CHAPTER IV

ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC IVORIES

Romanesque Art grew up north of the Alps in the valley of the Lower Rhone and South France, and is especially the work of the French people. The Italians led the way in the first centuries A.D., and were followed by the Greeks of Byzantium, and then by the Carlovingian Germanic peoples in the great art development of Europe; but from the eleventh century France entirely fills the stage, and this pre-eminence was kept up till the early Renaissance, when Italy again takes a leading part.

The Romanesque style was transitional, and turned for re-inspiration to the Gallo-Roman monuments, but it is deeply influenced by that northern spirit which later on triumphed in the full perfection of the Gothic Art.

There was a great revival of monumental sculpture with the growth of the Romanesque spirit, and sculptured figures, from being introduced tentatively in the capitals and other parts connected with the structure, later, entirely filled the great _tympana_ or arches surmounting the doors of the churches, and from thence spread to every nook and cranny till in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were numbered by thousands.

Carved ivories are not so numerous in the eleventh and twelfth centuries as in the years before, and when they became popular again, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the division between the sculptors in stone and the ivory workers had taken place, beautiful and clever imitations of the sculptures were turned out by the dozen, but it is exceedingly rare to find the work of a real artist.

The sculptures of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries have many details in common with the book cover at St. Gall (Fig. 23); but gradually the folds of the drapery grew vertical and the figures more drawn out, and with a peculiar tendency to arrange the hair in set curled locks. One of the most important transitional ivories is the diptych of St. Nicasius, Bishop of Rheims, which is preserved in the Cathedral of Tournai, and is still strongly Carlovingian, as will be seen in the typical representation of the Crucifixion. Each leaf has a central medallion, that on the first leaf containing the _Agnus Dei_ supported by angels, whose movements can be closely paralleled in the St. Gall plaque. Above, Christ is throned in a mandorla and accompanied by the symbols of the four evangelists. On the second leaf, in addition to the medallion containing the figure of St. Nicasius are some pierced vine scrolls rather like those on Fig. 23, and by far the best part of a very poor work. The drapery is, perhaps, better designed than in the Carlovingian sculptures, but the folds are only engraved, and though there is a certain change in the type of the faces, in the matter of beauty it is entirely for the worse. A plaque in the British Museum seems also to belong to this period, it is bordered by a flowered scroll and has representations of _The Nativity_, _The Announcement to the Shepherds_ and _The Baptism_, the latter being very strange; the figure of Christ being immersed to the waist in a large vase.

The Romanesque age was, above all, the age of symbolism; the sculptures on the pastoral staves are full of hidden meaning. The _tau_, or crutch shape, is the earliest form and belonged, more especially, to the insignia of the abbots, though in later days they also had croziers. The most ancient _tau_[22] belonged to Morard, Abbot of St. Germain de Près (990-1014) and is ornamented with a network pattern. Another fine _tau_, with the ends curling upwards and finished with lions’ heads, belonged to Gérard, Bishop of Limoges.

The earlier croziers had a simple volute usually ending in a dragon’s or serpent’s head, with snapping jaws, which symbolizes the struggle between the serpent and the cross,[23] the latter being borne by the symbolic ram, a development of the _Agnus Dei_. This ram is the symbol of Christ; as St. Ambrose says, because he washes his fleece, guides the flock, clothes the shepherd, conquers the wolves by his strength and was the victim which replaced Isaac at the sacrifice, and again, because the ram is silent before the shearers, as Christ was before his judges, and finally the crozier curls like the horn of a ram, a symbol of force.

The famous crozier (so-called of “St. Gregory”) in the Monastery of St. Gregory on the Cœlian Hill at Rome, shows the dragon’s head, the ram bearing the cross and a strange little lion cub, which is a direct reference to the death and resurrection of Christ. In the natural history of the Middle Ages, which drew more on fancy than on fact, it was narrated how the lion cub died at birth and could only be recalled to life by the breath of its father.

The Romanesque Church plunged even deeper into this symbolic thought, and the Pascal Taper, which signifies the life of Christ on earth was placed in a candelabrum supported by lions.

The strange pagan form, half human and half serpent, with a cock’s head, is none other than the mystic Abraxas, whose name in Greek numerals represented in the elaborate Gnostic calculations the whole hierarchy of heaven and the Supreme Ruler of the Universe.

This symbol was supposed to have great talismanic powers to ward off evil, and though it was contrary to canonical rules, Gnostic gems engraved with the Abraxas deity were often set in the episcopal croziers, or even the crook was decorated with this mysterious symbol, as on the ivory crozier in the British Museum.

These croziers became more and more complicated in design, whole groups of figures were introduced and foliage of a freer pattern, as in the Staff of St. Ives, Bishop of Chartres, which is now in the Bargello at Florence. The Gothic artists of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries filled the volutes with figures and exquisite foliage, the groups of the Crucifixion and the Virgin in glory fitting back to back so accurately, that each side appeared perfect, and the join of the ivory volute on to the wooden staff was often hidden by a row of saints under delicate Gothic canopies.

