Part 23

33 (p. 165).--The subject of agriculture among the Indians is exhaustively treated in Carr's "Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," in _Smithsonian Report_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 507-533. His general conclusion is that corn was "cultivated in greater or less quantities by all the tribes living east of the Mississippi and south of the great lakes and the St. Lawrence,"--indeed, far more extensively than is generally supposed; and that "the Indian looked upon it as a staple article of food, both winter and summer; that he cultivated it in large fields, and understood and appreciated the benefits arising from the use of fertilizers." Beans, squashes, and pumpkins were also staple crops. In regard to the labor of women, Carr says: "The Iroquois or Six Nations are the only people among whom, so far as I know, it cannot be shown that the warriors did take some part either in clearing the ground or in cultivating the crop; and we find that even among them the work was not left exclusively to the women, but that it was shared by the children and the old men, as well as the slaves, of whom they seem to have had a goodly number. *** This statement ['that the field-work was _not_ left entirely to the women'], as to the actual condition of a large majority of the tribes living east of the Mississippi and south of the St. Lawrence, is believed to be true; yet it is not denied that there were many instances in which this labor was, practically, left to the women, owing to the fact that the men were away from home, hunting or fighting. This fact was, unfortunately, of frequent recurrence; but, as it was the result of an accidental and not of a permanent condition of affairs, it would hardly be fair to ascribe it to the existence of any custom, or to any belief in the derogatory character of the work."--Cf. Rochemonteix (_Jésuites_, vol. i., p. 97, _note_).

34 (p. 167).--A word derived, according to Littré, from the Basque _orenac_, meaning "deer;" elsewhere written _orignac_, _orignas_, and _orignat_; by modern writers, _orignal_. The "Canadian elk" (_orignac_ being used interchangeably with _élan_, the elk of Northern Europe), or moose (the latter an Indian name), is _Alces Americanus_, the largest of the _Cervus_ family. The males are said to attain a weight of 1,100 or 1,200 pounds, and a height of five feet at the shoulder. See also _Champlain's Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. i., p. 265.

35 (p. 169).--Slafter thinks that these roots were probably those of Jerusalem artichoke, _Helianthus tuberosus_. This plant, indigenous in the Northern regions of America, had been carried to Europe by the Italians, who named it _girasole_ (their word for the sunflower, another species of _Helianthus_), afterwards corrupted to _Jerusalem_. Champlain saw these plants cultivated by the Indians--in 1605, near Cape Cod; and again at Gloucester, in 1606.--See _Champlain's Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. ii., pp. 82, 112. The savages also cultivated ground-nuts, of several varieties; among them, _Arachis hypogæa_ and _Apios tuberosa_.--See Carr's "Food of Certain American Indians," in _Proceedings of American Antiquarian Society_, vol. x., part i., pp. 168, 169.

Lescarbot says the roots mentioned in the text were called _canadas_; Ferland thinks they were those of _Apios tuberosa_ (_Cours d'Histoire_, vol. i., p. 84).

36 (p. 171).--The smelt, _Salmo eperlanus_, is found in both salt and fresh water; it is four to eight inches in length.

37 (p. 171).--A small, narrow inlet (_Ance_, on Bellin's map, 1764), at the head of which is a portage to St. Mary's Bay.

38 (p. 171).--Haliburton, in his _Nova Scotia_ (Halifax, 1829), p. 15, _note_, says it is the stream now known as the Allen River; but Lescarbot, in our text, and in his chart of Port Royal, identifies it with the larger river now called Annapolis. He says it was "named l'Equille, because the first fish taken therein was an équille." Its length is about 70 miles, 30 of which are navigable. Littré defines _équille_ as "the name, on the coasts between Caen and Havre, of the fish called _lançon_ at Granville and St. Malo, a kind of malacopterygian fish, living on sandy shores, and hiding in the sand at low tide."

