Part 6

We have, therefore, adopted the system of loose stones for the jetties and for the mole, with but slight modifications suggested by our own experience, modifications which consist in making the jetty-heads in hydraulic masonry to a certain height, as well as the interior surface of the windward jetty, which is to serve for the towing of vessels.

What we have said of the gulf of Pelusium we may repeat, still more forcibly, with regard to the roadstead of Suez. The sands have long ceased to accumulate in any perceptible manner. And if maritime alluvium is still brought up by the ground swell and the current, it is driven by the west and south-west winds on to the eastern shore, without reaching the extremity of the gulf. In fact, the plan of the roadstead was taken in 1799, and the soundings of the channel are marked, as well as the shape of the sandbank, which forms a kind of bar at its extremity towards the roadstead. In 1847, the plan was taken again with the same soundings, and it is impossible to find the least difference between the two results, which also agree with those given by Commander Moresby, in his excellent chart of the Red Sea.

There is, then, nothing to fear on that side, either from the sand or the violence of the sea. The jetties will be of the simplest construction, and as the materials are, as it were, at hand, their erection will present no difficulty.

With regard to the excavation of the Canal to a depth of 6 _m._, 50 below low water in the Mediterranean, in a very porous soil, the task, at first sight, presents what appear to be considerable difficulties. We cannot, indeed, hope to accomplish the whole of the excavation in the dry, or by pumping, on account of the nature of the ground. It will be necessary, then, for all that portion below water, to have recourse to dredging; and, as the quantity of earth to be removed by this means is 57,205,342 _cubic metres_, at first sight it is difficult to conceive how the work is to be accomplished. But, upon examining the matter more closely, nothing is found to frighten the most timorous. In fact, a single steam dredging machine, of twenty horse power, such as those which have been employed on the Nile, working night and day, can, in twenty-four hours, raise 1000 _cubic metres_ of sand, from a depth of seven _metres_. According to this calculation, and supposing the year to consist of only 270 working days, it would take forty dredging machines five years to complete the labour; but if, instead of such small machines, dredges of thirty to thirty-five horse power were adopted, it would be easy to raise 1500 _cubic metres per diem_, and the dredging would be more economical.

The quantity of earth to be raised by manual labour amounts to 17,473,790 _cubic metres_, and the deepest cutting does not exceed 10 _metres_ above the water. This is a small matter when compared with the earth-works performed in many canal and railway undertakings, and even with those accomplished before the present century; such, for example, as the one mentioned by Michel Chevalier, in his investigations concerning the maritime canal of the Isthmus of Panama (_Recherches sur la Canalisation maritime de l’Isthme de Panama_).

“It required,” says he, “the treasure which the Viceroys of Mexico had at their disposal to undertake the cutting at Huehuetoca, the total length of which is 29,585 _met._, with a depth of from 45 to 60 _met._, for a length of 800 _met._, and from 30 to 50 _met._ for 3500 _met._ The expense was 31,000,000.”

Farther on, he adds:—

“Nowadays, however, in a case of necessity, by displaying the improved appliances at the command of engineering art, it would be possible to effect cuttings of great depth, and to remove large quantities of earth at no extraordinary expense. On the Arles canal, at Bouc, for instance, the plateau of the Lecque was cut through by a trench 2100 _met._ in length, by 40 to 50 _met._ in depth, at the culminating point. The expense was under 4,000,000, and yet the cutting was performed by the old method. In cuttings of magnitude, the soil is now broken by instruments of enormous power, and the earth is removed by means of railways and locomotives. All that has to be done by manual labour is to collect the loose earth and load the waggons. For so important an object as the uniting of two seas, even the impossible might be attempted.”

Supposing each labourer to do 1 _m._, 50, on an average, _per diem_, it would only require 8000 labourers for five years to complete the earth-works; and not a year passes without a levy of between 30 and 40,000 men being commanded by the Viceroy, in several provinces at once, for the service of the canals alone.

As soon as the project of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Suez is ascertained to be useful and advantageous, no difficulties of execution, however great they may be (and we have proved them trifling), will be considered obstacles to its being carried out.

It would appear at first sight superfluous to demonstrate the utility of such an undertaking, for what especially strikes the imagination, is the magnitude of the results promised by the Canal, and the reiterated efforts made at several epochs, even in times of ignorance, to open this communication between the two Seas.

But since the publication of M. Lepère’s memorial, so many objections have been brought forward and so many doubts raised, that public opinion is undecided, and it becomes necessary to re-establish the question in all its integrity. We will therefore examine the principal objections raised against the direct communication between the two Seas.

