מכפרת “Death atones for all offences.”
4. The Well-being of our Fellow-man.—The duties expounded in the above are of a negative character. The commandment, “Love thy neighbour as thyself” implies also certain positive duties, which are comprehended in the terms, צדקה and גמלות חסד “charity.”
The literal meaning of the term tsedakah is “righteousness,” but it occurs also frequently in the sense of “charity;” and we may infer from this that charity was to the Hebrew a mere act of righteousness. In the Book of Daniel and in post-Biblical Hebrew tsedakah is “alms,” and distinguished from gemilluth-chesed, “charity.” The former is given to the poor; the latter to poor and rich alike: tsedakah, consisting of money or things that can be purchased for money, is a duty chiefly incumbent on the wealthier class; gemilluth-chesed, consisting of personal acts of kindness, is a virtue that can be acquired and practised by every one, whether he be poor or rich; and whilst tsedakah can only be given to those that live, gemilluth-chesed can be shown even to the departed. When Jacob asked his son for a burial in the cave of Machpelah, he relied on his son’s חסד ואמת, “Kindness and truth;” and the Midrash adds the remark, “Kindness shown to the dead is an act of true love, as there can be no prospect of gratitude or repayment.”
The principal kinds of גמלות חסד are the following:—
(1.) בקור חולים Visiting the sick. [42] The object of the visit ought to be to cheer up the sufferer by pleasant conversation, to assist him by good advice, to render him any service that is wanted, to inspire him with hope, and to strengthen his faith in God by the comforting words of Scripture and by prayer. (2.) הלוית המת “Accompanying the dead” to his last resting-place, and doing everything that our love and regard for the departed requires. Almost every Jewish community includes an association whose members undertake to perform personally, as far as possible, these acts of love. Such a society is generally called חברת גמלות חסדים “Association for practising loving-kindness towards our fellow-men,” or חברא קדישא “Holy Association;” that is, an association for a holy object. (3.) נחום אבלים Comforting the mourners, who find relief in the conviction that their fellow-men have sympathy with them. (4.) הבאת שלום בין אדם לחברו “Peace-making.”—War, whether carried on between nations, or between parties, or between one individual and another, is equally detestable; and all those who by their exertion and intercession contribute to a diminution of warfare are engaged in praiseworthy work. The principal prayers in our Liturgy conclude with a petition for peace, and we look forward for the state of uninterrupted peace, the Messianic time, as the most perfect condition of mankind. Forbearance, a kind word, a judicious counsel, frequently averts the great evil of strife and enmity.—Peace, harmony, and friendship are best promoted by— (5.) Judging favourably the deeds and words of our fellow-men. It is not an easy task to correctly estimate the motives which guide our neighbour in his actions, and in doing so we err frequently; but it is better to err by over-estimating them; since this produces far less harm than going astray in the other direction and speaking ill of others without any justifiable cause. Conduct like this leads to peace and happiness within and without. “Speaking peace to all his seed” is the climax of the virtues praised in Mordecai, the Jew (Esther x. 3).
Charity (tsedakah) in its narrower sense, as a duty towards the poor, includes—
(1.) Alms-giving to the poor for the purpose of alleviating temporary suffering. (2.) Providing for the comfort of the aged and sick, widows and orphans. (3.) Assisting the stranger. The Law lays special stress on this branch of charity, and reminds us that we all have once been strangers in the land of Egypt. Even in the various countries of which we have become citizens, our forefathers, three or four generations back, were strangers; and, besides, we are told by the Almighty, “Ye are strangers and sojourners with me:” (Lev. xxv. 23). This kind of charity is known by the name הכנסת אורחים (4.) Support given to the poor towards obtaining a livelihood, by procuring occupation for them, teaching them a trade and giving them a start in it. (5.) Providing for the religious and secular education of the children of the poor. (6.) Raising their intellectual, social, and moral condition by personal intercourse with them, and by kind words of advice, comfort, and encouragement. (7.) Helping those who have gone astray and have fallen into vice or crime to return to the path of virtue, industry, and righteousness.
There are generally associations formed for the various branches of gemilluth-chesed, the number of which grows, especially in large towns, with the increase of misery. It is our duty to support such institutions, as combined action is in most cases more practical and productive of good result. But the existence of public institutions, and our support given to them, by no means exempt us from assisting individually those who apply to us for help. We must be judicious in our charitable acts, lest we nurse poverty and promote imposture. But, on the other hand, we must not be over cautious, and must not unduly suspect every applicant for assistance as guilty of idleness or other vices, lest by refusal or hesitation to help we become guilty of neglect, when by prompt action we might save from utter ruin a person or a whole family well worthy of our sympathy. In this regard we are warned by King Solomon: “Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in the power of thine hand to do it. Say not unto thy neighbour, Go, and come again, and to-morrow I will give; when thou hast it by thee” (Prov. iii. 27, 28).
(b.) Special Duties towards our Fellow-men.
1. Children towards their Parents.—“Honour thy father and thy mother” is one of the Ten Words which God spoke to the Israelites on Mount Sinai. The child honours his parents by considering them as his superiors, as endowed with authority over him, and entitled by experience to be his guides and instructors; by listening respectfully when they speak to him, and by speaking with reverence when he speaks of or to them.
The love of parents towards their child should find an echo in the heart of the latter.
The child’s love of his parents finds expression in willing, cheerful obedience; in the endeavour to do everything that pleases them, in the sacrifice made for the purpose of giving them pleasure, in the assistance given them when, through age, sickness, or misfortune, they are in need of aid.
The parents’ duty towards the child is to do everything that true love demands, for his physical, moral, and intellectual well-being.
With regard to the child’s duty towards his parents the following verses from Proverbs may be noticed:—
“The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it” (xxx. 17).
“Whoso robbeth his father or his mother, and saith, It is no transgression, the same is the companion of a destroyer” (xxviii. 24).
“Whoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness” (xx. 20).
“He that wasteth his father and chaseth away his mother is a son that causeth shame, and bringeth reproach” (xix. 26).
“The glory of children are their fathers” (xvii. 6).
2. All other special duties towards our fellow-men may be divided into (i.) Duties towards our equals; (ii.) Duties towards our superiors and towards our inferiors.
(I.) DUTIES TOWARDS OUR EQUALS.
(1.) A bond of friendship frequently exists between equals.
Friends have certain duties to fulfil towards each other. It is expected that friends should have faith in their mutual friendship. “As in water face answereth to face, so in the heart man answereth to man” (Prov. xxvii. 19). As the water reflects the face of him who looks into it, so the heart of man reflects the friendship and faithfulness of him who has penetrated into it. Our estimation of our friend’s feeling toward us is the measure of the genuineness and value of our own friendship towards him.
Disinterestedness is an essential condition of genuine friendship. Every service we render to our friend must be prompted by the desire to be of use to him. and not to advance our own interest. If any other motive enters our mind, if we speculate on his gratitude, and think that our kindness must eventually be returned with interest, we have no knowledge or feeling of friendship. Thus our Sages declare, “Friendship dictated by a selfish motive comes to an end together with the speculation; but friendship which is not based on any selfish motive comes never to an end. An instance of the first kind is the friendship between Amnon and Tamar (2 Sam. xiii.); of the second kind, the friendship between David and Jonathan (1 Sam. xviii.)” (Aboth v. 16).
Friends bound to each other by genuine and sincere love find great pleasure in the fulfilment of the duties involved in friendship. They do not hesitate to bring sacrifices for each other’s well-being; they evince heartfelt sympathy for each other in good and evil fortune.
All the duties of charity—gemilluth chesed—which we owe to our fellow-men in general, apply with increased force when our fellow-man is also our friend. One of these duties demands our special attention, because it is frequently neglected through human weakness: truthfulness and openness. Flattery, objectionable as it is in every case, is most detestable between friends. We must encourage our friends by kind words, and acknowledge their merits, but we must not spoil them by undue flattery. If, on the other hand, we discover errors or vices in our friend, it is our duty to communicate to him openly our opinion, and to do all that is in our power to bring him back to the path of righteousness and truth. “Thou shalt surely rebuke thy friend, and not suffer sin upon him” (Lev. xix. 17).
Friendship is mostly formed without premeditation, and without any aim; we are friends, we do not know how and why; some similarity in our character, in our talents, in our views, in our successes and failures, or in our fortunes and misfortunes, draws us together, and we become friends before we are aware of the fact. But as far as we have control over our feelings we ought to be careful not to plunge into friendship without knowing something of the character and the tendencies of those with whom we are to associate ourselves in such close relationship. In Proverbs we are told, “Make no friendships with an angry man, and with a furious man thou shalt not go” (xxii. 24). Ben-sira (vi. 6) exhorts us, “If thou wouldst get a friend, prove him first, and be not hasty to credit him.” Our Sages say, “It is easy to make an enemy; it is difficult to make a friend” (Yalkut on Deut. vi. 16).
The acquisition of a true friend is by no means an easy task. But it is a task that cannot be dispensed with. Persons who enjoy a life spent in loneliness uncheered by friendship are exceptions to the rule; such a life is miserable, and the climax of all the evils complained of by Heman the Ezrahite (Ps. lxxxviii. 19) is: “Lover and friend hast thou put far from me, and darkness is mine acquaintance.” Job in his great sufferings longs for “the love which is shown to the unhappy by his friend” (Job vi. 14).
Friendship being one of our most valuable possessions, it must be well guarded and cultivated, lest it be lost or weakened. “Thine own friend and thy father’s friend, forsake not” (Prov. xxvii. 10). “Let thy foot be seldom in thy friend’s house, lest he be weary of thee, and so hate thee” (ibid. xxv. 17).