39 (p. 173).--The legitimate children of the king himself, as distinguished from those of other branches of the royal family, the latter being only "princes and princesses of the blood."

40 (p. 175).--Du Chesne (or Duquesne), and Du Jardin; see _Relation_ of 1616, _post_. Ferland says (_Cours d'Histoire_, vol. i., p. 80, _note_): "In the _History of Dieppe_, vol. ii., mention is made of Abraham Du Quesne, a Calvinist, who commanded a Dieppe vessel engaged in the American and Senegal trade. He was father of the celebrated admiral of the same name, born at Dieppe in 1610." Shea adds (_Charlevoix_, vol. i., p. 262, _note_), that he "was an ancestor of the Governor of Canada, whose name was once borne by Pittsburgh."

41 (p. 175).--These orders, except the Minimes, were Franciscan. The Capuchins (so named from the sharply-pointed _capuce_, or hood, of their robe) were organized in 1528, as a new division of the _Fratres Minores_ of St. Francis of Assisi; and were received into France in 1573, at the request of Charles IX., and at the recommendation of Cardinal Lorraine. In 1632, they, were asked by Richelieu to take charge of the religious affairs of Canada; but, they declined this proposal, ostensibly through unwillingness to displace the Jesuits, and later went to Acadia. For an account of their work in Maine, see _Historical Magazine_, vol. viii., p. 301.

The Cordeliers, named from the knotted cord worn at the waist, have two branches,--the conventuals, who are allowed to possess real estate; and the observants, who may not own any property.

The Récollets, strictest of all the Franciscan orders, were thus termed because, devoting themselves to religious meditation (Fr. _récollection_), they asked from Pope Clement VII., in 1531, permission to retire into special convents, that they might more literally observe their founder's rule. For an account of their missionary work in Canada, see Editor's Introduction, vol. i. of this series. They carried on extensive missionary labors in Spanish America, where, in 1621, they had 500 convents, distributed in 22 provinces.--Ferland's _Cours d'Histoire_, vol. i., p. 169.

The Minimes were founded in 1453, by St. Francis de Paula, of Calabria. Their rule is especially austere, involving total abstinence from wine, flesh, and fish, and even from eggs, milk, or butter. Their founder named them _Minimos Fratres_, as a special indication of humility. He also instituted an order of Minimes for women, in 1493.

42 (p. 177).--Samuel de Champlain was born probably between 1567 and 1570 (the exact date is unknown); his parents lived at Brouage, a fortified town in Saintonge, where was a large manufacture of salt and the finest harbor on the French coast. Champlain became a navigator early in life, and was also a quartermaster in the royal army in Brittany, from 1592 to 1598.

His first voyage to America was in the service of the King of Spain; he spent the time from January, 1599, to March, 1601, in the West Indies and Mexico, and on the northern coast of South America. His valuable MS. report of this voyage, illustrated by his own sketches, was first printed in 1859 (but in an English translation), by the Hakluyt Society, at London; in it he suggests a ship canal across the isthmus of Panama. In 1603, he sailed, with Pontgravé to Canada, exploring the St. Lawrence as far as the Falls of St. Louis; and again, with De Monts, early in 1604, when they founded the St. Croix colony. Champlain remained in Canada three years, carefully exploring the Atlantic coast from Canso to Wood's Holl, and returned to France in October, 1607. The next summer, he explored the valley of the St. Lawrence, with the Saguenay and other tributaries, and founded the settlement of Quebec. October 15, 1612, he was formally appointed commandant in New France. Quebec was captured by the English, July 20, 1629; but was restored to the French by the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye, March 29, 1632. Champlain, being again appointed governor of New France, returned to Quebec in May, 1633, where he died December 25, 1635.

43 (p. 177).--This chart was drawn by Lescarbot, and engraved by Jan Swelinck; it appears in his _Nouv. France_ (Tross ed., Paris, 1866), facing page 208. It has been reproduced for the present series.

