Part 7
To these details, we will add our own personal observations. We may say that the navigation of the Red Sea is always easy, from the straits to Raz Mohammed, because there are no rocks in the middle of the gulf, and it being always possible to beat when the monsoon is not favourable, and if some danger is to be feared at Raz Mohammed, from whirlwinds, currents and rocks, they will disappear as soon as a good lighthouse is erected, and a station of steam tugs established to assist vessels against the contrary winds.
Sailing may then be said to have attained the limit of its advantages, for it will profit by favourable winds to perform the transport service with economy; and in those parts of the passage where difficulties are to be encountered, steam will come in aid, by which danger and loss of time will be avoided.
Another objection which has been raised against the direct canal is, that being cut through moving downs, it will soon be encumbered by them, and that the expense of keeping it in order, will consequently be so great, that it will be necessary to abandon it, if it ever be undertaken.
To refute this objection we will recapitulate the facts in their actual integrity.
From Suez to the extremity of the Bitter Lakes, the soil is, it is true, sandy at the surface, but however sandy it may be, the winds do not produce any modification in the superficial state of this part of the Isthmus.
This is to be accounted for by the fine sand being kept moist by the sea water, which reaches the surface by percolation and capillary attraction; the sand, which is out of reach of the moisture, is coarse sand, or rather small gravel, bound together by magnesian earth, in such a manner that the wind has no effect upon it. So true is this, that at several places in this desert we found, in December, 1854, the traces left by the tents of the engineers who were employed there in 1847.
The best proof that can be given of the stability of the soil in this part of the desert is the situation of the banks of the ancient canal, which still remain all along, as far as the Bitter Lakes. The torrents of rain which sometimes fall in this locality, may well, in 1200 years, have worn ravines in these banks, and partly filled the canal. In some parts even, the banks have been carried away by sudden torrents, but nowhere are they buried by the sand. Vestiges of antiquity, two or three thousand years old, may still be seen at the surface of the soil on the very line through which the canal is to pass. It is only on approaching Lake Timsah that moveable downs are met with, which surround and cut it in several places, changing their shape rather than their position; all the other downs which are met with in the form of chains of hillocks, and which occupy the space comprised between the bar of El Guisr and Pelusium, have long been naturally fixed by various plants, which have sprung up there under the influence of heat and moisture. It is, then, only the downs in the vicinity of Lake Timsah which require to be fixed artificially. Now, the fixing of downs has already become a special branch of industry presenting great advantages. The hills of sand which devastated the _Landes_ of Bordeaux, and advanced every year into the interior of the country, rendering it barren, are now transformed into magnificent pine forests, which yield turpentine, pitch, various kinds of resin and timber.
This change, or rather this miracle, was effected by the simplest means. After an attentive examination of the facts, M. Bremontier, engineer-general, to whom we are indebted for the fixing of the downs, had observed that, in digging at the summit of the most elevated downs, the sand was moist at a few _centimetres_ from the surface.
Struck by this circumstance, he saw at once that vegetation would be possible, if the sand could be prevented from being displaced by the wind. He consequently imagined various means of obtaining this result, and his efforts were crowned with complete success. He sowed on several downs the seeds of the maritime pine, which have now become magnificent forests.
After being assured, by long experience, of the advantages which might be derived from the fixing of the downs, M. Bremontier addressed a report to the Government of the Republic, in which are found the following valuations:—
“The surface of the downs, which form the _Landes_ of Bordeaux,” says he, “being equal to 337,000 _Bordeaux journaux_, of 840 _square toises_, the amount required to fix the whole of these downs would be 8,000,000 _livres_. Now, a _journal_ (0 _hect._, 33) of sand planted with pines, gives an annual return of fifteen _livres_, that of 337,000 _journaux_ would therefore be of 5,055,000 _livres_. It is supposed here that the _Journal_ planted with pines only yields three quintals of resin, and the price may be taken at five francs the quintal; but the plantations, at the end of seven or eight years, will produce an immense quantity of combustibles, and afterwards charcoal, boards, timber for building, and finally tar. It is true that the pines are not of full value until twenty or twenty-five years after planting; there will be, however, an interest of twelve and a half per cent. as a deduction from all expenses.”