True friendship can be extended only to a few; but those who are not our friends need not be our enemies. They are all our fellow-men, and our conduct towards them is to be guided by the principle, “Love thy fellow-man as thyself.” We are distinctly commanded, “Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart” (Lev. xix. 18), “brother” having here the same meaning as fellow-man. Enmity, like friendship, comes frequently unawares; we dislike or even hate a person without knowing why. But it is our duty, as soon as such an ill-feeling has stolen into our heart, to search for its origin; and this being done, we shall generally feel ashamed of having allowed our heart to be invaded by such an unworthy intruder. We must keep away from evil-doers, and not associate with wicked people; but this is a very different thing from hating our neighbour. The pious wish, “May sinners cease to exist, and the wicked be no more” (Ps. civ. 35), is explained in the Talmud in the words of Beruria, daughter of Rabbi Meir, as follows: “May sins cease to exist, and the wicked will be no more.” We often conceive just indignation at the misdeeds of our neighbours, and cannot well separate the doer from the deed. But we ought in such cases of indignation to examine ourselves, whether the source of our indignation is pure, or has its root in selfishness. Such an analysis of our motives would soon purify our heart of all ill-feeling.
In our conduct towards those whom we consider our enemies, or who consider us their enemies, we must show forbearance and a desire to offer or to seek forgiveness, according as we are the doers or the sufferers of wrong. Self-love and self-esteem, if not kept within due limits, easily produce feelings of revenge. Without entirely suppressing human nature, we are bound to control our feelings, and to let love of our fellow-men in all conditions occupy the first place in our heart. We are taught by our Sages, “He who is forbearing, receives also pardon for his sins” (Babyl. Talm. Yoma 23a); “Be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors” (ibid. Baba Kama 93a); “To those who being offended do not offend, being insulted do not insult, the verse applies: ‘And they who love him shall be as the sun when he goeth forth in his might’” (Judges v. 31; Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 88b).
(2.) Man and wife are united by the holy bond of marriage. They owe to each other love, faithfulness, confidence, and untiring endeavour to make each other happy. The neglect of these duties turns a happy home into an abode of misery and wretchedness. [43] The last of the prophets, Malachi, rebuking such neglect, says: “The Lord hath been witness between thee and the wife of thy youth, against whom thou hast dealt treacherously, yet is she thy companion and the wife of thy covenant.”
(3.) As citizens of a State we must take our proper share in all work for the welfare of the State. When the State is in danger we must evince patriotism, and must not withdraw ourselves from those duties which, under such circumstances, devolve upon every citizen. All our means, our physical and intellectual faculties, must be at the disposal of the country in which we live as citizens. Thus Jeremiah exhorts his brethren in Babylonia: “Build ye houses and dwell in them; and plant gardens, and eat the fruit of them; ... and seek the peace of the city whither I have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray unto the Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall you have peace” (Jer. xxix. 5, 7). Similarly we are taught, “Pray for the welfare of the government” (Aboth iii. 2). [44]
An important dictum of Samuel, a Rabbi famous for his decisions in questions of civil law, is accepted in the Talmud as law: “The law of the State is binding upon us,” דינא דמלכותא דינא (Babyl. Talm. Baba Kamma 113a). It is, according to the teaching of the Talmud, incumbent upon us, as citizens of the State, to obey the laws of the country. There is no difference between Jews and their fellow-citizens with regard to the duty of loyalty. It is only in case of an attempt to force us aside from our religion that we are not only justified in resisting and disobeying laws framed with this intention, but we are commanded to do so. But in the absence of such intention, we must fulfil all those duties which devolve upon all citizens alike—such as military service in countries that have general conscription—although such obedience may carry with it a breach of some of the laws of our religion. On the contrary, evasion and desertion of all national obligations is a serious offence against our holy Law.
(4.) As members of the same religious community, we must unite in working for the well-being of the whole body. “Do not separate thyself from the congregation” (Aboth ii. 4) is a principle taught by the great Hillel. A Jew who violates this principle, and keeps aloof from his brethren, unwilling to take his share of the communal burdens, is guilty of a serious dereliction of duty, and is set forth in the Talmud as an example of most disgraceful conduct. “When your brethren are in trouble, do not say, ‘I have my home, my food and drink; I am safe.’ If you ever were to think so, the words of the prophet would apply to you: ‘Surely this iniquity shall not be purged from you till you die’.” “He who does not join the community in times of danger and trouble will never enjoy the Divine blessing” (Babyl. Talm. Taanith, p. 11a); “He who separates from the ways of the community has no portion of the world to come,” הפורש מדרכי צבור אין לו חלק לעולם הבא (Maim., Mishneh-torah, Hilchoth Teshubah iii. 6).
(5.) As to members of another community, we have to show due regard for their religious convictions, and not to wound their feelings in respect of anything they hold sacred. Respect for the religious feelings of our fellow-men will increase their regard for our own religion, and evoke in them the same consideration for our religious feelings. All our duties towards our fellow-men are equally binding upon us whether in relation to members of ether faiths or of our own.
(6.) Employers and employed, sellers and buyers, must act towards each other with the strictest honesty. In cases of dispute a friendly explanation or discussion is more likely to promote the interest of both parties than mutual animosity. Each party must bear in mind that prosperity depends on the co-operation of the other party, and not on its ruin.
Note.—We meet in the Talmud and works based on the Talmud with dicta which seem at first sight to exclude Gentiles (עכו״ם, נכרי or גוי) from our duty of love towards our fellow-men. This, however, was never intended. Sayings of this kind originated in days of warfare between the oppressor and the oppressed, and were an outburst of feelings of pain and anger, caused by an enemy who was not restrained from tyranny and cruelty by any sense of justice and humanity. But this state of affairs has ceased, and such sayings have since entirely lost their force and meaning, and are practically forgotten. Some of these passages have been removed from the Talmudical works by hostile censors; but having led, and being still likely to lead, to errors or misunderstanding, less on the part of Jews than of non-Jewish readers, they ought to be eliminated in future editions of any of these works by Jewish censors, especially as the notices on the first page of the books, that the terms גוי, עכו״ם or נכרי do not apply to our non-Jewish neighbours at the present day, appear to have proved ineffectual against calumny and persecution.
(II.) DUTIES TO OUR SUPERIORS AND INFERIORS.
Although we are all equally children of one God, and before the Most High all our petty differences disappear, His infinite wisdom willed it that there should be a certain degree of inequality among His creatures; that some men should be wise, others simple; some talented, others less skilful; some strong, others weak; some high, others low; some imperious, others submissive; some rulers, others subjects; some fit to guide, and others only fit to be guided. This inequality is the source of certain special duties between man and man. “Be submissive to your superior, agreeable to your inferior, and cheerful to every one” (Aboth iii. 12).
(1.) The teacher who patiently strives to benefit his pupils by his instruction and counsel has a just claim on their respect. It is in the interest of the pupils themselves to regard their teacher as a friend, to have confidence in him, and faith in his superiority. It is themselves they benefit most if they lighten the labours of their teacher by due attention and obedience, and themselves they injure most, if by want of proper respect they render his task difficult and disagreeable.
On the other hand, it is the duty of the teacher to try to win the respect and the affection of the pupils by conscientiousness in his work, by patience and forbearance, by kindness and justice, by genuine interest in the progress and welfare of those entrusted to his care, and, above all, by a pure, good, and noble life.—The pupils owe much to their teachers, but the latter also owe something to their disciples. “Much have I learnt from my teachers, more from my fellow-students, most from my pupils,” is a well-known Talmudical saying (Babyl. Talm. Taanith 7a). Of the priest, who in ancient time used to be the principal teacher, the prophet Malachi says: “The priest’s lips shall keep knowledge, and they shall seek the law at his mouth; for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts” (Mal. ii. 7). Rabbi Jochanan, in commenting on these words, said, “If the teacher is like the messenger of the Lord, i.e., leads a pure life in the service of the Lord, then people shall seek instruction at his mouth; if not, they cannot be instructed by him in the Law” (Yalkut ad locum).—“Let the honour of thy disciple be as dear to thee as thy own, and the honour of thy colleague as dear as the fear of thy teacher, and the fear of thy teacher as dear as the fear of Heaven” (Aboth iv. 15).—“He who has been taught something by his neighbour, whether it be a chapter, a law, a verse, a phrase, or a letter, owes him respect. Thus David, who only learnt two things from Ahitophel, called him ‘teacher, chief, and friend’” (ibid. vi. 3).
Reverence is shown by a pupil to his teacher, not only by outward signs of respect, but also by refraining from opposing him, his teaching, or his decisions (Maimonides I. Hilchoth Talmud torah v. 1). A pupil who altogether relinquishes the teaching of his master is to the latter a source of intense grief.—Among the outward signs of regard for the teacher we find the ancient custom or rule to pay a visit to the teacher on the three festivals: Passover, Feast of Weeks, and Tabernacles (ibid. v. 7).
(2.) Master and Servant.—The relation between master and servant is legally regulated by the same rules as that between employer and employed. Strict honesty in the fulfilment of the duties undertaken by either party is the basis of a good understanding between master and servant. The former must not exact from the latter more than was agreed upon, and the latter must not fail to perform all that he has undertaken to do. The relation between master and servant can be made more pleasant on both sides, if they are sensible enough to recognise their mutual obligations. On the part of the master, it is necessary that he should consider his servant as a human being like himself, who has a right to expect due reward for faithful service. A treatment of the servant from this point of view inspires him with a feeling of regard and attachment for his master, which finds expression in good and honest service. The servant will feel comfortable in his work, and be convinced that to be a servant is no degradation.—“Thou shalt not defraud an hired servant that is poor and needy, whether he be of thy brethren or of thy strangers that are in the land within thy gates” (Deut. xxiv. 14).
(3.) Rich and Poor.—“The rich and poor meet together: the Lord is the maker of them all” (Prov. xxii. 2). Those who are fortunate enough to possess more than is wanted for the necessities of life, are expected to spend part of the surplus in relieving those who possess less than they require for their maintenance. Sympathy towards the poor and needy is the duty of the rich; gratitude towards the generous and benevolent is the duty of the poor. But the rich must by no means make their gifts dependent on the signs of gratitude on the part of the poor; they must even avoid eliciting expressions of thanks, as these lead too often to flattery, hypocrisy, and servility. The rich find ample reward for their benevolence in the joyous feeling that Providence has chosen them as the means of diminishing the sufferings, the troubles, and the cares of some of their fellow-men.