The book cover of the Princess Melisanda, daughter of Baldwin II., King of Jerusalem (✝1160), is preserved in the MS. Department of the British Museum; it is especially interesting as it shows the curious mixture of Byzantine, Arabian, and Western art which had been adopted by the Frankish rulers of the East, and which must have had considerable influence on French art. The upper panel is ornamented with representations of the six good actions, the principal actor being richly apparelled as a Byzantine _basileus_. These medallions are surrounded by a cord-like scroll, and the spaces are filled with struggling oriental animals, which symbolize the combat of the Virtues and Vices. On the lower leaf the medallions contain scenes from the life of King David and both panels are surrounded by a border of thoroughly oriental design.

Before entering on the subject of Gothic carvings, one class of bone caskets should be mentioned which are roughly carved in imitation of the Romanesque monumental style, with rows of tall figures under round arcades. Molinier thinks they are rather archaistic than archaic, being made in Constantinople as late as the thirteenth century, from old models, and sold to contain the relics brought back from the East by the Crusaders.

There are examples in the Berlin Museum, the Louvre, and the Musée Cluny; the latter contained the relics of St. Barnaby, and was the gift of Hugh, Abbot d’Estival and Bishop of Ptolemaïs in the thirteenth century.

The stages of development from the Romanesque to Gothic are almost imperceptible, and it is hard to say when the lingering classical traditions received their final transformation. The same breath which awakened the life in architecture freed the sculptor from the chains of custom, and we may consider the statues on the porch at Chartres as the commencement of modern sculpture. Like the Greeks, the Gothic artists formed a type by the process of selection from individuals. The new art was at first absolutely religious and simple, but the research for grace and the ever growing naturalism, mitigated, it is true, by extreme elegance and delicacy, gradually engrossed the entire mind of the artist and ended in the exclusion of all spirituality.

The ivory carvers long continued repeating the old formulæ, and it was only by the end of the thirteenth century that they commenced to copy the exquisite statues which decorated the new cathedrals in such numbers.

There are several examples of thirteenth century work still extremely old-fashioned in style, as the three little pierced plaques in the Louvre, representing the twelve apostles, accompanied by the favourite French saints, Denis, Rusticus and Eleutherius. The style is still transitional, but the forms of the foliage are freer, and a considerable modification of type is visible. The Virgin in the Collection Fillon is seated full face with the Child sitting equally on both knees, the stiffness of the pose being only relieved by a little freedom in the turn of the Child’s head.

The marvellous impulse of religious enthusiasm, which, arising in the thirteenth century, became evident by the passionate fervour of the worship of the Virgin, and the multiplication of her images for public and private devotion. One of the most ideally noble representations is that in the group of _The Coronation of the Virgin_ in the Louvre, (Fig. 28); it closely resembles the best sculpture in its severe lines, and was probably made about 1280. A hundred years later there is an entry in the Inventory of Charles V. which most probably refers to this group; it reads most quaintly in the old French. “_Item, ung courronnement de Nostre Seigneur à Nostre-Dame, d’yvire et trois angellotz de mesmes._”

The earlier ivories were always painted, and much of the original colouring is preserved. The Virgin is dressed in rich robes, _semées de France_ (as much in honour of the Royal House as of her attribute the “lily”), but she is utterly unconscious of self as she humbly bows her head to receive the crown. The two little ecstatic angels form a part of every group of the Glorification of the Virgin, either bearing tall candles, or with their hands raised in adoration.

There is hardly fifty years between this purely idealistic conception and the beautiful, but completely mundane _Vierge de la Sainte Chapelle_ in the same collection. This magnificent figure is carved from one huge piece of ivory, and was probably the gift of St. Louis to his new chapel, about 1320. The masterly arrangement of the drapery and the exquisite finish make it one of the most celebrated ivories of the fourteenth century, but the old simplicity is quite gone, and the studied ease of the Virgin’s pose is chosen to give value to every line of drapery and figure. There is a feeling of movement in all her being, which, with the beautiful broken folds of the drapery has within it the germ of that restlessness which, rapidly increasing, became a painful fault in later Gothic sculpture. The colouring is very delicate, the pupils of the eyes are dark; the lips, which are just parting in a rather affected smile, are lightly touched with carmine, and a faint gilded border relieves the edges of the garments. The little seated figure of the Virgin in the Bargello (Fig. 29), is more direct and simple in design, and is probably of the last years of the thirteenth century.

The curve in many of these figures has been put down to the shape of the tusk; this is no doubt the case in many examples, but the peculiar twist is first found in some of the stone figures of the Sainte Chapelle, where it seems to have been introduced as a contrast to the perpendicular shafts of the architecture, and the constant employment of this peculiar twist in the tiny figures of the ivory reliefs and in stone carving, proves it to be more a question of taste than necessity.