Much more simple means are employed at present, to fix the downs by sowing, for it is mostly considered sufficient to plant branches of broom, furze, or pine in quincunx upon the down to be sown and to scatter various seeds broadcast, and cover them lightly with a rake. These are called _tufted seed plots_. The expense of a _hectare_ is 66 _fr._, 80, which is made up as follows, as appears from the accounts kept by the engineers entrusted with these works:—
460 faggots at _fr._ 2,50 per C. _fr._ 11,50 16 _Kilos._ pine seeds 0,45 7,20 2 rush 2,50 5,00 2 furze 0,25 0,50 6 hay 0,10 0,60 Labour 1 day, 90. for a gang 22,10 41,99 ----- Cost of 1 hectare _fr._ 66,79
The gang is composed of—
A Foreman _fr._ 2,00 _fr._ 2,00 6 Workmen 1,25 7,50 12 Women 0,75 9,00 6 Children 0,60 3,60 ----- Total _per diem_ _fr._ 22,10
At the eighth year they begin to yield interest on the capital and cost of keeping up (which is almost nothing), from the combustible that is obtained by removing the surplus, from making charcoal, &c. &c. At twenty years they begin to extract resin from the trees, at thirty years the produce is most abundant, and continues up to eighty years, when the wood is fit for building purposes. Then new seed plots are formed in proportion as the old trees are removed.
The annual produce of resin gathered from a _hectare_ of pines is an average of five _metric quintals_, which, at the rate of twenty-two _francs_ per quintal, gives a revenue of 110 _francs_, and represents at least seventy per cent. of the capital employed.
It will be seen by this statement, that the fixing of the downs has become one of the most productive operations of Silviculture, and that it offers one of the most advantageous investments for capital.
It was therefore necessary for us to know, whether the downs which cover the northern part of the Isthmus could be fixed by the same process. Now, we have ascertained, 1st. That the greater part of these downs are naturally fixed by a multitude of different plants, which have found sufficient moisture for their support; 2nd. That the moveable downs of the basin of Lake Timsah conceal moisture at a very little depth below their surface; they may, therefore, be fixed by seed plots, and to do it there is the immense quantity of bushes and shrubs which grow in the low parts surrounding the lake, and which give to that region the appearance of a copse.
Not only will sufficient branches be found on the spot for the tufted seed plots, but moreover, all the combustibles for the lime, and for the wants of the workmen, will be furnished abundantly.
It is true, that at the time we made our observations (January, 1855), tolerably abundant rains had recently moistened the soil; the success of the seed-plots, which would be destitute of moisture for the rest of the year, might therefore be doubted; but what is there to prevent the moist season being chosen for making these plots? and the seed once risen, the abundant moisture which is felt in this region, especially during the summer nights, will suffice to support vegetation, as is seen by the downs fixed naturally. Finally, to remove all objections, the fresh water canal which will end at Lake Timsah, will supply, if required, the means of affording, during the early days of the seed-plots, sufficient moisture for the success of the undertaking.
There is no possible doubt then as to the success which will be obtained in the fixing of the moveable downs, nor as to the pecuniary advantages which result from it, for the maritime pine answers well in Egypt, and other kinds of trees may be found still more productive. The cost of sowing will be less than in France, on account of the low price of labour, and the profits will be more considerable and more quickly obtained, on account of the hotter climate, and the consumption on the spot of all produce now wanting, and which is obliged to be procured from a distance.
We estimate the superfice of the downs to be fixed in this part of the Isthmus at about 2000 _hectares_, but if seed-plots and replantations were made upon all the downs naturally fixed, 100,000 _hectares_ of forest might thus be formed. It is for the Company to decide what extent of country it will be suitable to cultivate in this way. A final objection has been made to the Canal by assuming that steam navigation, by the agitation of the water which it produces, would quickly destroy the banks of the Canal,—banks formed in a moveable soil which would fill up the trough.
To guard against this inconvenience, which might, in fact, be apprehended, we have adopted very gentle slopes (two on the base line to one in height); then we have covered these slopes with stones for the whole height on which the agitation caused by the passage of steam-vessels could be felt. We have in our favour the example of the Caledonian Canal, thus furnished with a covering of stones formed of simple materials. This is what M. Flachat says, in the description that he gives of this Canal, according to the reports of the Commissioners of the House of Commons: “Steam navigation especially demands attention. Difficult, perhaps even impossible, upon ordinary canals, where it causes an agitation which rapidly destroys the banks, it is organized on the Caledonian Canal, and presents nothing but advantages. With a speed of 11,000 to 12,000 _met._ per hour, all that has been observed is _a general plashing, which is not more than that produced by a moderately gentle wind_. The only precaution taken was, to collect on the banks and made ground all the large pebbles with which the land is filled, and to cover with them for a foot in height below the line of the water, the banks which, from the coarse composition of the soil, were too easily disturbed by the agitation of the waves. But wherever the ground had a good proportion of sand, there was nothing to be done.” Finally, it has been assumed, that the Government of Great Britain, yielding to a national prejudice, would put obstacles in the way of the project of cutting through the Isthmus, if it should be ascertained to be feasible, and that the English capitalists would not be disposed to concur in the undertaking. The future alone can show what truth there is in this assumption; we cannot at all conceive the opposition of the Government of a great nation to a project to which the English have especially, in these latter times, drawn the attention of the commercial world and their own Government on account of the special advantages which it offers to England. We have already referred to the writings of the traveller Bruce and those of Captain Rooke. We will now cite other names.
