xix. 27), a razor is not employed, and shaving is avoided; the hair of

the beard and the face is clipped with scissors. This prohibition, like that of “rounding the corners of the head” (ibid.), belongs to a group of precepts which aimed at keeping the Israelites away from the idolatrous customs of their heathen neighbours. The second prohibition has led to the fashion noticeable among Russian and Polish Jews of letting the hair of “the corners of the head” (in Hebrew peoth) grow very long.—In the Mishnah (Kethubhoth vii. 6) it is mentioned as a distinctively “Jewish custom” that married women have their head covered when going out. Many Jewish women observe also this custom within the house.—With these exceptions there is nothing in his dress and appearance that need distinguish the Jew from the Gentile, only that sometimes Jews are more conservative with regard to fashion than their neighbours, and old-fashioned style is then mistaken for “Jewish fashion.”

[174] Some people leave on one of the walls of the house a certain piece unpapered and unpainted as a sign of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. From the same reason, in some congregations, the bridegroom on the wedding-day has ashes strewn on his head. In accordance with Ps. cxxxvii. 6 we remember Jerusalem on various occasions. We recite Ps. cxxxvii. on week-days, and Ps. cxxvi. on Sabbath and Holy-days, after every meal. Again, when we give expression to our sympathy with mourners we pray that God may comfort them together with those who mourn for the destruction of Jerusalem.

[175] The above-mentioned exceptions, and the fact that the woman is passive in the marriage ceremony as well as in the case of a divorce, have been erroneously interpreted as evidence of the low estimate in which she is held by the Jewish Law. How the Jews were taught to honour their wives may be gathered from the Jewish marriage document, in which the husband promises “to honour his wife in accordance with the rule in practice among Jews, that every husband honours his wife.” There are, unfortunately, also bad Jews who ill-treat, neglect, or entirely abandon their wives; but these cases are exceptions, and proportionately less numerous than among non-Jews. On the whole, Jewish women are treated by their husbands with love and regard, and the good relations that exist between husband and wife ensure the comfort and happiness of both.

[176] To this respect for feminine modesty is due the arrangement made in the Synagogue for female worshippers (see p. 426). It is also the reason why girls have no ceremony corresponding to the celebration of the bar-mitsvah.

[177] Women do not like to do needlework on Saturday evening immediately after the close of Sabbath; it was considered a mitsvah to prolong the Sabbath, just as it is a sign of love and esteem if we induce a friend to defer his departure. The saying that only shrouds are to be sewn on Sabbath evening may perhaps be traced to Mishnah, Shabbath xxiii. 4.

[178] In order to have warm food on Sabbath without breaking any of the Sabbath laws, the food is put in an oven which is heated in such a manner that the fire continues to burn without requiring to be stirred or rekindled, or in which the heat is otherwise retained. Such food is called chalet, which is probably a French word, corresponding to the Hebrew ‏חמין‎ “warm.”

[179] Or ‏חבוב מצוה‎ “love of mitsvah.”

[180] See p. 357.

[181] See p. 357 sqq.

[182] Jews consider it a duty to have guests (‏אורחים‎) at the table on three occasions, viz., the Seder-evening, Purim, and Succoth.

[183] The blessing generally consists of the priestly benediction, and the words of Jacob, “God make thee like Ephraim and like Manasseh” (Gen. xlviii. 20); Sarah, Rebeccah, Rachel, and Leah being substituted for Ephraim and Manasseh when females are addressed.

[184] A special Service of the day is called ‏יום כפור קטן‎.

[185] Friday evening was especially selected for this purpose; the visitors were treated with fruit and sweets; and this secondary element in the custom became in course of time the principal thing. The custom received the name Shalom-zachar, probably from the usual greeting, “Shalom! (“Peace,” corresponding to our “How do you do?”) O male child!”

[186] In different countries there were different ways of expressing this sentiment. In some congregations a band (mappah) for the Sepher, with the name and birthday of the child inscribed on it, and ornamented with verses expressive of various good wishes, is presented to the Synagogue.