It has been said that the navigation of the Red Sea is so dangerous, and that the monsoons cause such delays, that even if the Canal were established and freely traversed by ships, commerce would not follow that route, which would in fact, from these peculiar circumstances, be the longest and most perilous.

In the first place, there can be no question here about steam navigation, the circle of which extends daily more and more, for the projected Canal will be the triumph of steam; it will greatly increase the use of the screw, and give a new stimulus to British navigation, which will be charged with the delivery of English coal throughout the whole line from London to Australia. We will therefore only examine the case of navigation by sailing vessels. Now, we learn from history, that from the most distant ages, this navigation has flourished in the Red Sea, and that after the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope (in 1497), the Portuguese considered it necessary to have a fleet, which, in 1538, destroyed all the merchant vessels of the Turks and Venetians. If in later times commerce took the way of the Cape, we have only to thank the Turkish sovereignty of the period, which allowed the arts, sciences, and industry to perish, at the same time that it forbade the navigation of the Red Sea to the European nations. How can this navigation be considered full of danger at the present day, when nautical science and the art of ship-building have made such great progress, and when everything relating to the winds, the currents, and the coasts of the Red Sea, is perfectly well known?

To leave no doubt on the subject, we will repeat the most important observations which have been made on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.

This is what the English traveller, Bruce, says in 1769:—

“Those who are at all acquainted with the history of Egypt, are aware that the north wind, there called the Etesian wind, prevails during the six hottest months of the year. The two chains of mountains, which confine Egypt to the east and west, compel this wind to follow precisely this northerly direction. It is reasonable to suppose that it would be the same for the Arabian Gulf, if the course of that narrow sea were parallel to the land of Egypt. But the Red Sea extends nearly from north-west to south-east, from Suez to Mocha; there it alters its course, and proceeds nearly from east to west, as far as its junction with the Indian Ocean at the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.

“Thus the Etesian wind, which is due north in Egypt, follows the course of the gulf, and blows with force in that direction all the summer; that is to say, that from the month of April till the month of October, the north-east wind prevails over the whole extent of the Red Sea, descending as far as the straits; and that from November to March, the wind has quite a contrary direction, and ascends the gulf from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, up to the Isthmus of Suez.

“It is observed, then, that a vessel starting from Suez, in any of the summer months encounters a very violent north-west wind, which will carry it direct from the gulf to Mocha. At Mocha the coast goes from east to west, as far as the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Thus a vessel sailing from Mocha will, in a short space of time, experience variable winds but mostly blowing from the west, and these winds will soon carry it to the straits. It therefore no longer wants the monsoon of the gulf, which blew from the north; and when it has passed into the Indian Ocean, it meets with another monsoon blowing in an opposite direction, during the six summer months, to the one which had favoured its progress in the Red Sea. This monsoon is no less favourable; it blows from the south-west, and carries the ship full sail, without delay or obstacle, into any required port of India.

“Returning, the same advantages may be secured by setting sail during the winter months with the monsoon peculiar to that sea, which then blows from the north-east, and will carry the ship to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. When the straits are passed it will meet with a south-east wind in the gulf, exactly contrary to the one in the ocean, but the course of the ship is also contrary, and this south-east wind, following the direction of the gulf, will bring it to Suez. All this is clear, simple, and easily understood, and thus it is, that in the earliest ages the commerce of India was carried on without any difficulty.

“Thus the philosophy, the observation and the indefatigable perseverance of man, who endeavours to carry out every project which his interest suggests, triumphing over difficulties, have taught the navigators of the Arabian Gulf, that those periodical winds which they had, at first, regarded as insuperable obstacles to the trade of the Indian Ocean, are, when understood, the safest and the quickest means of performing the voyage.”

Mr. Rooke, an English officer, speaks in these terms, of the navigation of the Red Sea in a letter dated April 25, 1782.