44 (p. 179).--_Gougou_, a frightful monster, in the superstitious belief of the savages, who supposed it to dwell on an island near the Bay of Chaleurs; to have the form of a woman, though of horrible aspect, and so tall that the masts of a ship would not reach to the monster's girdle; and to carry off and devour men. Champlain gives a full account of this belief, and regards _Gougou_ as a demon who tormented the natives; see Laverdière's _Champlain_, pp. 125-126. Lescarbot, in his _Nouv. France_, pp. 397-403, gives the same description, and tries to prove, in a long discussion, that _Gougou_ is a sort of personification of a tormenting conscience.

45 (p. 179).--_Charter party._ A document which states the terms of rent for the whole or part of a ship. The term is derived from an old usage; instead of making a duplicate of the contract, it was cut in two, each of the parties retaining one of the halves.--Littré's _Dictionnaire de la langue française_ (Paris, 1878).

46 (p. 185).--This young priest had sailed with De Monts, desiring to see the New World. On the shores of St. Mary's Bay, he became lost in the woods; De Monts searched for him, but in vain, and left the bay. A fortnight later, an expedition sent to St. Mary's Bay, to search for silver and iron ore, accidentally encountered poor Aubry, almost dead with fatigue and hunger, and brought him back to Port Royal. This rescue was especially gratifying to De Monts, as the priest's disappearance had caused a Protestant, who had quarreled with him about religious questions, to be accused of murdering Aubry.--_Champlain's Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. ii., pp. 20, 21.

47 (p. 189). See vol. i., _note_ 4.

48 (p. 199).--One of the numerous names given to the St. Lawrence by early explorers and writers; it thus appears on the map of Jean Allefonsce, given in his _Cosmographie_ (Paris, ed., 1575), fol. 183^{A}; and is so named by Champlain, in his _Voyages_. The origin of the name Canada is variously explained; but there are two leading theories: (1) That the word signifies, in Iroquois, "town," or "village." See Laverdière's _Champlain_, p. 89, _note_ 4; Faillon's _Col. Fr._ vol. i., p. 14; _Hist. Mag._ vol. i., pp. 153, 217, 349; and _Mag. Amer. Hist._, vol. x., pp. 161, 162. (2) That it comes from another and similar Iroquois word, meaning "lake," being applied to the country as a region abounding in lakes. See _Hist. Mag._, vol. i., pp. 188, 315; cf. Winsor's _N. and C. Hist._ vol. iv., p. 67, _note_ 1.--Cf. Ferland's _Cours d'Histoire_, vol. i., p. 25. The name was applied in the earlier maps (e.g., Zaltieri, 1566; Ortelius, 1570; Judæis, 1593) to a district lying along the St Lawrence, between the Saguenay and Isle aux Coudres, or thereabouts. Later, it was given to all, or nearly all, of the valley of the St. Lawrence. See also vol. i., _note_ 6.

49 (p. 201).--This date is evidently obtained from the "Discorso d'un gran Capitano di Mare Francese," found in Ramusio's _Raccolta_ (Venice, 1556), vol. iii., p. 423. The "Discorso" is supposed to have been written in 1539; the name of the author was unknown to Ramusio himself, but is said by Estancelin, in _Recherches * * * des navigateurs Normands_ (Paris, 1832), to be Jean Parmentier, of Dieppe. See Winsor's _N. and C. Hist._, vol. iv., pp. 16, 63: cf. also Harrisse's _Discovery of North America_ (London, 1892), p. 180. _note_ 2, and D'Avezac's Introduction to Cartier's _Brief Recit_ (Tross reprint, 1865), fol. vii.; both say that the "Discorso" was written by Pierre Crignon, an astronomer and pilot, and a companion of Parmentier in his voyages.

50 (p. 205).--Another name for the St. Lawrence River. The apparent etymology of this name would suggest that it was given on account of the powerful current of the river, and its discharge into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. See Trumbull's "Composition of Indian Geographical Names," in _Conn. Histor. Soc. Colls._, vol. ii., p. 30. Laverdière erroneously considers _Sacqué_ as another form of Sagné, or Saguenay.