[187] I.e., a person who circumcises.

[188] Of those who assist in the mitsvah, the sandek (godfather), who holds the child during the operation, is the most prominent, and is called ‏בעל ברית‎ (“who is in possession of the covenant,” i.e., of the child to be initiated into the covenant). The religious enthusiasm required for the performance of this mitsvah is symbolically represented by “the chair of Elijah” (‏כסא של אליהו‎), upon which the child is placed before the operation; Elijah in Jewish Tradition being the type of religious zeal.

[189] The Service for the occasion is included in the Daily Prayer-book, by Rev. S. Singer, p. 304.

[190] For the Blessing and Prayers on this occasion, see Prayer-book, p. 308.

[191] The chief element in this Service is ‏ברכת הגומל‎, the thanksgiving for the Divine protection enjoyed in the moment of danger. This Blessing is pronounced by (1) those who have crossed the sea, (2) or a desert, (3) or have recovered from a serious illness, (4) or have been released from prison. (Comp. Ps. cvii.)

[192] Leviticus was generally taken first.

[193] A misinterpretation of the dictum of Rabbi Eliezer, “Whoso teaches his daughter torah, teaches her, as it were, levity” (Mishnah, Sotah iii. 4), led many to believe that the Rabbis did not wish the daughters of Israel to know the Law. The dictum refers to a discussion which immediately precedes on the efficacy of the “bitter waters.” Rabbi Eliezer holds that it is dangerous to the morality of a woman to engage her thoughts with the details of the Law concerning a wife suspected of adultery (Num. v.).

[194] The feast in honour of the bar-mitsvah is ‏סעודת מצוה‎ only when it is accompanied by ‏דברי תורה‎ (“Words of the Law”) spoken by him.

[195] At festivities a glass was broken in order to remind those present of the transient nature of all earthly things, and thus warn them against excess of joy (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 31a).—The same is done after the wedding ceremony.

[196] In the Talmud the custom of the ring is not mentioned; anything could be used, provided it had the value of a perutah, a small coin, and was the property of the bridegroom. Among Jews the use of the ring is a modern fashion. The ring must not contain any jewel or precious stone, the value of which can in many cases not easily be estimated, and which might therefore lead to misunderstanding and dispute.

[197] There are, besides, various explanations of the term chuppah: (1.) The wreath on the head of the bride when led to the marriage ceremony (‏הינומא‎, Mishnah, Kethubhoth ii. 10). (2.) A cover over the head of the bride; in some countries, therefore, instead of erecting a canopy, a talith is held over the bride and bridegroom during the ceremony; in others a separate ceremony of covering the head of the bride takes place before the actual marriage (comp. supra, p. 467, note 1). (3.) A private chamber into which bride and bridegroom retire for breakfast when the ceremony is over.

[198] In order to prevent mistakes the minister reads the formula slowly, and the bridegroom repeats it; the minister omits the word ‏לי‎ “unto me,” and the bridegroom inserts the word by himself, or assisted by some one else.

[199] “And of Israel” signifies: “According to the Jewish traditional interpretation of the Law of Moses;” these words are added because the rules of kiddushin are not directly mentioned in the Torah.

[200] The kethubhah is in its essential elements very old, and dates probably back to the time when the Jews in Palestine spoke Aramaic. The settlement described in this document should be made to correspond with the actual deed of settlement legally executed. On the other hand, even the poorer bridegrooms should be induced to make a real settlement corresponding to the promises made in the kethubhah. The system of life insurance facilitates such a course. Otherwise the kethubhah has no importance.

[201] The contents of these Blessings are: (1) Benediction over wine; (2) praise of God as the Creator of the Universe, (3) as the Creator of man, (4) and of woman; (5) prayer for the comfort of Zion, (6) for the rejoicing of the young couple, and (7) for their united happiness.

[202] Lit., “Good planet.” The term has entirely lost its original meaning, and denotes simply “hearty congratulation.”