(4.) The following have a just claim on our respect:—
Learned Men (תלמידי חכמים), who, even if not directly our teachers, in many ways benefit us by their learning. “It is a great sin to despise or to hate the wise: Jerusalem has chiefly been destroyed as a punishment for the contempt shown for the learned; as it is said (2 Chron. xxxvi. 16), ‘They mocked the messengers of God, and despised his words, and misused his prophets, until the wrath of the Lord arose against his people till there was no remedy’” (Maimonides, l. c. vi. 11). “He who despises talmide-chachamim,” says Rab, “has no remedy for his disease” (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, 119b), and belongs to those who forfeit their portion in the world to come (אין להם חלק לעולם הבא, ibid., Sanhedrin 90).
The Aged.—“Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man, and fear thy God” (Lev. xix. 32). The Bible illustrates, in the history of Rehoboam (1 Kings xii.), the evil consequences of the contempt shown by this king to the words of the old men.—“With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding” (Job xii. 12). “The building of the young is destruction; the destruction of the old is building” (B. T. Megillah 31b). [45]
Great men who have accomplished great works in the interest of mankind, and have thus merited the gratitude of all.
The great men of our nation, their works and the institutions founded by them at various periods of our history. “Do not despise thy mother, though she hath become old” (Prov. xxiii. 22). The feeling of piety and reverence towards our Sages and Teachers of former generations, and towards institutions of ancient times that have come down to us, is an essential element in our inner religion (חובות הלבבות).
The magistrates, judges, and statesmen, who devote their time, their talents, and their energy to promoting the well-being of the State.
The Head of the State.—“Fear the Lord, O my son, and the king, and do not mix with rioters” (Prov. xxiv. 21).
(C.) KINDNESS TO ANIMALS.
“Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Gen. i. 28 and ix. 2, &c.; comp. Ps. viii. 7, &c.). Thus spake the Creator to the first man. He gave him a right to make use of the animals for his benefit; and man makes the animals work for him; they serve him as food, provide him with clothing and other necessary or useful things. In return for all these services the animals ought to be treated with kindness and consideration. It is a necessity to force certain beasts to work for us, and to kill certain animals for various purposes. But in doing so we must not cause more pain than is absolutely necessary. It is a disgraceful act to give pain to animals merely for sport, and to enjoy their agony. Bullfights and similar spectacles are barbarous, and tend to corrupt and brutalise the heart of man. The more we abstain from cruelty to animals, the more noble and loving is our conduct likely to be to one another. “A righteous man regardeth the feelings of his beast, but the heart of the wicked is cruel” (Prov. xii. 10).
The following are instances of kindness to animals enjoined in the Pentateuch:—
“Ye shall not kill an animal and its young on one day” (Lev. xxii. 28).
“If a bird’s nest happen to be before thee on the way upon the earth or upon a tree, with young ones or eggs, thou shalt not take the mother with the young. Let the mother go away; then thou mayest take the young ones, in order that it may be well with thee, and thy days be long” (Deut. xxii. 6, 7).
“Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn” (ibid. xxv. 4).
In the Talmud we have the following saying in the name of Rab:—“We must not begin our meal before having given food to our cattle; for it is said, ‘And I will give you grass in thy field for thy cattle,’ and after that ‘thou shalt eat and be full’” (Deut. xi. 15; Babyl. Talm. 40a).
C.—DUTIES TO OURSELVES.
Our duties to ourselves are to a great extent included in our duties towards God and towards our fellow-men, because these likewise tend to promote our own well-being.
The fundamental principle of our duties towards ourselves is to make the best use of the gifts which the kindness of God has bestowed upon us.
1. Life and health are precious gifts received by us at the hands of Divine Providence. We must therefore guard them as valuable treasures, and must not endanger them without absolute necessity. On the contrary, as much as lies in our power, we must improve our health and preserve our life. Food and bodily enjoyment, however pleasant for the moment, must be let alone if they are injurious to health. If we find ourselves inclined to exceed the right measure in the enjoyment of a thing, it is advisable to turn, for a while at least, to the other extreme and avoid that enjoyment altogether. Thus persons that are easily misled to excess in drink should become total abstainers from drink. But in ordinary cases the golden mean is preferable, especially for us Jews who are trained by the Dietary Laws, and by other precepts, to have control over our appetites. We are not commanded to be ascetics and to lead a gloomy, miserable life. On the contrary, we are frequently told in the Pentateuch, “And ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God.” The Psalmist exhorts us to “serve the Lord with gladness; to come before his presence with singing” (Ps. c. 2). “He who doeth good to his own soul is a man of love; and he who troubleth his own flesh is a cruel man” (Prov. xi. 17); i.e., he who does good to himself is of a cheerful disposition, and is likely to do good to others; but he who deprives himself of enjoyments is often also cruel to his fellow-creatures. The Nazirite had to bring a sin-offering after the expiration of the period of his vow. “What sin has he committed?” was asked. The answer is given in the Talmud by Samuel: “Because he deprived himself of wine;” and the Rabbi further infers from this, that it is prohibited to impose a voluntary fast upon oneself. Rabbi Eleazar, however, thinks that the vow of a Nazirite is a praiseworthy act, and his view found many followers, especially in the Middle Ages. Abraham Ibn Ezra, e.g., explains that the sin of the Nazirite consists in not prolonging the state of Naziritism. But, however different their opinions may be theoretically, all agree that no voluntary fast should be undertaken, if it endangers the health of the faster, changes cheerfulness into sadness, and disables him from doing necessary or useful work.
2. Wealth, if acquired in an honest manner, by hard work, is conducive to our well-being. But in our search for wealth we must bear in mind that it is not an end in itself, but serves only as a means of securing our well-being. Koheleth tells us, what experience endorses, that there are “riches kept for the owners thereof to their hurt” (Eccles. v. 12). It is true we must struggle for the means of our existence. But in the struggle for wealth we must not entirely suppress the claims of our moral and intellectual wants, and if we were to suppress them, we should only work for our own ruin. “Two things have I required of thee; deny me them not before I die: Remove far from me vanity and lies; give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me with food convenient for me: lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord? or lest I be poor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain” (Prov. xxx. 7–9). To this golden mean we should adhere. It is our duty to seek an honest livelihood, but we are told, “Labour not to be rich: cease from thine own wisdom” (Prov. xxiii. 4). One of the various duties of parents towards their children is to take good care that they learn a trade, and “he who does not teach his son a trade,” say our Sages, “is as guilty as if he directly taught him to rob” (Babyl. Talm. Kiddushin, p. 29a).
There is an erroneous opinion abroad, that commerce is more congenial to Judaism than handicraft. In our Law no trace of such preference is noticeable; on the contrary, agriculture was the principal occupation of the Israelites. “When thou eatest the labour of thine hands, happy art thou, and it is well with thee” (Ps. cxxviii. 2). “Love work, and hate lordship” is a well-known lesson of the sayings of the Fathers (Aboth i. 10). Bible and post-Biblical literature equally teach us the lesson that our comfort and happiness do not depend on the amount of wealth we have amassed, but on the degree of contentment our heart has acquired. “Sweet is the sleep of the labourer, whether he eat little or much: but the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep” (Eccles. v. 11).
Industry is one of the sources of human happiness; but the blessing of industry is easily lost, if it is not combined with thrift and temperance. In days of prosperity we must bear in mind that days of misfortune may come; we must, so far as we can, provide for them, so that we may be able to hold out “till the storm has passed.” Temperance is inseparable from thrift and industry. Intemperance not only consumes the products of thrift and industry, but in course of time destroys these very sources of our prosperity. Even with regard to Sabbath, in honour of which some degree of comfort and even of luxury may be indulged in, the principle is laid down: “Treat thy Sabbath like an ordinary day, if additional expense is likely to make thee dependent on charity” (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 118a).
3. Knowledge.—God has made man “a little lower than the angels, and has crowned him with glory and honour” (Ps. viii. 6); He has endowed him with the faculty of acquiring knowledge: “There is a spirit in man, and an inspiration of the Almighty, that gives him understanding” (Job xxxii. 8). It is our duty to cultivate this faculty, to nurse it with all possible care, that it may grow, produce beautiful blossoms, and bear goodly fruit. The training must begin very early, at an age in which we are entirely dependent on the assistance and guidance of others. Parents, to whom the Almighty has entrusted the care of their children, are therefore commanded to provide for their education; and as parents are not always capable of doing this, the duty devolves on the community or on the State. Every civilised country has its schools, colleges, and seminaries for the development of the intellectual and moral faculties of its inhabitants, and as these institutions increase in number and efficiency, the prosperity of the nation grows in like proportion. But the success of these educational institutions, however well provided they may be with an excellent teaching staff and the best appliances, depends on the regular and punctual attendance of the children, their attention, and their industry. It is the duty of parents to see, as far as it is in their power, that these conditions be fulfilled. Among the various branches of knowledge we seek to acquire, there is one branch of paramount importance, the absence of which would make all other knowledge valueless: it is—
4. Moral and Religious Training.—“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and correction” (חכמה ומוסר Prov. i. 7). The author of the Book of Proverbs teaches that knowledge must be combined with יראת השם “fear of God;” and that it is a perverse idea to separate wisdom (חכמה) from moral training (מוסר), and to seek knowledge (דעת) without the fear of the Lord (יראת ה׳). Our Sages teach us that our training should include both fear of God and wisdom. “If there is no wisdom, there is no fear of God; and in the absence of the latter there is no wisdom” (Aboth iii. 17). Fear of the Lord, however, and fear of sin must have precedence. Rabbi Chanina, son of Dosa, says: “If a man’s wisdom is preceded by fear of sin, his wisdom is well established; if the fear of sin is preceded by wisdom, his wisdom is not well established” (ibid. 9).
The result of our training must be the acquisition of good manners and noble principles. Avoid extremes, and hold to the golden mean, is an excellent rule that leads us safely through the various conditions of life and wards off many troubles and dangers. The following examples may serve as an illustration of this rule: Do not ignore your own self; let self-love and self-respect influence your conduct; but these must not be allowed to develop into selfishness and arrogance. Look after your own interests, but do not consider them as the supreme rulers of your actions. Be self-reliant, and keep equally far from self-conceit and self-distrust. Haughtiness and self-contempt are extremes to be avoided: be modest. When wronged or insulted by your neighbour, be neither callous nor over-sensitive; ignore insult and wrong in most cases, forgive them readily in others, and resent them only when forced to do so. In disputes and discussions be neither weak nor obstinate: be firm. Be neither passionate nor indifferent: be calm. Do not trust every one, lest your credulity mislead you; do not suspect every one, lest you become misanthropic: be discreet. Do not seek danger, nor fear it; but be prepared to meet it with courage. Be temperate in eating and drinking, and avoid both excess and needless privation. In spending your earnings show neither niggardliness nor recklessness: be economical. Work, but not in such a manner as to ruin your health. As to your future, be neither too sanguine in your hopes, nor despondent: do your duty, and trust in God.