51 (p. 205).--One of the principal tributaries of the St. Lawrence, entering the latter 120 miles N. E. of Quebec. It is 100 miles in length, and remarkable for its wild and picturesque scenery; along the lower half of its course the banks vary in height from 500 to 1,500 feet, often overhanging the swift current below. Its ordinary depth varies from 100 to 1,000 feet, and even reaches over 3,000 feet near its month. It is the outlet of Lake St. John, and was for the French the chief avenue of approach to the Indian tribes around that lake, and even (by portages) to those of Hudson Bay region. This river was, throughout the French régime, the center of both trading and missionary activities for all Northeastern Canada. Tadoussac, at its month, from earliest times a favorite rendezvous of the Montagnais and other Eastern tribes, became under the French an important fur-trade center and Jesuit mission; and is, to-day, a notable watering-place.

The name is also spelled Sagnay, Sagné, Saghuny, etc. Thévet, in his _Grande Insulaire_ (a MS. preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris, and written before 1571: see Harrisse's _notes sur la Nouvelle France_, p. 278), declares that the savages then called this river _Thadoyseau_; while Lalemant (in _Relation_ of 1646) says that they called Tadoussac _Sadilege_. Probably these names were indifferently applied, in that early time, alike to river and village. Laverdière derives Saguenay from the Montagnais _saki-nip_, "the rushing water." See his _Champlain_, pp. 68, 69; also Trumbull, in _Conn. Hist. Colls._, vol. ii., p. 31.

52 (p. 205).--Now the St Maurice; named _Trois Rivières_, because two islands at its mouth divide it into three channels. On Creuxius' map (1660), it appears as Metaberoutin River, or Three Rivers; on Duval's (1679), the Rivière de Foix. This last appellation seems to be another form of Riuiere du Fouez, given to this river by Cartier. See _Champlain's Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. i., p. 257. At its mouth is the town of Three Rivers, founded by Champlain in 1634.

53 (p. 205).--The Ottawa River--Champlain's Riuière des Algommequins; see his "Explanation of the Map of New France," in _Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. i., p. 302. Also named, in early days, Rivière des Prairies; so in _Relation_ of 1640, _post_, and on Creuxius' map (1660): Faillon (_Col. Fr._, i., p. 82, _note_ * *) says it was thus named from its discoverer, a young sailor from St. Malo; he is mentioned by Champlain as "a very courageous man," in _Voyages_ (Paris, 1632), p. 159.

54 (p. 205).--The Chicchack (or Shickshock) Mountains; called Notre-Dame by Champlain and other early writers. A range of highlands in the Gaspé peninsula, the easternmost part of the Appalachian system, forming the watershed between streams flowing into the St. Lawrence and Bay of Chaleurs. They lie about twelve miles from the St. Lawrence, extending a distance of some 65 miles, between the Ste. Anne des Monts and the Matane rivers; they range in height from 3,000 to 4,000 feet.--See Rochemonteix's _Jésuites_, vol. i., p. 91; also Laverdière's _Champlain_, p. 1090.

55 (p. 205).--See Laverdière's _Champlain_, p. 179.

56 (p. 205).--_Canadis_, the Indians of the vicinity of Quebec. Lescarbot says (_Nouv. France_, p. 238) that "the tribes of Gachepé and Chaleur bay call themselves Canadocoa, that is, Canadaquois," Sagard (_Canada_, p. 152) mentions a village of Canadians near Tadoussac.

57 (p. 205).--_Algomeguis_ (also spelled Algoumequins, Algonmequins, and Algumquins); the Algonquins or Algonkins. Some authors consider this name generic for the Armouchiquois, the Montagnais, the "Petite Nation," the Nation of the Isle, and the Nipissiriniens.--See Martin's edition of Bressani's _Relation Abrégée_ (Montreal, 1852), p. 319. Champlain limits this appellation to the tribes that dwell upon the Ottawa.