In the Paris Exposition of 1900 two lovely ivory figures were placed together and formed a group of the Annunciation. They belong to different private collections,[24] and have been beautifully illustrated in the splendid series of photogravures of the treasures in the _Exposition retrospective de l’Art français_. Whether they are by the hand of the same craftsman seems a matter of doubt, as the technique of the drapery varies somewhat; but nothing can equal the exquisite softness of the Virgin’s robes and the dignified pose, worthy of the best work of the thirteenth century.

The ideal and pathetic group of _The Descent from the Cross_ now in the Louvre (Fig. 30). It is strangely reminiscent in design, recalling the Byzantine rendering of the same subject in an eleventh century ivory, late in the Bonaffé Collection, in which the Virgin raises the hand of Christ to her lips with the same noble and restrained gesture, while His lifeless body slips helplessly down over the shoulder of Joseph of Arimathea. A similar group is sculptured in the Church of Le Bourget in Savoy, which is also useful in giving a clue to the fourth figure, which is evidently missing from the Louvre group.

Maskell, in the introductions to his _Catalogue of Ivories in the Victoria and Albert Museum_, refers to a small carving from the centre of a crozier which represents the Dead Christ on the knees of the Virgin, which is treated with strong but reserved feeling.

The series of religious _tableaux cloans_ are very numerous, especially in the fourteenth century; they consist of two, three or more pieces and were intended for private devotions or as portable decorations for the various altars of a church, being taken with the cross and candles by the acolyte and placed on the altar for mass. The ornamentation was usually in tiers of little scenes, or with one large central figure (Fig. 31). The subjects have little variety and are taken from the Passion or the popular _Légende dorée_. The scenes usually follow in chronological order from the bottom of the left leaf to the corresponding corner on the right. The composition is often very confused, owing to the tendency to portray different stages of the same action in different compartments, to avoid placing figures on a second plane, and often the complicated architectural setting compelled the figures to be placed in contorted attitudes; in many representations of the Crucifixion the figure of Christ is strangely twisted to bring the head on a level with the other figures beneath the arcade.

A fine triptych of the thirteenth century, in the Collection Martin le Roy at Paris, is especially interesting, as it is an early example of the composition of the scenes of _The Death of the Virgin_, as described by Jaques Voragine in the _Légende dorée_, and it shows how the types hardly altered all through the succeeding century. The angel coming to the Virgin to announce her death brings her a palm from Paradise as a sign; the group of men in uneasy attitudes are the apostles newly dropped from the clouds, having been collected from all parts to be present. The lowest scene of the central part is the most important; in it the Virgin is lying dead, surrounded by the apostles, whilst the little naked soul is on the arm of Christ, Who raises His hand to bless the dead body. The whole imagery is the same as on the Byzantine ivory in the Library at Munich. In another part the body is borne away for burial. On the second register the Virgin rises in glory carrying a palm and book and accompanied by the most charming group of music-making angels; above, she sits enthroned beside Christ and attended by the two candle-bearing angels.

The only known signed mediæval ivory is a box in the British Museum which bears the name of _Jehan Nicolle_. In the Inventory of Charles V. the name of one ivory carver has survived, but he was also goldsmith to the king. “_Item, deux grans beaulx tableaux d’yvire des troys Maries que fist Jehan le Braellier, en ung estuy de cuir._” These _estuys de cuir_ were made of very beautiful tooled leather, two fine examples are in the Salting Collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Reference is made to as many as three degrees of ivory carvers in the list of _mestiers and marchandise_ of the town of Paris in 1258.

As the country grew more settled, riches and comfort increased, and once more the ivory carvers turned their attention to ornamenting the little objects of civil life, and we find exquisitely carved writing tablets, caskets and articles for the toilet, as combs, long hair wavers, and above all, the covers for the little metal mirrors that were worn hanging from the girdle. No self-respecting woman could dispense with these little luxuries, and in the lengthy _Miroir de Mariage_ of Eustache Deschamps, one verse deals with the requirements of a wife:

_Pigne, tressoir, semblablement Et miroir, pour moy ordonner D’yvoire me devez donner, Et l’estuy qui soit noble et gent Pendre a cheannes d’argent._

Quite a new range of subjects were introduced at the end of the thirteenth century, and in civil as in religious subjects the compositions were fixed and varied but little afterwards; though we know that about 1340 there was a complete change in dress, and the old-fashioned long loose robes, which fell in such soft folds were discarded for tighter and rather shorter garments; these are sometimes seen in social groups, as the games of _la mourre_ and _la main chaude_ (a sort of forfeits), which are carved on a pair of writing tablets in the Louvre. The subjects are nearly all from literary sources, the miniatures of the MSS. having once more furnished models for the ivory carver. There is a beautiful little casket in the British Museum with scenes from the romance of _La Chastelaine de Vergi_, and the delightful dancing group in the Bargello (Fig. 33) formed part of a similar casket. The rhythmic flow of the soft rich drapery as the dancers move to the sound of music is exceedingly beautiful and the treatment broad, considering that the whole scene is contained in little more than six square inches. The figures are well proportioned, but with hardly any muscular development, and there is an entire absence of manliness in the male figures, who can only be recognized by the arrangement of the hair, the centre lock being cut across the forehead, and by the slightly shorter robes.