There are, however, exceptions from this rule; for in certain cases there is only the choice between two extremes. Such is Truthfulness. It is our duty to approach nearer and nearer the extreme of this virtue, and to consider the least deviation from it as vice. From our earliest youth we should train ourselves in the practice of this virtue. Every word that we desire to utter should be well examined before it passes our lips. We must be on our guard that nothing should escape our lips that is not in harmony with what we feel or think. In small matters as well as in important things truthfulness must be the principle which guides us in our utterances. “The lips of truth shall be established for ever, but for a moment only the tongue of falsehood” (Prov. xii. 19). “Keep thee far from a word of falsehood” (Exod. xxiii. 7). “Falsehood,” say our Sages, “has no legs to stand upon; whilst ‘truth’ is declared to be the seal of the Holy One, Blessed be He” (אמת חותמו של הקב״ה).
Our moral and religious training is based on the Word of God, on the Torah, and the study of the Torah, חלמוד תורה, is an essential element in Jewish education. The term Torah is to be understood in no narrow sense, but as including the written and the oral Law, all the books of the Holy Writings, and such works as have from time to time been composed for the purpose of facilitating and promoting the study of the Torah. The importance of this duty has been recognised from ancient times, and Jewish congregations, before building a synagogue, made provision for the religious education of the young and for the study of the Law, by establishing schools and colleges (בית ספר or בי רב and בית המדרש).
Talmud-torah is one of those duties to which no measure was fixed (אשר אין להם שיעור Mishnah Peah i. 1). Whenever we can find time and leisure, we ought to turn to the Word of God, every one according to his capacity and his opportunities. The readings from the Torah, both the written and the oral, which form part of our Service, have been introduced for the purpose of facilitating for the general public the fulfilment of the duty of Talmud-torah.
The study of the Law and the regular and punctual attendance at the Beth-hammidrash belong to those religious acts which “bear fruit here on earth and procure bliss in the future life” (ibid.). Our Sages exhort us in various sayings to devote ourselves earnestly to the study of the Torah. The object of this study is, in the first instance, to enable us to live in accordance with His Commandments; secondly, to purify our thoughts by turning them from common, ordinary things to higher and loftier subjects; for while we are reading the Divine messages and reflecting on them, we move in a purer atmosphere and must be inspired with holy and noble thoughts.
The book which is expected to produce these results must be approached “with awe, with meekness, with cheerfulness, and with purity” (Aboth vi. 6). Our intention must be to be instructed and guided by what we read. We must not presume to criticise the Divine decrees therein recorded. If we meet with passages that strike us as strange or objectionable, we may be sure that we have not yet comprehended the true sense of the Divine words. Modesty must cause us rather to assume shortcomings on our part than to find fault with the Holy Writings. “Turn it over, and read it again and again; for all is in it, and behold everything through it; and even when old and weak, cleave to it, and do not move away from it; for there is no better guide for thee than this one” (Aboth v. 22). There is one great advantage in the study of the Torah; it constantly supplies us with one of the best means of promoting our moral training, viz., with good company.
The society in which we move and the persons with whom we associate are an important factor in the formation of our character. Bad companions corrupt us, and lead us to ruin; good companions improve our moral conduct by their example and not rarely by their words. “If one joins mockers, he will be a mocker; if he joins the lowly, he will show grace” (Prov. iii. 34). “Keep away from a bad neighbour; do not associate with the wicked, and do not believe thyself safe from evil” (Aboth i. 7). In our daily prayers we ask God for His assistance in our endeavour to act according to this principle.
The aim and end of all our moral training must be to keep our mind pure from evil thoughts, to make our heart the seat of noble and lofty desires; to accustom our tongue to the utterance of that which is good and true, and to lead a pure, honourable, and godly life. If we succeed, we establish our well-being during our life on earth, and secure Divine blessing for our soul in the future world.
III. SIGNS AS OUTWARD REMINDERS OF GOD’S PRESENCE.
The voice that comes from within, from our own heart and conscience, is the best reminder of God’s Presence and Will. But it does not always sound with sufficient force to make itself heard, and we, weak mortals, have the weakness of forgetting even most important duties, unless we are reminded of them from time to time. The Divine Law has therefore set up signs as outward reminders. Such are the commandments of ציצת “fringe,” תפלין “ornaments,” and מזוזה “door-post symbol.”
ציצת “Fringe” or “Tassel.”
“Thou shalt make thee fringes upon the four corners of thy vesture, wherewith thou coverest thyself” (Deut. xxii. 12). The object of this commandment is described as follows:—“It shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the Lord, and do them, and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go astray: that ye may remember and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God” (Num. xv. 39, 40).
In obedience to this commandment, we have two kinds of four-cornered garments provided with “fringes.” The one is small, and is worn under the upper garments the whole day; it is called arba’ kanfoth, “four corners,” or talith katan, “small scarf.” The other and larger one is worn over the garments during the Morning Service. [46] It is called simply talith, “scarf,” or talith gadol, “large scarf.”
The form of the blessing which accompanies the performance of this mitsvah varies according as it refers to the small talith or to the large one. In the former case the blessing concludes with על מצות ציצת “concerning the commandment of tsitsith;” in the latter with להתעטף בציצת, “to wrap ourselves with a garment provided with tsitsith.” [47]
The tsitsith, which is appended to each of the four corners, consists of four long threads drawn through a small hole about an inch from the corner; the two parts of the threads are bound together by a double knot; the largest thread—called shammash, “the servant”—is then wound seven, eight, eleven, and thirteen times round the other seven halves of the four threads, and after each set of windings a double knot is made.—If one of the four tsitsith is not in order, e.g., two of the threads being torn off, the talith is called pasul, “disqualified” for the mitsvah, and must not be worn till that tsitsith is replaced by a new one.
There is, however, an important element in this Divine commandment, which is now altogether neglected, viz., “And they shall put upon the fringe of the corner a thread of תכלת purple blue wool” (Num. xv. 38). Tradition determined the exact shade of the purple blue indicated by the term תכלת; in the Talmud (Menachoth 42b) the various ways of its preparation are given. But the colour seems to have been rare, and we are warned against using imitations of techeleth. Regulations were also made providing for the case when techeleth could not be obtained. The natural white colour was then substituted, and no other colour was allowed. After the conclusion of the Talmud doubts seem to have arisen as regards the exact shade of the purple blue demanded by the Divine precept in the term תכלת, and thus the use of the thread of purple blue wool gradually ceased to form part of the tsitsith. The exact time when it ceased cannot be fixed.
תפלין [48] “Ornaments.”
Four times the Law repeats the commandment concerning the tefillin: “And thou shalt bind them”—the words of God—“for a sign upon thy hand, and they shall be for a frontlet between thine eyes” (Deut. vi. 8 and xi. 18); “And it shall be unto thee for a sign upon thy hand, and for a memorial between thine eyes, in order that the Law of the Lord be in thy mouth” (Exod. xiii. 9); “And it shall be for a sign upon thy hand, and for a frontlet between thine eyes” (ibid. 16).
The object of this commandment is to direct our thoughts to God and His goodness, and to remind us of the important lessons taught in the following four paragraphs, in which the commandment of tefillin is mentioned:—
(1.) The first paragraph (קדש Exod. xiii. 1–10) teaches that we must, in various ways, express our belief in God as the King and Ruler of the universe. Two laws are contained in this paragraph which are to serve this object—the sanctification of the first-born to the service of the Lord, and the celebration of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes. (2.) The second paragraph (והיה כי יביאך Exod. xiii. 11–16) reminds us of the wonderful way in which God delivered our forefathers from Egyptian bondage. Remembering this deliverance, we are strengthened in our faith in God in days of trouble, for His ways are not ours, and when we do not see any prospect of relief God may be preparing help for us. (3.) The third paragraph (שמע Deut. vi. 4–9) proclaims the Unity of God, and teaches us to love God and obey Him out of love. (4.) The fourth paragraph (והיה אם שמע Deut. xi. 13–20) teaches that Providence deals with men according to their merits, according as each deserves reward or punishment.
Tradition has handed down to us the way in which this precept is to be carried out. The four above-mentioned paragraphs are written twice on parchment, once on one piece, and once on four pieces, each piece containing one paragraph. The two sets are put into two leather cases (בית), one of which is divided into four compartments, for the four separate slips of parchment, and marked outside by the letter shin. [49] Through a loop attached to each bayith a leather strap (רצועה) is passed, the two parts of which are tied together [50] in such a manner as to hold the bayith on the arm or on the head. On the arm the case is placed that contains the four paragraphs written on one piece, on the head that which contains them written on four pieces. The former is called tefillah shel yad, “tefillin of the hand;” the latter tefillah shel rosh, “the tefillin of the head.”
The tefillin are put on in the following way:—(1.) Tefillah shel rosh. The case is placed in front, just over the forehead in the middle, and the knot of the straps (קשר) on the back of the head over the middle of the neck; the remainder of the two straps hang down in front, one on each side. (2.) Tefillah shel yad. The case containing the parchment is placed on the inner side of the left upper arm, near the elbow; the knot is kept near it, and the strap is twisted seven times round the arm and three times round the middle finger; there are, however, different customs with regard to this latter practice.
Tefillah shel yad is put on first, being mentioned first in the Divine precept. The reverse order is observed in taking off the tefillin. Originally the tefillin were worn all day long, [51] but at present they are worn only during the morning prayer.
The tefillin are not worn on Sabbath or Festival. The observance of these days is “a sign for ever” of our belief “that in six days the Lord made the heavens and the earth.” The very days of rest thus remind us of the truths of which the tefillin are “a sign.” The tefillin became, therefore, unnecessary on those days.