58 (p. 205).--_Ochasteguis_, according to Laverdière (_Champlain_, pp. 317, 346) called by Champlain _Ochastaiguins_ or _Ochatequins_, from the name of one of their chiefs; a name applied to the Hurons. This last appellation was but a nickname of the tribe, which was properly called Wendot or Wyandot. They inhabited the region east of Lake Huron, to Lake Simcoe.

59 (p. 205).--The site of Quebec was first visited by Cartier in 1535, and was then occupied by an Indian village, named Stadacona. The foundation of the present city was laid by Champlain, July 3, 1608; for his chart of Quebec and vicinity (with valuable notes thereon, by the editor), and an engraved illustration of the buildings erected by him, see Laverdière's _Champlain_, pp. 296, 303. Quebec is also written Quebeck, Quebecq (Champlain), and Kebec, Kébec, or Kebek (_Relations_); the word, in various Algonkin dialects, signifies "the narrowing of the water," referring to the contraction of the St. Lawrence, opposite Cape Diamond, to a space of only 1,314 yards; while below, at the confluence of the St. Charles, it spreads into a basin over 2,500 yards in width. See Ferland's _Cours d'Histoire_, vol. i., p. 90; and Parkman's _Pioneers_, p. 329.

The first known mention of this name, to designate the locality of the present city, is in Champlain's _Voyages_, _ut supra_, p. 89.

60 (p. 205).--See vol. i., _note_ 2.

61 (p. 207).--See _notes_ 32, 33, _ante_. _Brazilian bean_; the common bean, _Phaseolus vulgaris_, indigenous to America. Called "Brazilian bean," because it resembled a bean then known in France by that name.--_Champlain's Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. ii., p. 64, _note_.

62 (p. 207).--_Breton._ This name (spelled also Bretton, Briton, _Brittayne_, etc.), was given, at an early date, to the most eastern point of Cape Breton Island, "first seen by some French sailors, who named it either after Bretagne, or from Cape Breton, a town in the election of Landes, in Gascony."--Bourinot (_Canad. Mo._, vol. vii., p. 292). Cf. Margry's _Navigations Françaises_ (Paris, 1867), p. 113. It appears on Verrazano's map (1529). See also Laverdière's _Champlain_, p. 155; and on same page is a quotation from Thévet's _Gr. Insul._ (1556) which mentions "the cape or promontory of Lorraine, so named by us; others have given it the name of _Cape of the Bretons_," etc. The island itself was known, during the 16th century, as Isle du Cap Breton, or Isle des Bretons; Champlain, in _Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. i., p. 280, calls it St. Lawrence; the French named it Isle Royale, upon its cession to them by the treaty of Utrecht (1713); its old name, Cape Breton Island, was resumed in 1758, after the capture of Louisbourg by the English. On Gastaldo's map (1548), the name Breton is applied both to this island and to Nova Scotia. See Dionne's note on Cape Breton (_Nouv. France_, pp. 283-286).

On _La Hève_, see vol. i., _note_ 42. Champlain's chart of the harbor of La Heve is given in Laverdière's _Champlain_, p. 156.

_Mouton_, probably at Port Mouton; so named, according to Lescarbot, because a drowned sheep came ashore there.--_Nouv. France_, p. 449.

_Sable_, the most southern point of Nova Scotia, on Cape Sable Island. Champlain says: "The next day we went to Cape Sable, also very dangerous, on account of certain rocks and reefs extending almost a league into the sea."--_Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. ii., p. 13.

_St. Louis_, thus named by De Monts; but now known as Brant Point; two leagues from Plymouth Harbor, in Massachusetts.

_Blanc_, so named by Champlain, from its white sands; three years earlier, named Cape Cod, by Gosnold, from the multitude of codfish in its vicinity. It is shown on Juan de la Cosa's map (1500); but without name; on Ribero's (1529), as C. de arenas; on Vallard's (1543), as C. de Croix.