Scenes are taken from the _Lai d’Aristote_ and the other so-called classical romances of _Jason_, _Alexander_ and _Virgil_, the latter being described as a mediæval enchanter. Both he and poor Aristotle were most cruelly treated by their mistresses, the dignified Virgil being compelled to crawl on all fours while the lady rides on his back, and Aristotle fared even worse, being suspended in mid-air in a basket. The cycle of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are ever popular themes, especially the scene of _Tristan and Iseult_ surprised by the reflection of King Mark in the fountain. _The Assault of the Castle of Love_ was taken from an allegory in the _Romaunt de la Rose_. The knights ride up to force the gate or scale the battlements and are met with a shower of posies, but the fair garrison makes but a faint show of resistance, and the enemy is soon within.

Four lions or basilisks crawl along the outer edge of these mirrors for convenience in opening the circular cover. There are examples in all collections of these civil ivories, some of a perfectly marvellous delicacy and minuteness, and it is unnecessary to name any special examples, except, perhaps, a fine but broken mirror cover in the Musée de Cluny which is splendidly carved with the figures of a king and queen.

The art of Southern France had a peculiar local style, the figures being heavier and flabbier with little thought of the modelling of forms, which were thickly covered with brilliant paint; there is perhaps a greater freedom in the grouping of the figures.

By the end of the fourteenth century the Franco-Flemish influence appears, and art rapidly lost its delicacy in the attempts at realism.

A magnificent chess-board in the Bargello of the closely allied Burgundian school, is carved with a tourney and other festivities, and gives a good picture of the costumes of the fifteenth century. The beautiful ivory harp in the Louvre, and the prettily carved wand of the Lord High Falconer of England in the Liverpool Museum are some of the latest Gothic efforts before the advent of the Renaissance.

There is little to distinguish German ivories in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from the French; perhaps there is a tendency to greater elaboration in the architecture, and on rare occasions the figures betray the German type; but in the fifteenth century the love of realism gained ground, and the ivory carvers more closely imitated the painters and the rapidly increasing school of wood carving.

The English were also profoundly influenced by the French Gothic art, but gradually worked out a style of their own. There was less monotony of design and a considerable modification of types, the figures becoming thinner and the faces graver, more earnest and sweeter in expression, though, at the same time, more realistic; also there is a variation in certain details of the costumes. Two pierced plaques with scenes from _The Life of St. Agnes_ which were in the Meyrick and Spitzer Collections, and a plaque representing Christ with the apostles, the group being surrounded by rich architecture, and two other pierced plaques with scenes of the Passion, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, seem to be English work. In the Salting Collection, now in the same museum, is a deeply cut diptych of a strongly characteristic type representing the _Virgin and Child_, and _Christ teaching_; the figures are framed in architecture of an English type decorated with small heraldic roses. This diptych formed part of both the Soltykoff and Spitzer Collections.

The triptych in the British Museum (Fig. 36) is closely connected with it, and is said to have been carved for Bishop Grandison of Exeter (1327-1369), but Molinier thinks that the style is far nearer that of the early fifteenth century. In the British Museum there is also the wing of a diptych, in two divisions, with _The Annunciation_, and below, _John Baptist_; the other wing is in the Louvre and represents the _Coronation_, with _John the Evangelist_ in the lower compartment.

Before closing this short survey, one small statuette in the Victoria and Albert Museum should be mentioned, as the sweet and affectionate earnestness of the Virgin’s face is typical of the English ivories, for if far inferior to the French in actual technique, they have a depth of reverent feeling which is too often entirely wanting in the latter.

The Italian ivory workers continued long under the spell of the Byzantines, and when aroused to the fresh ideas of Gothic art, their work at first showed few features that could distinguish it from the French models. Gradually the designs became less concentrated and many differences crept in, especially in the treatment of the conventional foliage. The gorgeously coloured crozier in the Salting Collection is an example of this period; it belonged to Benci Aldobrandini, Bishop of Volterra in 1331. On the top is a half-length figure of Christ between two men; _The Adoration of the Magi_ is figured within the crook, which emerges from the throat of a dragon, and just below, in four highly-painted shrines, sit the Evangelists.