[203] In the Torah polygamy is not forbidden, but not encouraged. It was a luxury inaccessible to the multitude, and the king is distinctly told that he must not have many wives (Deut. xvii. 17). The principle of monogamy is implied in many Biblical passages, as, e.g., Gen. ii. 20 sqq.; Mal. ii. 14; Ps. cxxviii. 3; Prov. v. 18 sqq.

[204] A woman divorced from her husband by ‏גט‎ or from her brother-in-law by ‏חליצה‎ cannot marry a kohen.

[205] In every congregation there is a special society of those who devote themselves to the needs of the sick (‏חברת בקור חולים‎). See above, p. 302.

[206] “Many have made confession and have afterwards recovered” are the very words to be addressed to the patient according to the Shulchan-aruch, Jore deah cccxxxviii.

[207] See Sefer ha-chayyim, and Daily Prayer-book, p. 314 sqq.

[208] See supra, p. 302.

[209] Those present exclaim: ‏ברוך דין אמת‎ “Blessed art thou ... who art the true Judge.” The same is done by those who are not present on hearing the sad news. Relatives rend also their garments (‏קריעה‎).

[210] In Hebrew ‏אוננים‎ and ‏אבלים‎; the former term is applied to the mourners during the time between the death and the interment of their relatives; the latter after the interment during the whole period of mourning.

[211] Some consider it a dishonour to the departed to leave the corpse unburied over night, since the Law does not allow even the body of a criminal to be treated in this way. The practice may also have commended itself on sanitary grounds.

[212] The shroud is made of white linen. The kittel or sargenes is part of the raiment in which the dead are clothed. It is the custom in some countries that the bride presents the bridegroom with this article on the wedding-day; and it is worn by the husband on New-Year’s Day and on the Day of Atonement, and on the Seder-evening during the Service. Some think that the object of wearing it is to remind us of death, and thus turn our thoughts away from the vanities of earthly life.—The custom has probably its origin in the fact that the white kittel was the festive garment of the day.

[213] In Hebrew ‏בית החיים‎ or ‏בית עלמין‎ “the house of life” or “the house of eternity.”

[214] The case is known by the name of ‏מת מצוה‎ “the corpse which claims attention as a mitsvah.”

[215] The usual formula is, “May the Almighty comfort you together with those who mourn for Zion and Jerusalem.” These words are addressed to the mourners when they return from the grave to the Hall, while passing the line (‏שורה‎) formed by those present, and are repeated during the week of mourning, especially on Friday evening when the mourners enter the Synagogue. When the Service is over, the mourners return home, and partake of a meal prepared for them by friends or neighbours (‏סעודת הבראה‎). In days of old wine was taken on that occasion (Kethubhoth 8b), but this custom, like several others, has dropped into oblivion. In the Grace the section which begins ‏ובנה‎ “And build,” is modified during the week of mourning in order to give expression to the sentiments of the mourners.

[216] During the week of mourning the mourners (1) remain at home, with the exception of Sabbath; (2) abstain from work and business; (3) hold the Morning and the Evening Services at home, and add appropriate psalms (such as xvi. and xlix.), prayers, and meditations; (4) sit on the floor or on low chairs; (5) listen to no music, avoid play, and all kinds of amusement, and (6) let the hair grow long.—During the rest of the month—or of the year, in case of mourning for father or mother—the last two observances are followed; the hair is only cut when it has become cumbersome as well as unsightly, and a banquet is only attended when it is a ‏סעודת מצוה‎.

[217] A symbol of the soul of the departed, in reference to Prov. xx. 27.

[218] The three principal mitsvoth are: Study of the Law (‏תורה‎), Divine Service (‏עבודה‎), and Charity (‏גמלות חסדים‎). As regards the first, a section of the Mishnah is studied daily; as regards the second, the bereaved, during the year of mourning, or on the Jahrzeit, acts as Reader in the Synagogue for the whole or part of the Service; and as regards the third, relief is given to the poor in memoriam.

[219] Babyl. Talm., Gittin 14b.

[220] The numbers refer to pages in the Authorized Daily Prayer-book, with a new translation by the Rev. S. Singer.