63 (p. 207). On _Campseau_, see vol. i., _note_ 40.

_Sesambre_, "an island thus named by some Mallouins, distant 15 leagues from La Héve," says Champlain. Laverdière thus explains the name: "In remembrance of a small island of that name which lies in front of St. Malo. Sésambre became S. Sambre; and the English sailors, who are not greatly devoted to the saints, have called it simply Sambro" (its present name). A cape and harbor near the island bear the same name. Sesambre appears on De Laet's map (1633), as Sesambre; on Bellin's (1744), as Sincembre; but in his _Petit Atlas Maritime_ (1764), also on Chabert's map (1746), as St. Cendre. In Champlain's _Voyages_ (Prince Soc.), vol. ii.; p. 151. _note_ 263, the island at St. Malo is called Cézembre.

_Beaubassin_, the present Chignecto Bay; the northern arm at the head of the Bay of Fundy. Blaeu's map (1620), and De Laet's (1633), show it as B. des Gennes; Bellin's (1744), as Chignitou or Beaubassin.

64 (p. 207).--Sanson's map of Canada (1656) shows Cap de l'Evesque; and Creuxius's (1660), _prom. Episcopi_. Bellin's map of the St. Lawrence River (1761) enables us to identify this point as the present Cape Magdalen, or Magdalaine, west of Cape Rosier. Cf. Laverdière's _Champlain_, p. 116, _note_; and _Champlain_ (Prince Soc.), vol. i., p. 281, _note_.

_Chat_, a corruption of _Chaste_, the name of Champlain's early patron. Sieur Aymar de Chaste (Chattes, or Chastes), for many years the governor of Dieppe, distinguished both as soldier and sailor, and a personal friend of Henry IV., had formed at Rouen, under a royal commission, a company to prosecute further explorations in Canada. In March, 1603, he sent Pontgravé and Champlain thither, to select a location for the colony he proposed to establish, and to make other preliminary explorations and arrangements; see Laverdière's _Champlain_, pp. 700-704, and 1090, _note_. During their absence, De Chaste died (May 13, 1603), and his schemes were soon taken up by De Monts (vol. i., _note_ 2).--See Faillon's _Col. Fr._, vol. i., pp. 74-84. An account of De Chaste's voyage to Terceira (whither he was sent in 1583, with a military force by Catherine de Médicis), forms part of Thévenot's _Relations de divers Voyages Curieux_ (Paris, 1596), under the heading "Voyage de la Tercere."

65 (p. 209).--Of these five settlements, the first was made in 1535, by Jacques Cartier, at the mouth of the river called by him St. Croix, but afterwards named St. Charles, by the Récollet missionaries, in honor of Charles des Boues, grand vicar of Pontoise.--See Shea's ed. of Le Clercq's _Establishment of the Faith_ (N. Y., 1881), p. 149. Those of De Monts, at St. Croix and Port Royal, have been already described by Lescarbot. In regard to the settlement at Quebec, which the text inadvertently mentions as the third, instead of the fourth, it was on the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, not the southern, as he says here. The fifth, that of St. Sauveur, is fully described in the present volume.

66 (p. 209).--Pointe St. Croix, now named Point Platon, about 35 miles above Quebec. A small island, not far from this point, was called Ste. Croix Island, up to 1633; after that time, Richelieu, for the great cardinal. As intimated in the text, there has been a difference of opinion as to the place where Cartier spent the winter of 1535-36. Charlevoix (Shea's ed., vol. i., p. 116), claimed that the point mentioned above (Platon) was the St. Croix of Cartier; but Champlain and other authorities have shown that it was, instead, at St. Charles River. See Laverdière's _Champlain_, pp. 90-93, and 304-309; also Faillon's _Col. Fr._ vol. i., pp. 496-499.