In the late fourteenth century the Italians commenced an entirely original style of carving on narrow strips of bone. The figures with the scenic accessories are closely related to the early schools of painting. These sculptures, unlike the unmixed ivory of the French carvings, were always framed in narrow intarsia borders. Small triptychs (Fig. 37) developed into enormous size, as the great altar-piece in the old Sacristy at the Certosa at Pavia and the famous _retable_ in the Louvre, which comes from the abbey of Poissy, and was the gift of the Due de Berri, brother of Charles V., and one of the regents for the young Charles VI. in 1380. It contains his portrait and that of his wife, Jehanne de Bourgogne. The fragments of a third large _retable_ still exist, divided between the John Rylands Library at Manchester and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

These _retables_ are large in size, but not great in design, and though the groups of figures are lovely in detail, they are not impressive as a whole, the low relief giving little scope for the play of light and shade.

There are many beautiful polygonal caskets with domed covers, also combs and other small articles, and a very excellent account of the whole series has been given by Julius v. Schlosser in the _Wiener Jahrbuch_ for 1900.

This short account of the Ivory Workers of the Middle Ages commenced with Italy in the last years of the fourth century, and, having made the round of Europe, returns to her after a thousand years, at the end of the fourteenth century, and must close, just at the outgoing of the mediæval era, with this magnificent group of carvings, which lies half across the border line of the early and true Renascimento.

FOOTNOTES:

[22] See an article on Croziers by Cahier and Martin, _Mélanges d’Archéologie_, t. iv.

[23] See an article by Barbier de Montault, _Revue de l’Art Chrétien_, 1883, p. 157.

[24] The Angel belongs to M. G. Chalandon and the Virgin to M. P. Garnier.

LIST OF DIPTYCHS

FROM MOLINIER

CONSULAR

1. About 400. [Probably] STILICHO. _a._ Stilicho, standing, armed, bearded. _b._ Serena and little Eucherius, standing. _Tesorio della Basilica, Monza._

2. 406. PROBUS. Rome. _a._ Emperor Honorius, standing, armed, with standard and orb. _b._ Emperor Honorius, standing, armed, with shield and spear. _Cathedral Treasury, Aosta._

3. 428. FELIX. Rome. _a._ Standing in trabea, bearded. _b._ Standing in chlamys. _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

4. 449. ASTURIAS. Rome. _a._ Sitting on curule chair, two attendants (lost). _b._ Same type (formerly at Liège). _Darmstadt Museum._

5. 487. BOETHIUS. Rome. _a._ Sitting, holding _mappa_. _b._ Standing. _Museo Civico, Brescia._

6. 488. SIVIDIUS. Rome. _a._ Inscribed medallion and scrolls. _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._ _b._ Inscribed medallion and scrolls (lost).

7. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ Consular type. Lions. _b._ Cons. type. Bears. _National Museum, Zurich._

8. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ Cons. type. Bears (Basilewsky Coll.). _Museum of the Hermitage, St. Petersburg._ _b._ (Lost.)

9. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ Cons. type. Gladiators. _b._ (Lost, or possibly pair to No. 10.) _Besançon Museum._

10. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ (Lost or possibly pair to No. 9.) _b._ Cons. type. Bull-fight (late Baudot Coll.). _Musée de Cluny, Paris._

11. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Crossed cornucopias. _Biblioteca, Lucca._

12. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Bust and scroll. Monogram. _Trivulzio Collection, Milan._

13. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ Same as No. 12. (Renaissance carving on back.) _Louvre, Paris._

14. 506. AREOBINDUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Type of No. 12, without monogram (formerly in Treasury of St. Gaudenzio, Novara). _Museo Civico, Bologna._

15. 513. CLEMENTINUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Cons. type. Monogram. _Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum._

16. 515. ANTHEMIUS. Constantinople. _a._ Cons. type (lost). (_Formerly at Limoges._)

17. 517. ANASTASIUS. Constantinople. _a._ Cons. type. Bears. _b._ Cons. type. Manumission of slaves, etc. _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

18. 517. ANASTASIUS. Constantinople. _a._ Cons. type (formerly at Liège). _Berlin Museum._ _b._ Cons. type (broken), (formerly at Liège). _Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London._

19. 517. ANASTASIUS. Constantinople. _b._ Type of No. 18. Two Amazons and jugglers. _Chapter Library, Verona._

20. 517. ANASTASIUS. Constantinople. _b._ Lower fragment, two Amazons and tumblers. (_Formerly Coll. Jauzé, lost._)

21. 518. MAGNUS. Constantinople. _a._ Cons. type (formerly at Leyden). _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

22. 518. MAGNUS. Constantinople (attributed to). _a._ Type of No. 21 (camel bone). Re-inscribed PIO PRAESULE BALDRICO IUBENTE. _Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum._

23. 518. MAGNUS. Constantinople (attributed to). _a._ Type of No. 21. Re-inscribed ARABONTI DEO VOTA (formerly Basilewsky Coll.). _Hermitage, St. Petersburg._