Captain James Vetch, of the corps of Royal Engineers, author of a very remarkable pamphlet published in London in 1843, and Mr. Clarkson, Civil Engineer, propose to trace the Canal in a single straight line from Suez to Tineh.
The editor of the Engineers’ and Architects’ journal (1844) in giving an account of the labours of these engineers, adopts in starting from Suez, the line of the ancient canal as far as the Bitter Lakes, and from the head of these lakes at Katieh he takes the direction of the Mediterranean in passing by the great lake Sulak el Bardoil.
The author adds, “It is hardly reasonable to reckon upon a union of the European powers to effect an undertaking in which England has such a preponderating interest, in the point of view of our domination in India. It is true that all the Nations bordering on the Mediterranean would find large profit therein, but much inferior however to ours.”
The Foreign Quarterly Review, one of the most esteemed periodicals of England, in an article where it treats of the cutting of the Isthmus, says that—“the expense compared with the grandeur of the result is so trivial, that it is astonishing that the thing has not yet been done, either by a company or by the Viceroy. The advantages of this undertaking would be immense; for, independently of the great commerce which would be done there, independently of the opening of Abyssinia and of the interior of Africa to the arts and civilization, the Red Sea abounds in natural riches, and the fishermen of the Mediterranean would transport themselves thither in crowds in pursuit of pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, sponges (the finest in the world), coral, fish oils, &c. &c.”
Mr. Anderson in his pamphlet already quoted, says: “In a political point of view, the advantages which the English Government will derive from the Canal are almost incalculable. From Malta troops could be transported to Bombay in three weeks, to Ceylon and Madras in four weeks, and to Calcutta in thirty-five days at most, instead of the four or five months now required by a sailing vessel. Under such circumstances it would require scarcely half the number of English troops for the efficient government of India. The facility for despatching ships of war with munitions and men would thus increase the stability of the British power, while the cost would be considerably diminished.”
“In a commercial point of view, the advantages would be still more considerable: British India contains a population of 150,000,000, including, with the subjects of the British Crown, its allies and tributaries. China does not contain less than 350,000,000 of inhabitants: to say nothing of the other rich and populous countries of the East. Let us suppose that in consequence of the progress and developement of commerce, each Indian and Chinese should augment his outlay in the purchase of English produce by one shilling; this modification alone, insignificant as it appears, would augment the amount of exports by 25,000,000. Now is it not evident that the opening of the Maritime Canal will greatly facilitate commercial relations, and tend to lower the price of all merchandize? the 500,000,000 of human beings peopling India and China are still sunk in ignorance and superstition. With steam navigation, which will be developed beyond all conception by the opening of the Canal, these people, brought into daily communication with European ideas, will enter by degrees into the current of science and civilization.”
We will terminate these quotations by an extract from a very remarkable work published in the “Papers for the People,” inserted in the _Revue Britannique_ (for 1852), and in which the cutting through the Isthmus is regarded as a practical solution of the maintenance of the British power in India. We read there:—“If in spite of the concourse of several adverse circumstances, we firmly believe that our country will be able to effect the union of the two Seas, it is because this measure will soon become imperiously necessary for the maintenance of our empire ... all nations would find immense advantage in the creation of a new route opened to navigation; this evident advantage, offered to the European states nearer to Africa, has even been seriously adduced as a fit argument to divert England from an enterprise, the result of which might be problematical. We encounter here one of the old distrusts of that worn-out theory, that miserable tissue of mistakes that took upon itself to teach, that a people is only rich and flourishing in proportion as its neighbours are indigent and unfortunate. Doubtless the countries of Europe nearest to the East will derive a considerable profit from the opening of the Isthmus of Suez, but our egotism ought to find therein a motive for satisfaction; for we cannot be ignorant of the fact, that the developement of commerce, whatever the means employed, always ends by bringing the better part of the profits to the most intelligent and most numerous firms. For our own part, such is our belief. England, and more than one other nation by its example, appear to us called to great works which will throw into shade the most striking deeds of history. Among these works of the future, it appears to us that the cutting through the Isthmuses of Panama and Suez stand in the first rank, and which multiplying and strengthening the ties by which people of all climates, of all races, of all beliefs are united to Great Britain, will connect for ever the general prosperity of nations with the happiness of our country, their security with its power, their independence with its liberty.”