The commandment of tefillin applies to all male persons from their thirteenth birthday. [52]
The performance of this commandment is preceded by the usual benediction (ברכת המצות), concluding להניח תפלין, “to place the tefillin,” scil., on the arm and on the head. According to the German rite, a second benediction is recited before placing the tefillah shel rosh on the head, viz., על מצות תפלין, “concerning the commandment of tefillin.” [53]
In order to prevent a mere perfunctory observance of this commandment, we are taught to reflect on the importance and the object of the tefillin, and to declare that by placing the tefillin on the head and on the arm, near the heart, we indicate our consciousness of the duty to employ the thoughts that rise in our mind, and the desires of our heart, in the service of the Lord, who gave us the powers of thought and will. [54]
מזוּזה Door-post Symbol.
The Mezuzah is a piece of parchment on which the two first paragraphs of Shema (Deut. vi. 4–9, xi. 13–20) are written. The parchment is rolled together, put into a small case, and fixed on the right-hand door-post. A small opening is left in the case, where the word שַׁדַּי “Almighty,” written on the back of the scroll, is visible. [55]
The object of the mezuzah, commanded in the words, “And thou shalt write them on the door-posts of thy house and upon thy gates” (Deut. vi. 9 and xi. 20), is to remind us of the Presence of God, of His Unity, Providence, and Omnipotence, both on entering our home and on leaving it; of the all-seeing eye that watches us, and of the Almighty who will one day call us to account for our deeds, words and thoughts. The mezuzah thus serves to sanctify our dwelling and protect it from being polluted by evil deeds.
Signs of God’s Covenant.
Besides the signs mentioned above, there are two other signs of the covenant between God and Israel.
1. Sabbath is called “an everlasting covenant,” and “a sign between God and the children of Israel for ever” (Exod. xxxi. 16, 17). See pp. 254 sqq. and 339 sqq.
2. The covenant of Abraham (ברית מילה “the covenant of circumcision”). God made a covenant with Abraham, and said, “Thou shalt keep my covenant, thou and thy seed after thee in their generations. This is my covenant which ye shall keep between me and you, and thy seed after thee: Every male child among you shall be circumcised when eight days old” (Gen. xvii. 9, 10, 12). If the eighth day happens to be on a Sabbath, the circumcision takes place on that day; but if, because of illness, or from any other cause, the rite has not been performed on the eighth day, it must be done on some other day, but not on a Sabbath or Festival.
Notes.—1. In reference to the importance of these mitsvoth, Maimonides, in Mishneh-torah, says as follows:—
“Although we are not commanded to get a talith, and to put it on in order to join the tsitsith (“fringes”) to it, a religious person will not consider himself free from this duty, but will always endeavour to wear a garment to which fringes must be affixed. During prayer we must be especially careful to provide ourselves with a talith. It is a disgrace for a scholar (Talmid chacham) to say the prayer without the talith. We must be particularly anxious to perform this mitsvah; it is of great importance with regard to all the precepts, according to the words, ‘And ye shall look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the Lord’” (2nd Book, Ahabhah, Hilchoth tsitsith iii. 12).
“The holiness of the tefillin is great, for so long as the tefillin are upon the head and the arm of a man, he is humble and God-fearing, keeps away from levity and idle talk, does not conceive evil thoughts, but turns his heart exclusively to words of truth and justice. We ought therefore to wear them all day long; this would be the proper way. It is said of Rab, the pupil of Rabbi Jehudah, the Holy, that he was never seen otherwise than with torah or tsitsith or tefillin.
“Although we ought to wear tefillin all day long, it is our special duty to wear them during prayer. Our Sages said, ‘He who reads Shema without tefillin rejects, as it were, his evidence concerning the Almighty as false’” (ibid., Hilchoth tefillin iv. 26).
“We should be particular with regard to the mezuzah, which is a duty incumbent uninterruptedly on every one. Whenever we enter or leave the house our eye meets with the name of God; we remember His love, and rousing ourselves from our torpitude, we are led to regret our foolish devotion to the vanities of the time, and recognise that nothing remains for ever except the knowledge of the Rock of the universe. We shall then at once devote ourselves to know Him, and walk in the way of uprightness. Our ancient Sages said, ‘He who has tefillin upon his head and upon his arm, tsitsith on his garment, and mezuzah on his door, he is safe from sin, since he has many reminders of his duties, and these are the angels that protect him from going astray; and to him the following verse applies: “An angel of the Lord encampeth round those who fear Him”’” (ibid., Hilchoth mezuzah vi. 13).
2. The great importance of the tefillin, as described by Maimonides, was not understood or recognised by all Jews. Various sayings occurring in the Talmud indicate the existence of laxity or even opposition with regard to the carrying out of this precept in its literal sense. When persons with tefillin on their head and on their arm showed by their conduct that their heart was not filled with the holiness and uprightness of which the tefillin are the symbol, it was but natural that not only were these persons accused of hypocrisy, but the Divine precept itself was discredited. But the greater the opposition by one section of the Jewish community, the more the enthusiasm of the other section grew in its favour. Hence the numerous Talmudical and Rabbinical utterances concerning the sanctifying force inherent in the tefillin (comp. Tur Orach Chayyim xxxvii.). Thus, when a Rabbi was cautioned not to be over joyous, as excess of joy led to sin, he replied, “I lay tefillin;” i.e., “The thoughts which the observance of this precept awakens protects me from sin.” This idea of protection from sin may be the origin of the Greek name phylacterion, “protection.”—In times of persecution, when the Jews were forbidden by their oppressors to perform any of their religious rites on penalty of death, the precept of tefillin was not included among those which they performed even at the risk of their life. To this circumstance Rabbi Simeon b. Elazar ascribes the laxity with regard to the tefillin (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 130a).
3. There occurs in the Midrash (Sifre on Deut. xi. 18), in reference to tsitsith and tefillin, the following passage: “Also when in exile deck yourselves with mitsvoth, in order that on your return to your own land the Divine precepts should not seem to you new and unknown.” This passage has been misinterpreted as if the author of that passage were of opinion that precepts like tsitsith and tefillin did originally not apply to those who are outside the Holy Land. The meaning is rather this: Although a large portion of the laws is not in force outside Palestine, yet continue to wear these reminders in exile, in order that by this act your attention may constantly be turned to the whole Torah, to those precepts which are in force at present as well as to those which are not. Thus all the precepts will be familiar to you, and when the time comes in which the observance of all the laws will again be possible, none of the laws will appear to you new and strange.
4. There is, on the whole, no difference between men and women with regard to the obedience due to the Divine commandments. All Jews are equally bound to obey the Will of God expressed in the Law. This is absolutely the case with all prohibitions (לא תעשה). In the case of positive commandments (מצות עשה) the following rule has been laid down by our Sages: Women are exempt from the performance of such religious duties as are restricted to a certain period of time (מצות עשה שהזמן גרמא נשים פטורות). The object of the seeming anomaly is probably this: the principal duty and the privilege of women is to manage the household, a task that demands constant attention. Religious acts which are to be performed at a certain time might involve an interference with such of their household duties as demand immediate attention; e.g., nursing a patient, a task which generally falls to the lot of the female section of the family. Jewish women, nevertheless, zealously fulfil most of the duties from which the above rule exempts them. They thus are most eager to obey the laws concerning shofar on New-year, lulab on Tabernacles, and the like; and some of them are named as having conscientiously laid tefillin (Mechilta on Exod. xiii. 9).
IV. SABBATH AND FESTIVALS.
The daily work which has chiefly the well-being of the body as its aim must be interrupted on certain days which the Almighty has appointed for the promotion of man’s spiritual well-being. Sabbath and Festivals are the days thus appointed, and are therefore called מועדי יי “the seasons of the Lord,” and מקראי קדש “holy convocations.” The blessing derived from the observance of Holy-days in the true spirit is described by the prophet as follows: “If thou keep back thy foot because of the sabbath, from doing thy business on my holy day; and call the sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord, honourable, and shalt honour it, not doing thine own ways, nor finding thine own business, nor speaking thine own words: then thou shalt delight thyself in the Lord: and I will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the earth, and feed thee with the heritage of Jacob, thy father” (Isa. lviii. 13, 14). To those who fail to observe the seasons of the Lord in the true spirit, the prophet says in the name of the Almighty: “Your new-moons and your festivals my soul hateth: they are a trouble unto me; I am weary to bear them” (ibid. i. 14).
Maimonides [56] comprehends the various duties and observances of the Holy-days in the following four terms: זכור “remember,” שמור “take heed,” כבוד “honour,” and עונג “delight.” The first two are found in the Pentateuch, and form the beginning of the fourth commandment in Exodus and Deuteronomy respectively; the other two occur in the above description of the Sabbath quoted from Isaiah (lviii. 13, 14). Following the example of our great teacher, we shall likewise treat of the laws and customs of Sabbath and Festivals under these four heads: [57]—
a. זכור “Remember.”
Remember the Sabbath-day; speak of it, of its holiness and its blessings. We fulfil this duty when Sabbath comes in, by the Kiddush, “the sanctification of the day,” in which we praise the Almighty for the boon bestowed upon us by the institution of the Sabbath; and when Sabbath goes out, by the Habhdalah, in which we praise God for the “distinction” made between the holy and the ordinary days. We have both Kiddush and Habhdalah in a double form: (a) as a portion of the Amidah in the Evening Service; the Kiddush being the middle section of the Amidah, the Habhdalah consisting of a prayer added to the fourth paragraph beginning אתה חנן; (b) as a separate service especially intended for our homes. It is this home-service that we generally understand by the terms Kiddush and Habhdalah, and in this sense they are employed in the following. [58]
Kiddush.
There is a traditional explanation of the term zachor: זכרהו על היין “remember it over the wine.” As “wine gladdens the heart of man” and forms an important element in a festive meal, it has been ordered that our meal on the eve [59] of Sabbath and Festival should be begun with a cup of wine in honour of the day, and that mention should be made of the holiness of the day before partaking of the wine. The Kiddush consists of two blessings (ברכות): one over the wine, [60] and one that refers to the holiness of the day. On Holy-days—except the last days of Passover—a third blessing (שהחינו) follows, praising God for having granted us life and enabled us again to celebrate the Festival. On Friday evening a portion from Genesis (i. 31 to ii. 3) is added, which contains the first mention of the institution of Sabbath. If a Festival happens to fall on Sunday, we add part of the Habhdalah to the Kiddush on Saturday evening, [61] referring to the distinction between the holiness of the Sabbath and that of the Festivals.