24. 518. MAGNUS. Constantinople (attributed to). _a._ Type of No. 21. Changed to wrinkled old man. _Museo di Castello, Milan._

26. 521. JUSTINIANUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Inscribed medallion, four rosettes. _Trivulzio Collection, Milan._

27. 521. JUSTINIANUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Type of No. 26. _Collection Sigismond Bordac._

28. 521. JUSTINIANUS. Constantinople. _a._ Type of No. 26 (formerly at Autun). _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

29. 525. PHILOXENUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Three linked medallions (formerly in St. Corneille, Compiègne). _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

30. 525. PHILOXENUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Inscribed octagon with scrolls. _Trivulzio Collection, Milan._

31. 525. PHILOXENUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Type of No. 30. _Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum._

32. 525. PHILOXENUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Type of No. 30 (worn). _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

33. [530?] LAMPADIUS. Constantinople. Consul behind _cancelli_. Chariot Race. _Museo Civico, Brescia._

34. 530. ORESTES. Rome. _a._ and _b._ Cons. type. Two Servants. _Victoria and Albert Museum, London._

35. 539. ARION. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Bust and scrolls. _Chapter House of Orviedo Cathedral, Spain._

36. 540. JUSTINUS. Constantinople. _a._ and _b._ Bust and scrolls. Three medallions. Two servants. _Berlin Museum._

37. 541. BASILIUS. Constantinople. _a._ Consul and Constantinople. _Castello, Milan._ _b._ Victory. _Uffizi, Florence._

ANONYMOUS CONSULAR DIPTYCHS

38. V. cent. _a._ Consul and friends; above, imperial figures enthroned; below, barbarians. _b._ Repeated with variations. _Cathedral Treasury, Halberstadt._

39. V.-VI. cent. _a._ Consul and two attendants. Below, large scene, leopard fight. _b._ Consul and two attendants. Below, large scene, lions (formerly in Cathedral Treasury). _Bourges Museum._

40. V.-VI. cent. So-called Apotheosis of Romulus. Consul borne to Heaven in chariot. _British Museum._

41. VI. cent. _b._ Bust in garland, four rosettes. _Biblioteca Barbarini, Rome._

42. VI. cent. Two worn fragments of a diptych. Cons. type. (Later carving on back.) _Victoria and Albert Museum._ _British Museum._

43. VI. cent. Bust and scrolls. Type of No. 12. Camel bone. _Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum._

44. VI. cent. _a._ Cons. type, sitting. _b._ Cons. type, standing. Changed to St. Gregory and King David. _Tesorio della Basilica, Monza._

45. VI. cent. Cons. type, changed to St. Peter. _Library of the Metropolitan Chapter House, Prague._

46, 47, 48, 49. VI. cent. Five-piece diptych. (46) Top. Flying figures. (47) Bottom. Barbarians. _Trivulzio Collection, Milan._ (48) Top. Flying figures. _Basle Museum._ (49) Right side. Consul and Victory. _Munich Library._

OFFICIAL DIPTYCHS

50. End of IV. or commencement of V. cent. _Probianus._ Vice-prefect of Rome. _a._ Sitting, delivering justice. Below, two litigants. _b._ Sitting with scroll. Below, two litigants. _Berlin Library._

51. V.-VI. cent. Above, type of No. 33. Below, fight with elans. _Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum._

52. V.-VI. cent. _a._ and _b._ Games in Circus (varied), (formerly in Basilewsky Coll.). _Hermitage, St. Petersburg._

53. VI. cent. _a._ Rome carrying orb and spear. _b._ Constantinople carrying cornucopia and palm. Later inscription _Temperancia_ and _Castitas_. _Cabinet of Antiquities, Vienna Museum._

54. VI. cent. _a._ A bald man standing half under a porch. _b._ Slightly varied pose. _Cathedral Treasury, Novara._

55. VI. cent. Standing figure. _Museo Civico, Bologna._

56. VI. cent. Muse, standing (broken, found at Trèves). _Berlin Museum._ 57. VI. cent. (?) _a._ Figure, sitting. _Cabinet of Antiquities, Vienna._ _b._ Figure, standing. _Bargello, Florence._

PRIVATE DIPTYCHS

58. End of IV. or commencement of V. cent. _a._ Nicomachorum. Draped figure and torch. _Musée de Cluny, Paris._ _b._ Symmachorum. Draped figure and altar. _Victoria and Albert Museum, London._

59. V.-VI. cent. _a._ Hippolytus and Phædra. _b._ Diana and Endymion. _Museo Civico, Brescia._

60. VI. cent. Two registers. Dioscuri. Europa and the Bull. _Trieste Museum._

61. VI. cent. _a._ Æsculapius. _b._ Hygeia. _Mayer Collection, Liverpool._

62. VI. cent. _a._ Muse with lyre. _b._ Poet. _Tesorio della Basilica, Monza._

63. VI. cent. _a._ and _b._ Authors and Muses, varied poses.

64. VI. cent. _a._ Bacchus Helios. _b._ Diana Lucifera (formerly in the Cathedral Treasury). _Sens Museum._

65. VI. cent. Three registers. Apollo and the Muses (broken). _Bibliothèque nationale, Paris._

LIST OF MUSEUMS

The following Museums are richest in Mediæval Ivory Carving.