“The construction and management of the vessels are equally singular, and I fear any description will fall infinitely short of the original; they were, I believe, designed by those who built them, to bear some resemblance to ships, but, having few of the properties of those machines, proceed on a principle totally different from any I before beheld; that _primum mobile_ to which ships of other countries are indebted for their voyages is here of little use, and calms are more favourable than wind to forward their progress; ... they ... seem equally averse to a fair as to a contrary wind, remaining at anchor until it subsides into a calm, their busy scene then commences, the anchor is weighed and the vessel put in motion by means of the boat with about twenty oars in it, towing till a breeze springs up; when this begins to be more than what our seamen call a light air, they hurry to the shore and let go their anchor, and for this purpose always choose a berth the most environed by rocks and shoals, never thinking themselves secure but when in the midst of danger; their common time of anchoring was about two o’clock in the afternoon, for about that time the breeze generally freshened, and in proportion as that increases they put out anchors, till they have six in the water, and two or three hawsers besides, to tie them to the surrounding rocks: ... in what they called good weather, we had not above two anchors out, and if it fell calm after sunset they ventured to get one of them up, that they might be ready for the land breeze in the morning, which generally sprung up at two o’clock and blew till nine or ten.... I believe, without these land breezes we should never have arrived at Suez; a circumstance that very frequently happens to many vessels of this annual fleet, for if they do not make good their passage before the latter end of May, the northerly winds blow so constantly as to render it impossible, for vessels that cannot work to windward, to get up the narrow channel from Tor to Suez.

“When it is remembered that the journey from London to Madras has been performed in sixty-three days, it is surprising to see the English neglect so great an advantage when they have the power of securing it.”

Vice Admiral Rosily, who navigated the Red Sea in 1789, on board the frigate Venus, and who was consulted by M. Lepère, was far from admitting the dangers and difficulties of the Red Sea to be as great as is usually supposed. In fact, these dangers, conjured up solely by the ignorance of ancient and modern navigators, have been accredited by general opinion, or rather by general mistake. The frigate Venus traversed the Red Sea in all directions without experiencing either damage or difficulty. We may therefore rest assured, that no merchant vessel will encounter any difficulties but those which are inseparable from all narrow seas; the Adriatic, which is still narrower than the Red Sea, has never been considered impassable.

The coasts alone of the Red Sea are dangerous, but the number of anchorages is so great that the sailors of the country never navigate at night, but anchor every evening. In rough weather they remain at anchor sometimes for a week or a fortnight at the same place, without daring to gain the open sea or take advantage of any wind that would be favourable to an European ship.

The excellent work of Commander Moresby and Captain Rogers on the Red Sea, written by command of the East India Company, to resolve the question of its navigation, and in consequence of which the steam service of the Red Sea was established; this excellent work, we say, if it does not represent the monsoons to be as regular as is stated by Bruce, does not contradict the generality of the facts given by that traveller, as may be judged from the following extracts:—

OF THE WINDS AND CURRENTS BETWEEN SUEZ AND GEDDAH, BY CAPTAIN MORESBY.

“From Suez to Geddah, during the whole course of the year, the wind is generally north, and blows, at times, with great violence; but it abates usually at the change of the moon. During the winter months, from December to April, the south wind prevails, sometimes for a few days, and occasionally blows fresh, more particularly in the Sea of Suez, where it sometimes attains the force of a moderate gust. At this season gusts from the west are not uncommon in the Sea of Suez, and are much dreaded by the inhabitants in consequence of their violence. On the Arabian coast, near Geddah, to the south and north of that port, the north and north-west winds sometimes blow with great violence during the winter months, and bring with them clouds of dust from the land.

“The south wind, which blows sometimes from October to May, generally occasions a current of twenty or thirty miles a day. After a gust from the north-west, when there is a light breeze, there is generally a current towards the north. It is then better to beat along the Arabian side than the Egyptian, as was the practice of ancient navigators, who considered the latter coast more healthy.

“The average length of the passage from Geddah to Cosseir depends so much on circumstances, that it is impossible to assign any fixed term for it. It is, however, rarely more than twenty or less than ten days. With the boats of the country it takes from twenty-five to thirty days, and sometimes more.”

ON THE WINDS AND CURRENTS OF THE RED SEA THROUGHOUT THE YEAR, BY CAPT. ROGERS.

“From the beginning of October to the end of April, during what we may call the winter months, between the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Gebel Tor, in about latitude 15° 30´ north, the wind may be said to blow continually from the south, with the exception of a day or two at the time of the new or full moon, when it sometimes blows from the north. But frequently, for two months at a time, there is no change.

“From Gebel Tor to latitude 19° or 20° the winds are variable at the same period, and blow as much from the north as from the south. One or other of these winds respectively prevails as you approach one or the other of these limits.

“From 21° to 27° the north wind prevails during the same season, but half a lunation seldom passes without there being one or two days of south wind, especially from the end of November to the beginning of March.

“From 27° to Suez, the wind is, almost constantly, north, and seldom interrupted by any wind from the south, unless it be in the months of December, January, and February.