The Kiddush is part of the Sabbath or Festival evening meal, and in the absence of the latter the Kiddush is omitted. [62] In Synagogues of the German and Polish Minhag the Reader recites the Kiddush at the conclusion of the Maarib Service. This custom is a survival of the ancient way of providing for the poor and the stranger. In the absence of better accommodation lodging and food were given to the needy in rooms adjoining the Synagogue, or even in the Synagogue itself. It was for these that the Reader recited the Kiddush, before they commenced the evening meal, as most probably wine was not served to all. Although circumstances have changed the mode of maintaining the poor, and the latter find no longer lodging and board in the Synagogue, the Kiddush has been retained as part of the Maarib Service, except on the first two nights of Passover, when there had never been an occasion for reading Kiddush in the Synagogue. The poor were treated on these nights with four cups of wine each, and they recited Kiddush by themselves as part of the Seder.
Habhdalah הבדלה.
Habhdalah is recited in the evening following Sabbath or Holy-day, after the Evening Service. A cup of wine is raised, and the ברכה over wine is followed by another ברכה, in which God is praised for the distinction made between the holy and the ordinary day (בין קדש לחול), or between two kinds of holiness (בין קדש לקדש) in case Sabbath is followed by a Holy-day.—On Sabbath night we take a candle and a spice-box, and add two blessings after that over wine; in the one we thank God for the enjoyment of the fragrance, in the other for the benefit He bestowed on us by the creation of light. A few verses from the Bible, especially the Prophets, precede the Habhdalah.
The origin of the introduction of the blessings for light and for spices in the Habhdalah may be the following:—The principal meal of the day used to be taken about sunset; light and burning incense were essential elements of a festive meal. On Sabbath these could not be had, and were therefore enjoyed immediately after the going out of Sabbath. Although the custom of having incense after the meal has long ceased, it has survived in the Habhdalah, and has, in course of time, received another, a more poetical interpretation. The Sabbath inspires us with cheerfulness, gives us, as it were, an additional soul—נְשָׁמָה יְתֵרָה—traces of which are left on the departure of Sabbath, and are symbolised by the fragrance of the spices. For the use of the special light there has likewise been suggested a second reason, namely, that it is intended at the commencement of the week to remind us of the first product of Creation, which was light.
There are a few customs connected with the Habhdalah that may be noticed here.
(1.) The wine, when poured into the cup, is allowed to flow over, as a symbol of the overflowing Divine blessing which we wish and hope to enjoy in the coming week.
(2.) Some dip their finger in wine and pass it over their eyes, in allusion to the words of the Nineteenth Psalm (ver. 9), “The commandment of the Lord is pure, enlightening the eyes.” The act expresses the love of the Divine commandments (חִבּוּב מִצְוָה).
(3.) Only male persons partake of the wine; they have more interest in the Habhdalah as the signal for the resumption of ordinary work and business.—The exclusion of women from the wine of Habhdalah may also have its origin in the fact that Jewish women generally abstained from taking wine, considering strong drink suitable only for the male portion of mankind. They only partake of the wine of Kiddush on account of its importance; to Habhdalah less importance was ascribed.
(4.) On reaching the words בין אור לחשך, “between light and darkness,” some hold their hands against the light, the fingers bent inside, in illustration of the words which they utter, showing darkness and shadow inside and light outside.—With the practice of these and similar customs we must take good care that we should not combine any superstitious motive, or join actions which are really superstitious, and did not originate in Jewish thought and Jewish traditions.
We further remember the Sabbath-day to sanctify it by increased devotion, by reading special Lessons from the Pentateuch and the Prophets, and by attending religious instruction given by teachers and preachers.
Besides various additions in the Service, and the substitution of one paragraph concerning Sabbath or Festival for the thirteen middle paragraphs of the Amidah, there is another Service inserted between the Morning and the Afternoon Services; it is called Musaph, “the Additional Service,” and corresponds to the additional offering ordained for Sabbath and Festival (Num. xxviii. 9, sqq.).
An essential element in the Morning Service is the Reading from the Torah (קריאת התורה) and the Prophets (הפטרה). A periodical public reading from the Law was enjoined in the following words: “At the end of every seven years, in the solemnity of the year of release, in the feast of tabernacles, when all Israel is come to appear before the Lord thy God in the place which he shall choose, thou shalt read this law before all Israel in their hearing. Gather the people together, men and women and children, and the stranger that is within thy gates, that they may hear, and that they may learn, and fear the Lord your God, and observe to do all the words of this law; and that their children, which have not known anything, may hear and learn to fear the Lord your God” (Deut. xxxi. 10–13).
A seven years’ interval would surely have destroyed the impression produced by the reading. The reading was probably repeated throughout the country at shorter intervals. Tradition ascribes to Moses the institution of reading the Law every Sabbath, Monday, and Thursday morning, in order that three days might never pass without Torah. Ezra is said to have added the reading on Sabbath afternoon, and to have made various other regulations with regard to the reading of the Law.
Quantity and manner of reading were at first, no doubt, variable. In the course of time certain systems found favour and became the fixed rule. Some completed the reading of the whole Pentateuch in three years, others in one year. The former mode was gradually displaced by the latter, and the attempts which have lately been made to revive it have not succeeded. Traces of the triennial reading may be noticed in the number of sedarim contained in the five books of the Pentateuch. At present, however, the annual course is followed in almost all our Synagogues. The section read on one Sabbath is called sidra; the first, בראשית, is read the first Sabbath after the Feast of Tabernacles, and the last sidra is read on Simchath-torah (the 23rd of Tishri).
For the Festivals such sections were selected as contained either direct or indirect reference to the Festivals. If these happen to be on a Sabbath, the ordinary reading is interrupted, and that of the Festivals substituted for it.
The number of persons who were to take part in the reading varied according as the people were likely to devote less or more time to Divine Service: on weekdays and on Sabbath afternoon three, on New-moon and Chol-hammoed four, on the Festivals five, on the Day of Atonement six, [63] and on Sabbath seven. Some may have required the assistance of the chazan, and in some cases the chazan’s voice was the only one that was heard; gradually the chazan became the reader, and the original reader became silent, being content with reciting the b’rachoth. Only in the case of the Bar-mitsvah, the Chathan-torah, and the Chathan-b’reshith the original practice has been retained.
As regards the order of those who take part in the reading of the Law, the first place is given to a Cohen, i.e., a descendant of Aaron, the priest; the second to a Levite, i.e., a non-priest of the tribe of Levi; and then follow other Israelites, that are neither Levites nor Cohanim, without any prescribed order. The last who concludes the reading from the Law on those days on which a chapter from the Prophets is also read is called maftir, “concluding;” and the lesson from the Prophets is called haphtarah, “conclusion.”
In the selection of the haphtarah care was taken that it should contain some reference to the contents of the lesson from the Pentateuch, and as there was not much choice, the haphtarah, once chosen, was as a rule read again on the recurrence of the same sidra. Different communities had different series of haphtaroth. A few negative rules concerning the selection of the haphtarah are mentioned in the Mishnah (Megillah iv. 10); Ezek. i. and xvi., 2 Sam. xi. and xiii., are to be excluded. These rules, however, were not observed, as Ezek. i. is the haphtarah for the first day of the Feast of Weeks. There is an ancient rule about the nature of the haphtaroth between the Fast of Tamuz and New-year; viz., there should be three haphtaroth of “rebuke” and seven of “comfort” (נ׳ דפרענותא, ז׳ דנחמתא). The former are taken from Jeremiah (i. and ii.) and Isaiah (i.); the latter are selected from Isaiah (xl. to lxvi.)
Various accounts are given of the origin of the haphtarah. One account traces its origin to a period of persecution, when the Jews were not allowed to read from the Torah, and the scrolls of the Law were either confiscated or concealed. In both cases it was easy to read from the Prophets, for this could be done by heart and in any place; whilst for the reading of the Torah it was necessary to produce a copy of the Law. According to another account, the haphtarah served as a protest against the theory of the Samaritans, who recognised the Torah alone as holy. But it is more likely and more natural to suppose that the haphtarah was introduced as soon as the Prophets became part of the Holy Scriptures.
There was a tendency to have recourse to the Divine messages of future comfort and glory when the present was gloomy and sad. At the end of the Service or a religious discourse, just before leaving the Synagogue or the Beth ha-midrash, passages from the Prophets were read, in order that the people might carry away with them a strengthened faith in God and in the ultimate victory of their religion. On Sabbath morning the lessons from the Prophets were of greater importance, since a larger number congregated, and more time could be devoted to it. A b’rachah therefore introduced it, and b’rachoth, including a prayer for the restoration of Zion, followed it. The name haphtarah suggests this explanation; it denotes literally “causing to leave,” “departure,” or “conclusion.”
After the return of the Jews from Babylon they spoke the Chaldee dialect; the lessons from the Bible were accordingly accompanied by a Chaldee translation called targum. The translation was not always literal, but was frequently a paraphrase. It was given, as a rule, after each verse, by an appointed methurgeman.—In communities which only understood Greek the Greek version was read. A Spanish translation of the haphtarah is still added at present on the Fast of Ab in the Portuguese Ritual; but otherwise the practice of adding a translation to the text has long since been discontinued.
b. שמור “Take Heed.”
The negative commandment concerning the Holy-days is: לא תעשה כל מלאכה, “Thou shalt do no manner of work.” The very name Sabbath (שבת, “rest”) implies absence of labour. We are commanded to rest on the Sabbath, but not to indulge in laziness and indolence, which are by no means conducive to the health of the body or the soul. The Sabbath rest is described in our Sabbath Afternoon Service as “voluntary and congenial, true and faithful, and happy and cheerful.” Moderate exercise, cheerful reading, and pleasant conversation are indispensable for a rest of this kind.