_Austria._ VIENNA. (Cabinet des Antiques), K. K. Oesterreichisches Museum.

_England._ LONDON. British Museum. Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. (This museum has a large collection of Fictile Ivories.) Salting Loan Collection. LIVERPOOL. Mayer Collection. Free Public Museum. MANCHESTER. John Rylands Library. (Late Crawford Collection.) OXFORD. Bodleian Library.

_France._ PARIS. Bibliothèque nationale Cabinet des Médailles. Département des MSS. Musée de Cluny. Musée du Louvre.

_German Empire._ BERLIN. Kunstkammer. K. Museum. K. Bibliothek. MUNICH. K. Staats-Bibliothek. National Bavarian Museum.

_Italy._ BOLOGNA. Museo Civico. BRESCIA. Museo Civico. FLORENCE. Museo nazionale. Bargello. MILAN. Museo archeologico. Castello. Tesorio del Duomo. MONZA. Tesorio della Basilica. RAVENNA. Museo Civico. Duomo. ROME. Biblioteca Barbarini. Museo Kircheriano (Collegio Romano). Vatican. Museo cristiano. Biblioteca.

For the study of Ivory Carvings M. Molinier gives a full bibliography in his work on _Ivoires_.

For illustrations. Garucci, vol. vi. and the Collections of Photographs published by Dr. Graeven.

Fictile Ivories for sale, see Oldfield’s Catalogue.

INDEX

Abraxas, 133. Aix-la-Chapelle, Cathedral, 128. Aldobrandini, Benci, Bishop of Volterra, crozier of, 152. Amalasuntha, 7, 30, 31. Anagni, silver casket at, 80. Anastasius, diptych of, 24. Areobindus, diptychs of, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 40. Asturias, diptych of, 13.

Bamberg Missal, 88; reliquary, 118, 119. Basil II., the Emperor, 95. Basilewsky tablet, 18. Basilius, diptych of, 18, 19, 20. Bateman diptych, 67. Berlin, Museum, 49, 66, 75, 117, 119, 121, 134. Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim, 124, 125, 128. Besançon, 18. Boethius, diptych of, 13. Bologna, Museo Civico, 37, 78, 97. Bonaffé Collection, 140. Book covers, 10, 25, 26, 52-57, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 118, 121, 123, 125, 134. Bourges, 22, 29, 40. Brescia, 21, 32, 34, 39, 42, 43, 48, 78. Brunswick, 117, 119. Brussels, Royal Art Museum, 38 _n._

Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, 44. Carrand diptych, 39-42. Caskets, Byzantine, 75-84; Anglo-Saxon, 100; Carlovingian, 119, 120; Romanesque, 134; Gothic, 146, 147. Chalandon, M., 140. Charlemagne, 106. Charles V., inventory of, 136, 144. Chessboard, 150. Chessmen, 103, 104. Christ, representation of, in early times, 50, 51. Cividale, 78. Clementinus, diptych of, 36. Clovis, 22. Cologne, Museum, 127. Combs, ceremonial, 126, 127. Constantine the Great, the Emperor, 27. Constantine V., the Emperor, 71. Constantine VI., the Emperor, 71. Constantine VII., the Emperor, 84. Consular diptychs, 3, _et seq._ Cortona Reliquary, 85, 92. Croziers, 131-133, 142, 152.

Darmstadt, 120. Dresden, 80, 88.

Echternach codex, 121. Essen, 118. Etschmiadzin book cover, 52, 55.

Felix, diptych of, 13. Florence, Bargello, 22, 27, 39-42, 49, 64, 74, 76, 82, 88, 89, 90, 117, 133, 138, 139, 147, 150. Frankfort, 116.

Garnier, M., 140. Gérard, Bishop of Limoges, 132. Gotfredus, Archbishop of Milan, 127. Grandison, Bishop, triptych of, 152, 153. Gregory the Great, Pope, 10.

Hadrian, Pope, 36. Halberstadt, Cathedral, 21. Hanover, Provincial Museum, 90. Harbaville triptych, 85, 86, 87, 90, 92. Heraklius, the Emperor, 66, 67. Honorius, the Emperor, 5, 12, 13, 18.

Iconoclasm of the Emperors, 70-75. Irene, the Empress, 29, 71, 72, 74.

Justinian, the Emperor, 6, 7, 18, 20, 28.