“In June, July, August, and September the north wind prevails without interruption, throughout the whole extent of the Red Sea, from Suez to Bab-el-Mandeb. Occasionally a change takes place, from the land side, principally in August and September, and during these months a fast sailer can make thirty-five miles a-day, beating from Mocha to Suez. In December, January, and February, a vessel will sometimes meet with a good wind from Mocha to Cosseir, and accomplish the run in six or seven days, whereas it is impossible to do the same from Cosseir to Mocha except in summer.”

It appears from these extracts that the Red Sea is easily navigable, at all seasons, by sailing vessels, and that it is always possible so to arrange the periods of departure as to traverse it in both directions.

We ought also to take into account the inconveniences experienced in the voyage round the Cape, resulting from the settled calms succeeding the continued tempests, the diseases which decimate the crews, and the disasters which are so frequent on passing the equator. We should also take into consideration that, if the difficulties are greater during a good part of the year for vessels going up the Red Sea, vessels coming down are, for that very reason, sure to meet with favourable winds.

To leave no doubt on so important a question, and on which depends, in part, the success of the enterprise in contemplation, we will give a passage from a paper communicated to the _Société de Géographie_, by Count d’Escayrac de Lauture, the motto of which is,

“Aperire terram gentibus.”

“If the _minimum_ distances which separate the ports of Europe from those of India, on the one part by the Cape of Good Hope, and on the other by the Canal of the two Seas, be compared with each other, enormous differences in favour of the latter route will be made manifest. These differences become still greater, when it is recollected that, in navigation, a straight line is far from being the shortest way from one point to another, and that navigators only reach their destination by successively following a certain number of courses, which form greater or lesser angles with each other.

“So that instead of steering directly for the Cape of Good Hope, mariners starting from Europe or the Atlantic ports of North America to go to India, must make the Canaries or the Azores; get into the track of the trade winds of the northern hemisphere, reach the coast of Brazil, and make Cape Frio, or put in at Rio Janeiro. It is only then that they can make for the Cape of Good Hope, better named, perhaps, Cape Tempestuous. They clear at length the Agulhas Bank, reach Bourbon or the Mauritius, and thence proceed to India in the track of the monsoon.

“Vessels from the Mediterranean have still greater disadvantages to contend against. It frequently takes them a fortnight to pass the straits of Gibraltar, in consequence of the west wind which prevails in those straits, and the rapid current which pours the waters of the ocean into the Mediterranean.

“The consequence is, that the passage to India takes at least from five months to five months and a half. The passage back is rather more direct, without being to any perceptible degree shorter. The coast of Africa may then be followed more closely, thanks to the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. The place to put in at, in this case, is St. Helena.

“If we now examine the conditions to which navigation is subjected in the three seas nearest to Suez, that is to say, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Oman, we shall find that in the Mediterranean the winds blow from the north during the greater part of the year, change to the south by east towards the spring, and return to the north, passing by the west and north-west. The case is nearly the same with regard to the Red Sea, where the north wind, which is the most frequent, drives the waters in the direction of Bab-el-Mandeb, so that when the calm succeeds, a current is observed running north. This is evidently produced by the waters which had been raised in the south endeavouring to regain their level. The south wind usually succeeds the calm.

“The Gulf of Oman has two monsoons, that from the north-east, which prevails with more constancy in the winter, and that from the south-west, which blows with force in summer. The change from one monsoon to the other is effected, there as elsewhere, by a series of calms and gusts of wind.

“From these circumstances it would appear most advantageous to sail to India by the canal in summer and autumn, and to return towards the spring.

“The great shortening of the distance between the ports of Europe, and those of India, is not the only advantage which commerce will derive by frequenting the canal of the two Seas. In fact, vessels will not only reach their destination in a shorter time, but will meet on their route with numerous ports to put in at, and, what is more important still, considerable markets. The voyager, after having followed the easy track of the Mediterranean, will sell a part of his cargo in the Canal of Suez, or at Geddah; will buy ivory at Massaoux, Souken and Berbera, which he will either exchange in India, for opium, or carry on to China to obtain silk or tea.

“He will complete his homeward cargo with the colonial produce of Manilla, the Sunda Islands, and Ceylon, with cotton from India, or Egypt, with coffee from Abyssinia, or Yemen, with gum from Soudan or Hedjaz, with corn from Lower Egypt, or with rice from Damietta. And these multifarious operations, which now require years, will be safely and rapidly accomplished with little capital and small ships.

“In fact, by reducing the time required for commercial operations we also reduce the general costs, make a much greater number of these operations possible in a given time, and, by that means, give facilities to small traders, by far the most numerous class.

“By opening to navigation an easier and safer route, we bring into use ships of less tonnage, and more economically equipped; in one word, we throw open the road to India to the coasting trade—WE DEMOCRATISE COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.”