What is to be understood by the term “labour” or “work” in the prohibition “Thou shalt not do any manner of work”? The Pentateuch gives no definition of the term. But the Israelites, when they were told that work was prohibited on Sabbath, and that any breach of the law was to be punished with death, must have received orally a full explanation of the prohibition. A case is mentioned of one who profaned the Sabbath by gathering sticks, and was put to death; this could not have been done if any doubt had been left in his mind whether the act of gathering sticks was included in the prohibition.
A few instances of work prohibited on a Sabbath-day are met with in the Bible. In connection with the manna, the prohibition of cooking and baking is mentioned; also the commandment, “Let no man go out of his place on the seventh day” (Exod. xvi. 29); i.e., we must not travel or go beyond a certain distance [64] on the Sabbath. Another act distinctly forbidden is contained in the words, “Ye shall kindle no fire in all your dwellings on the day of rest” (ibid. xxxv. 3). The prophet Amos (viii. 5), in rebuking the Israelites for cheating their fellow-men, puts the following words into their mouth: “When will the new moon be gone, that we may sell corn? and the Sabbath, that we may open our stores of wheat?” This shows that the Israelites conducted no business on New-moon and Sabbath. Jeremiah (xvii. 21 sqq.) says as follows: “Thus saith the Lord, Take heed to yourselves, and bear no burden on the sabbath day, nor bring it in by the gates of Jerusalem; neither carry forth a burden out of your houses on the sabbath day, neither do ye any work, but hallow ye the sabbath day.”—Nehemiah relates (xiii. 15): “In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses; as also wine, grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day: and I testified against them in the day wherein they sold victuals. Then I said unto them, What evil thing is this that ye do and profane the sabbath day?” As a general rule, we may say that the work prohibited on Sabbath and Festivals embraces two classes: viz., (1) All such acts as are legally—i.e., in the Oral Law—defined as מלאכה “work.” It makes no difference whether we consider any of them as labour or not. Under thirty-nine different heads [65] they are enumerated in the Mishnah (Shabbath vii. 2). The following are a few of them:—Ploughing, sowing, reaping, threshing, grinding, baking, hunting, killing an animal, tanning, sewing, writing, kindling light or fire, and carrying things abroad.
(2.) Everything which our conscience tells us to be inappropriate for the Sabbath; acts which come neither under the head of מלאכה nor under that of שבות, but which would tend to change the Sabbath into an ordinary day; e.g., preparing for our daily business transactions, although such preparation does not involve an actual breach of any of the Sabbath laws.
Whatever we are not allowed to do ourselves, we must not have done for us by a co-religionist, who deliberately disregards the fourth commandment. Neither must we employ non-Israelites to do our work on Sabbath, except in case of need; e.g., in case of illness or fear of illness.
As regards Holy-days, there is the general rule that work (מלאכה) prohibited on Sabbath must not be done on Holy-days: “Save that which every man must eat, that only may be done of you” (Exod. xii. 16); that is to say, it is allowed on Festivals to cook, to bake, or to prepare food in any other way. [66] Of course, for the Festival that happens to fall on a Sabbath, the laws of Sabbath remain in force. The Day of Atonement is in this respect equal to Sabbath.
c. ענג “Delight.”
The principal and noblest delight yielded by Holy-days is the pleasure we feel in more frequent communion with the Divine Being, in the purer and holier thoughts with which we are inspired when at rest from ordinary work, and able to devote ourselves more fully to the contemplation of the works and words of God. In this sense the day of rest is described in one of the hymns (זמירות) after supper as “a foretaste of the world to come” (מעין עולם הבא יום שבת מנוחה).
But oneg shabbath includes also delight of a less spiritual character. We are not commanded on the days of rest to forget altogether the wants of the body. On the contrary. Nehemiah, when on the first day of the seventh month, that is, on New-year, he perceived that his brethren were sad, addressed them thus: “Go your way, eat the fat and drink the sweet, and send portions unto him for whom nothing is prepared: for this day is holy unto the Lord: neither be ye grieved; for the joy of the Lord is your strength” (Neh. viii. 10). The same conception of “the sabbath unto the Lord” is met with in Talmud, Midrash, and throughout the whole of the Rabbinical literature. In one of our Sabbath-hymns (זמירות) we say: “This day is for Israel, light and joy, a sabbath of rest;” and in our prayers for Sabbath we glory in being shom’re shabbath ve-kor’e oneg, “observers of the sabbath, and such as call it a delight.”—With regard to the Festivals, the duty of rejoicing is repeatedly enjoined (Deut. xvi. 11, 14).
In our regulations, customs, and prayers for Sabbath and Festivals, this duty is clearly indicated. All fasting and mourning is prohibited. Care was taken that Divine Service should be free from such prayers as would be likely to create feelings of grief and sadness. [67] A special formula has also been introduced for the expression of our sympathy with the sick and the mourner on Sabbath and Festivals. [68]
When any of the obligatory fasts—except the Day of Atonement—happens to fall on a Sabbath, the fasting is put off (נדחה) till the next day, or kept, as in the case of the fast of Esther, on the preceding Thursday. Tradition has raised the taking of the three regular meals on Sabbath (שלש סעודות), viz., supper, breakfast, and dinner, to a religious act—a mitsvah, and the religious character of the meals is shown by the special prayers and hymns—zemiroth—which accompany them. A fourth meal is, according to some authority, likewise obligatory; whilst, according to another authority, it may be replaced by spiritual food, by reading and studying the Torah.
d. כבוד “Honour.”
We honour the day inwardly by considering it a holy, distinguished season, which ought to be devoted to higher objects than the wants of our body. Our mind should be entirely turned aside from our daily business, in order to be free for loftier and holier thoughts. For the purpose of effecting this inward distinction of the Sabbath, we honour it also outwardly by various things, which are partly a symbol, partly a reminder of the distinction claimed by the day. We honour the Sabbath, therefore, by giving a festive appearance to our meals, our dress, and our dwelling. The principal thing required is neatness and cheerfulness; not luxury. On the contrary, we are guided in this respect by the principle: Make rather thy Sabbath an ordinary day—i.e., omit the distinction in food and dress—than render thyself dependent on the support of thy fellow-men. [69]
It is customary to have two loaves on the table, over which the blessing ha-motsee is said. They are to remind us of the double portion of bread or manna (לחם משנה, Exod. xvi. 22) given to the Israelites in the wilderness on the sixth day because of the succeeding Sabbath-day. The cloth spread beneath the loaves, and the cover over them, represent symbolically the dew which both lay on the ground under the manna and also over it. [70] The origin of this custom of covering the bread may perhaps be found in the following Talmudic law: “If a meal that has commenced on Friday afternoon is continued in the night, it must be interrupted when Sabbath comes in; a cloth is to be spread over the bread whilst the Kiddush is recited” (Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, 100a). The spreading of the cloth appears to be here merely a sign of the pause, and the distinction between the ordinary meal and that of Sabbath. [71] That which was at first ordained for special cases became in course of time a general custom. [72]
The loaves are called birchoth (ברכות), taashir (תעשיר), or challah (חלה). The first name they received as symbols of God’s blessing, the double portion of manna which the Almighty sent to the Israelites on Friday because of the Sabbath (see Rashi on Gen. ii. 3). The verse, “The blessing of the Lord, it maketh rich” (תעשיר, Prov. x. 22), suggested the second name. Challah reminds us of the commandment to give the first part of the dough to the priest (Num. xv. 17–21). Although at present this commandment cannot be carried out, we separate a small piece, called challah, of the dough which we prepare for bread, and burn it, after having recited an appropriate blessing. [73] It is customary to prepare the dough for the Sabbath loaves at home, in order to be able to act in accordance with this custom. This is one of the religious acts which it is the special duty of women to perform, and some of the pious women of Israel (נשים צדקניות) have the praiseworthy custom to lay something aside for charity when performing this or similar religious acts.
Another act performed in honour of Sabbath and Festivals is the kindling of special lights before the holy day comes in, to indicate symbolically the approach of a day of light and cheerfulness. This duty is likewise the privilege of the housewife [74] or her representative. Before [75] kindling the lights the following blessing is recited: ברוך אתה … וצונו להדליק נר של שבת “Blessed art thou ... and hast commanded us to kindle the sabbath lights.” יום טוב, יום הכפורים, שבת ויום טוב, or שבת ויום הכפורים is substituted for שבת according as a Holy-day, the Day of Atonement, or these days when they happen to fall on a Saturday, come in. On Festivals, except the last days of Passover, the following blessing, called שהחינו, is added: ברוך … שהחינו וקימנו והגיענו לזמן הזה “Blessed art thou ... who hast kept us in life, preserved us, and enabled us to reach this season.”
NOTES.
1. The reading of the Law is preceded and followed by a blessing. In the first we praise God for having distinguished Israel by revealing the Law to them, and in the second for the benefit derived from the Law as the source of eternal life. The love and regard for the Law expressed in these blessings should be shown by the congregants in silent and respectful attention to what is recited by the Reader. Those who are called up to the Law consider this as an important event, and make it an occasion of special prayers for relatives and friends (mi-shebberach), accompanied by promises of contributions to communal and charitable institutions. On days of family rejoicing, as well as on days of mourning, the religious privilege of being called to the Reading of the Law is especially valued; in the former case offerings are vowed in honour of our living friends, in the other case in memoriam of those near and dear to us, who have departed from our midst. These additional prayers thus serve a double purpose; they help to preserve the bond of relationship and friendship, and secure a material support for the benevolent and other institutions of the community.
Objections have been raised to this in itself praiseworthy custom for two reasons: first, the mi-shebberach only concerns a few, and appears to the rest of the congregation a useless interruption in the reading of the Law; secondly, it gives occasion to a display of vanity and pride.
As to the first objection, provision could and should be made that the interruption be not unduly long, and cause irritation among the congregants. Due regard should be shown to the fact that the Divine Book is open on the reading-desk, and everything should be avoided that might diminish the reverence proper to such an occasion. The second objection is based on a pessimistic estimate of our fellow-men; if there is any one whose offerings are made from vain and ostentatious motives, he is certainly lost in the multitude of those who take a more serious and a more dignified view of their duties when standing before the open Torah.
2. There is an old tradition that we should recite daily a hundred benedictions. On Sabbath and Holy-days, when the Amidah contains only seven berachoth instead of eighteen, the deficiency is made up by seeking an occasion for birchoth ha-nehenin. Hence the minhag spread of partaking on these days of various kinds of fruit between the meals.