Lampadius, tablet of, 21, 22. Le Bourget, Church, 140. Leo III., the Emperor, 70, 71. Leo VI., the Emperor, 75. Liège, Episcopal Museum, 90. Lipsanoteca, the, 42. Liverpool Museum, 17, 20, 21, 33, 36, 58, 92, 121, 145, 149, 150. London, British Museum, 5, 23, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 55, 64, 67, 68, 75, 78, 100, 102, 103, 110, 120, 127, 128, 131, 133, 134, 144, 147, 152, 153. —— Victoria and Albert Museum, 12, 32, 35, 48, 56, 68, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 98, 101, 102, 103, 115, 125, 131, 142, 143, 144, 151, 152, 154, 155. Lorsch, Abbey of, 125.

Manchester, John Rylands Library, 122, 123, 154. Maximian, the Throne of, 49, 52, 54, 58-67, 92. Melisanda, Princess, 134. Metz, Cathedral, 55, 114. Meyrick Collection, 151. Milan, Castello, 67. —— Cathedral, 56, 58, 127. —— Trivulzio Collection, 25, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 58, 68, 91, 118, 124. Mirror covers, 148, 149. Monza, Basilica at, 10, 22, 24, 31, 33, 99, 114. Mopsuete, Council of, 35. Morard, Abbot, 132. Munich, Library, 26, 118, 119, 144. —— Museum, 48, 58.

Nancy, Cathedral, 127. Nicephorus Phocas, 85, 95. Nicolle, Jehan, 144. Nicomachi and Symmachi, diptych of the, 12, 35, 45.

Oliphants, 73, 74. Orestes, diptych of, 6, 7, 14, 16, 17, 22, 31. Otto the Great, the Emperor, 118. Otto II., the Emperor, 124. Otto III., the Emperor, 65 _n._, 124. Oxford, Bodleian, 126.

Paris, Louvre, 40, 45 _n._, 69, 75, 87, 90, 110, 119, 134, 135-141, 150, 152, 154. Paris Bibliothèque nationale, 13, 20, 34, 52, 55, 57, 92, 93, 110, 115. —— Musée de Cluny, 12, 32, 49, 51, 76, 83, 114, 118, 122, 134, 149. —— Collection Martin le Roy, 142. Pavia, Certosa, 154. Philoxenus, diptych of, 20. Pirano casket, 78. Poissy, Abbey of, 154. Prague, 25. Probianus, diptych of, 7, 8, 45, 49, 55, 110. Probus, diptych of, 8, 9, 12. Pyxes, 48-51.

Quedlinburg, 120. Quirinalis diptychon, 32.

Rambona, diptych of, 97. Ravenna, 4, 13, 26, 27, 28, 50, 52, 53, 58-67, 74. Romanus and Eudoxia, 13, 92, 93. Rome, Barbarini Library, 20, 27. —— Kircherian Museum, 28, 81, 82. —— Monastery of St. Gregory, 132. —— St. Peter’s, the Throne of St. Peter, 83. —— Count Stroganoff, 62, 90, 92. —— Vatican, 97, 125, 126. Romulus, the Apotheosis of, 23. Rouen Cathedral, Ivory Book of, 37, 38.

St. Barnaby, relics of, 135. St. Caletricus, Bishop of Chartres, 99. St. Columba, 105. St. Columbanus, 105. St. Gall, monastery of, 105, 111, 112, 113, 114, 117, 130. St. Gauzelin, comb of, 127. St. Gregory and King David, 22, 24, 25, 31. St. Gregory, crozier of, 132. St. Heribert, comb of, 127. St. Ives, Bishop of Chartres, 133. St. Loup, comb of, 127. St. Lupicien, Ivory Book of, 50, 52, 54. St. Nicasius, diptych of, 130. St. Petersburg, 18, 114, 128. Salerno, Cathedral, 98. Salting Collection, 144, 151, 152. Sens, Cathedral, 127. Sividius, diptych of, 14. Soltykoff Collection, 152. Spitzer Collection, 116, 151, 152. Stilicho, diptych of, 11, 12. Symmachus, 6. Symmachi, diptych of the, 12, 32, 48.

Telemachus, 18. Theodolinda, Queen, 10, 99. Theodora, the Empress, 72. Theodosius I., the Emperor, 3, 5, 21. Theophano, the Empress, 121, 122, 124. Theophilus, the Emperor, 72. Tongres, Cathedral, 38, 67, 118. Tournai, Cathedral, 130. Trèves, Cathedral, 68, 69. Troyes, Cathedral, 84. Tuotilo, 111, 112.

_Urcei_, 127, 128. Utrecht, Episcopal Museum, 90.

Venice, Doge’s Palace, 90. Veroli casket, 76, 77, 78, 82. Vienna, Museum, 27, 28, 74, 78, 90. Volterra casket, 76, 83.

Werden, casket of, 56.

Zurich, 33, 108, 109.

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