We believe we have abundantly proved the possibility of constructing the Maritime Canal with its two entrances, one from the Mediterranean, the other from the Red Sea, and its interior harbour at Lake Timsah. The facilities and advantages which it offers to commerce and navigation as well as to Egypt can no longer be a matter of doubt, and let us say with the illustrious author of the memorial upon the Nicaragua Canal:—“Think of the almost miraculous effects which will be produced by the annual passage across this fine country of 2 to 3000 vessels, which would exchange their productions for those of the East, and cause life and riches to circulate everywhere. We may picture to ourselves those shores, now so solitary, peopled with towns and villages; those lakes now gloomy and silent, furrowed by ships; those rugged lands fertilised, and the interior canal carrying the benefits of civilization into the heart of the country.”
It only now remains to enter upon the financial and economical considerations of the undertaking; but before approaching this part of the question, it is necessary to complete the exposition of the scheme by describing the canal of communication and irrigation which will connect the interior of Egypt with the Maritime Canal.
This Canal must fulfil three conditions.
It should be of a section sufficiently large to admit the craft and steam boats that navigate the Nile, in order to allow access to the interior harbour from all points of Egypt without the inconvenience of trans-shipment. The volume of water to be supplied to the Canal should be sufficient, after allowing for all losses by evaporation, infiltration, and the passage of the locks, for the irrigation of 100,000 _feddans_ (40,000 _hectares_) during the winter, and 60,000 _feddans_ (24,000 _hectares_) during the summer. Lastly, the level of the water ought to be maintained at the most favourable height for the natural irrigation of the immense tracts of land in the Isthmus which now remain barren for want of water.
To fulfil these conditions, the receipt of water for the alimentary and irrigating Canal may be established a little above Boulak at Kusr el Nil where the mouth of the Kalidj Zafranieh is, which loses itself to the north of Cairo in the Kalidj Manjeh, the ancient canal of Trajan and Amrou; this canal was partly re-excavated by Mehemet Ali to nearly the same dimensions as those required for the new Canal, and as far as Tell el Zoudieh. By following this track a great economy is already obtained. The Canal also exists farther on as far as Belbeïs, but of smaller dimensions; from Belbeïs, in order to maintain the water at a suitable height, the Canal is made to pass a little more to the East outside the cultivated lands, which will give the Company an opportunity of irrigating and fertilising the bordering tracts at present uncultivated. The canal then proceeds northward as far as _Ras el Wady_ (head of the valley), the Pitoum of the Bible. This course exists of small dimensions, but in several parts of its route it may be turned to account. There will not be great expense in completing the line as far as Lake Timsah; life would thus be given to Cairo by traversing it with a navigable passage, of which it is destitute at present. It would then be necessary, during the time of the low water, to raise the waters of the Nile to a height of three _metres_ by means of steam pumps of 500 horse power; and when the barrage, for which His Highness Mohammed Saïd Pacha has a project, is completed, the reflux will facilitate, with the assistance of steam power, the introduction of the waters of the Nile into the Canal during the six months of the low waters.
The width of the Canal has been fixed at 25 _met._, measured on the water line at the time of the inundation. This width is sufficient to allow two steam boats to pass each other without inconvenience. Moreover, precautionary measures may be adopted at the entrances of the locks, to prevent collisions, if it should become necessary hereafter.
The depth of the bed of the Canal below the natural surface of the ground in the first part or first dam, as far as the north of Tell el Zondieh, is 7 _metres_, that is to say, at the level of the low waters of the river, and at 14 _metres_ above the level of low water in the Mediterranean, the fall of the Canal has been fixed at 0,03 in a 1000 _metres_, in order to secure a speed that shall not exceed O _m._, 65 per second, and that shall not destroy the banks of the Canal. This arrangement will enable us to supply, during the high waters of the increase, a volume of water for inundating the lands, of 40 to 50 _cubic metres_ per second, or 3,500,000 to 4,000,000 _cubic metres per diem_. As the inundation has to be continued during 100 days at the most, and each _feddan_ of land ought to have a quantity of 8,400 _cubic metres_ of water, that is to say, two _cubic metres_ of water to each _square metre_ of land, 47,600 _feddans_ might thus be inundated during the 100 days. This quantity of water is given to irrigate the lands and leave upon them the deposits of the river, or the mud which is the manure of the Egyptian soil; but when the lands which the Company will bring into cultivation have been thus improved by two or three complete inundations, there will be a greater disposable quantity of water, and the number of _feddans_ to be brought into cultivation may be augmented.
The lands being thus fertilised and cultivated in two ways; first by inundations as we have just said, afterwards by irrigation during the second part of the year, that is to say, during the low waters; then in order to secure sufficient water for the Canal of which the receipt of water is above the actual low water, steam machines will be employed at the backwater of the barrage.