3. Tradition teaches us that on the holy days of rest we must not only abstain from actual work, but also from ordering anything to be done by those who refuse to recognise the Sabbath-laws as binding on them.—Circumstances force us to deviate at times from this rule. There were Jews who would not allow any work to be undertaken on Friday which would continue of its own accord after the Sabbath had set in. Thus they would not have light in their homes on Friday evening or warm food on the Sabbath-day, although all necessary precautions had been taken before Sabbath came in to keep the light burning and the food warm for twenty-four hours. But the more these Jews insisted on excluding light and fire from their homes, the more did our Sages demand light and warm food as essential comforts of the Sabbath, and to them the Sabbath-candles and the warm food were a mitsvah of great importance. Much work is done on Sabbath for the public by non-Jews; e.g., in connection with railway-trains, steamboats, and other public conveyances. May the Jew avail himself of the work thus done for all alike without his bidding? He may in some cases—e.g., for a long sea-voyage—in others not. But he must always bear in mind that Judaism depends on the adherence of the Jews to the noble principle, כל ישראל ערבים זה בזה “All Israelites are sureties responsible for each other.” The meaning of this principle is this: If a certain act appears to one of us allowable, but at the same time our action might mislead others and cause them to break the Law, we must not do it. Thus if Jews were to avail themselves of the public conveyances, the whole aspect of the Sabbath would change, and the day would ultimately be forgotten.
4. When dire necessity compels a Jew to break the Sabbath, let him not think that the Sabbath is lost to him, or he to Judaism. So long as Jewish conscientiousness is alive within him, let him endeavour to keep as much of the Sabbath as he is able. He must not say, “I have broken the Sabbath. How can I join my brethren in the Sabbath Service!” Whatever he does conscientiously will be acceptable before God, and he will thus find himself exhorted to watch carefully, and to seize the first opportunity of returning to the full observance of Sabbath. The same principle applies to all the Divine Precepts.
THE JEWISH CALENDAR.
The Jewish Calendar [76] reckons the day from evening to evening, in accordance with the order observed in the verse, “And it was evening and it was morning, one day” (Gen. i. 5). The evening begins after sunset, at the moment when stars become visible under normal conditions of the atmosphere: at צאת הכוכבים “the coming forth of the stars,” scil., of at least three stars of middle size.
The day is divided into evening, morning, and afternoon. With each of these periods is connected an appropriate prayer or service, viz., Maarib or Evening-prayer, Shacharith or Morning-prayer, and Minchah or Afternoon-prayer.
Seven days form a week. The days of the week are described in the Bible and the Talmud simply as the first day, the second day, &c. Only the seventh day has a second name, Yom ha-shabbath or shabbath, “the day of rest,” or “the rest.” In post-Biblical literature the sixth day is called Erebh shabbath or Ma’ale shabbatha, “the eve of Sabbath,” or “the coming in of Sabbath.” The evening following Sabbath is named Motseë shabbath, “the departure of Sabbath.” Similarly the day preceding a Festival and the evening following it are called Erev yom-tobh and Motseë yom-tobh, “the eve of the Festival.” and “the departure of the Festival.”
Four weeks and one or two days make one month, חדש or ירח. The length of the month is determined by the duration of one revolution of the moon round the earth. Such revolution is completed in twenty-nine days and a half. [77] As, however, the calendar mouth does not commence in the middle of the day, but at the beginning of the evening, it was necessary to add half a day to one month, and to take off half a day from the next. The months have therefore alternately twenty-nine and thirty days.
The months are named according to their order, the first month, the second, &c.; the first being the first month in the spring. Other names, implying agricultural and climatic relations, were likewise in use, and the following four of them have been preserved in the Bible: the first month is called Abib, “ears of corn;” the second Ziv, “beauty;” the seventh Ethanim, “hardy fruit;” and the eighth, Bul, “rain.” [78] Since the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile, names of foreign origin have been in use, viz., Nisan, Iyar, Sivan, Tammuz, Abh, Elul, Tishri, Cheshvan, Kislev, Tebheth, Shebhat and Adar. [79] Roughly speaking, these months correspond to April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December, January, February, and March.
The year is either an ordinary year or a leap-year, the former consisting of twelve, the latter of thirteen months. The extra month is called Adar-sheni, “the second Adar,” and is added between Adar and Nisan. It serves to adjust from time to time the lunar to the solar year; [80] for there is between the lunar year—that is, the time of twelve revolutions of the moon round the earth—and the solar year, or the time of one revolution of the earth round the sun, a difference of about eleven days, the one consisting of about 354⅓, the other of about 365¼ days. In nineteen years the difference amounts to about seven months. We have therefore seven leap-years in every cycle (מחזור) of nineteen years, viz., the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th.
Neither the ordinary years nor the leap-years have a uniform duration; the former fluctuate between 353, 354, and 355 days; the latter between 383, 384, and 385 days. The following is the cause of this variety: There are certain days in the week which are never made the beginning of the new year (the 1st of Tishri). Whenever the astronomical beginning of the year happens to be on one of these days, a day is added to one year, and taken from the next. The addition in the former case is made in the month of Cheshvan, and the curtailing in the latter case in the month of Kislev. The length of the months is therefore as follows:—Nisan, 30; Iyar, 29; Sivan, 30; Tammuz, 29; Abh, 30; Elul, 29; Tishri, 30; Cheshvan, 29 or 30; Kislev, 30 or 29; Tebheth, 29; Shebhat, 30; Adar, 29, in leap-year 30; Adar-sheni (in leap-year), 29 days.
The first day of the month is called New-moon-day חדש [81] or ראש חדש, “beginning of the month.” In those months which have thirty days, the thirtieth day is likewise kept as Rosh-chodesh.
The beginning of the astronomical month is the moment of the conjunction of sun and moon, [82] when the moon is exactly between the earth and the sun. Nothing is then visible of the moon. Six hours at least later a very small portion of the moon can, under favourable conditions, be seen, and the day on which this takes place is the first of the calendar month.
At first, from the earliest days down to Hillel II. (about 360 C.E.), Rosh-chodesh was determined by direct observation. The highest court, the great Sanhedrin, examined the witnesses who had noticed the reappearance of the moon, and accordingly determined the first day of the month by the solemn declaration, Mekuddash, “sanctified;” that is, the day is to be kept as Rosh-chodesh. These proceedings took place on the thirtieth day of the month. If witnesses presented themselves who testified to the appearance of the new moon, and after due examination their statement was found to be correct, the same day was proclaimed as Rosh-chodesh, and the preceding month had twenty-nine days; if no witnesses presented themselves, or the witnesses could not sustain their evidence, the day was added to the expiring month, and the day following was the first of the next month. The decision of the Sanhedrin concerned only the thirtieth day of the month. As soon as their decision was arrived at, Jewish congregations located within a certain distance were informed by signal or by trustworthy messengers which day had been fixed as the first of the new month. The decrees of the Sanhedrin, the highest religious council of the nation, were accepted by all Jewish congregations as law, and the Festivals were celebrated in accordance with the New Moon thus appointed. There were, however, Jewish congregations in distant parts that could not be reached by the messengers in due time, and these were in doubt concerning the day on which a Festival had to be celebrated. Being anxious not to miss the day kept as a Festival on the authority of the Sanhedrin by their brethren at the religious centre of the nation, the Jews abroad observed two days as Holy-days instead of one; only the Fast of the Day of Atonement had no additional day, because, being a fast-day, the majority of the people were unable to abstain from food for two consecutive days. New-year, on the other hand, was, as a rule, everywhere observed two days, even in places near the seat of the Sanhedrin, and sometimes even in the very place where the Sanhedrin met, on account of the uncertainty whether the 30th of Elul or the day following would be fixed by the Sanhedrin as Rosh ha-shanah. Though, with regard to the most holy Festival, the uncertainty of the day admitted of no remedy, this circumstance did not prevent our pious ancestors from applying a remedy where it could be done.
It was not ignorance that led Jews outside Palestine to observe two Holy-days instead of one. A rough calculation of the time in which the various phenomena of the moon are to be noticed is not difficult, and could be made by many Rabbis and laymen long before Hillel II. framed the permanent Calendar. Nevertheless, two days were kept, because it was impossible to calculate or anticipate all the accidental circumstances that might cause the Sanhedrin to defer the fixing of Rosh-chodesh for the next day.
Nor was it a decree of the Sanhedrin, or of a Rabbinical assembly, that ordered the observance of יום טוב שני, “a second day of the Festival.” This was done by the voluntary act of the nation, and their resolution was confirmed by continued usage. It was the outcome of genuine piety, of the earnest desire to be at one with the central authority of the nation. The observance of יום טוב שני is so old that no trace of its actual introduction can be discovered in the Talmud; wherever mention is made of it, it is represented as an institution already in existence. It may already have existed in the days of the prophets, and traces of the celebration of a second day of Rosh-chodesh may be recognised in the first book of Samuel (i. xx. 27).
This practice, which sprang from true fear and love of God, was spontaneously adopted by all the Jews outside Palestine, continued by generation after generation for more than two thousand years, and has, as a minhag of long standing, become law. It is not a precept commanded in the Written Law, or decreed in the Oral Law; it is only a minhag “practice,” but a minhag that must be cherished and respected as a national institution. There may come a time when the institution of יום טוב שני will be abolished; this can, however, only be done by the national will, confirmed by a Sanhedrin which will be recognised by the whole nation as the only religious authority. Until then it is incumbent upon us to adhere firmly to the observance of the second days of the Festivals.
NOTES.
The following are the general principles upon which our Calendar is based:—
1. Twenty-nine days 12793⁄1080 hours elapse between one molad and the next. [83]
2. An ordinary year must not have less than 353 or more than 355 days, nor the leap-year less than 383 or more than 385 days.
3. The 1st of Tishri is fixed on the day of the molad of Tishri. There are four exceptions (דחיות):—
a. לא אד״ו ראש. If the molad of Tishri falls on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday.
b. מולד זקן. If the molad of Tishri is at noon or later.
c. If the molad of Tishri in an ordinary year is on Tuesday 3204⁄1080 A.M. or later (ג׳ ט׳ ר״ד).