PART II

GRAMMAR.

94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of every earnest _student_ who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.

It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.

Alphabet.

The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars. 1-4.

N.B.--Printing offices which do not possess the letters _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, _ŭ_, can use instead of them _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_, _sh_, _u_.

PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.

Alfabeto.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii, Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt, Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.

_Rimarko._--Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, _ŭ_, povas anstataŭ ili uzi _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_, _sh_, _u_.

Rules.

I.

The Article.--There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (_la_), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

N.B.--The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all.

(See pars. 96-102.)

Reguloj.

I.

_Artikolo_ nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (_la_), egala por ĉiuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.

_Rimarko._--La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilaĵon, povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.

II.

The Substantive.--Substantives have the termination _o_. For the formation of the plural the termination _j_ is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination _n_. The other cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by _de_, the dative by _al_, the ablative by _per_ or other prepositions according to sense).

(See pars. 103-106.)

II.

La _substantivoj_ havas la finiĝon _o_. Por la formado de la multenombro oni aldonas la finiĝon _j_. Kazoj ekzistas nur du: nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo per la aldono de la finiĝo _n_. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per _de_, la dativo per _al_, la ablativo per _per_ aŭ aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).

III.

The Adjective.--The adjective ends in _a_. Cases and numbers as with the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word _pli_, the superlative by _plej_; with the comparative the conjunction _ol_ is used.

(See pars 107-114.)

III.

La _adjektivo_ finiĝas per _a_. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ĉe la substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto _pli_, la superlativo per _plej_; ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion _ol_.

IV.

The Numerals.--The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are: _unu_, _du_, _tri_, _kvar_, _kvin_, _ses_, _sep_, _ok_, _naŭ_, _dek_, _cent_, _mil_. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals, the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple--the suffix _-obl_, for the fractional--_on_, for the collective--_op_, for the distributive--the word _po_. Besides these, substantival and adverbial numerals can be used.

(See pars. 115-124.)

IV.

La _numeraloj_ fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: _unu_, _du_, _tri_, _kvar_, _kvin_, _ses_, _sep_, _ok_, _naŭ_, _dek_, _cent_, _mil_. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la finiĝon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj--la sufikson _-obl_, por la nombronaj--_on_, por la kolektaj--_op_, por la disdividaj--la vorton _po_. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj adverbaj.

V.

The Pronouns.--Personal pronouns = _mi_, _vi_, _li_, _ŝi_, _ĝi_ (referring to thing or animal), _si_, _ni_, _vi_, _ili_, _oni_; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.

(See pars. 125-138.)

V.

_Pronomoj_ personaj: _mi_, _vi_, _li_, _ŝi_, _ĝi_ (pri objekto aŭ besto), _si_, _ni_, _vi_, _ili_, _oni_; la pronomoj posedaj estas formataj per la aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas kiel ĉe la substantivoj.

VI.

The Verb.--The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination _-as_; the past tense (the time been, or having been) _-is_; the future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) _-os_; the Conditional mood _-us_; the Imperative (ordering) mood _-u_; the Indefinite (infinitive) mood _-i_. Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present _-ant_; active past _-int_; active future _-ont_; passive present _-at_; passive past _-it_; passive future _-ot_. All forms of the passive are formed by help of a corresponding form of the verb _esti_ and a passive participle of the required verb. The preposition with the passive is _de_.

(See pars. 159-237.)

VI.

La _verbo_ ne estas ŝanĝata laŭ personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finiĝon _-as_; la tempo estinta _-is_; la tempo estonta _-os_; la modo kondiĉa _-us_; la modo ordona _-u_; la modo sendifina _-i_. Participoj (kun senco adjektiva aŭ adverba): aktiva estanta _-ant_; aktiva estinta _-int_; aktiva estonta _-ont_; pasiva estanta _-at_; pasiva estinta _-it_; pasiva estonta _-ot_. Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo estas formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo _esti_ kaj participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ĉe la pasivo estas _de_.

VII.

The Adverb.--Adverbs end in _e_; degrees of comparison as with adjectives.

(See pars. 238-248.)

VII.

La _adverboj_ finiĝas per _e_; gradoj de komparado kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.

VIII.

The Preposition.--All prepositions require the nominative.

(See pars. 249-261.)

VIII.

Ĉiuj _prepozicioj_ postulas la nominativon.

IX.

Pronunciation.--Every word is read as it is written.

(See pars. 5-19.)

IX.

Ĉiu vorto estas legata, kiel ĝi estas skribita.

X.

Accent.--The accent is always on the penultimate syllable.

(See par. 17.)

X.

La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.

XI.

Compound Words.--Compound words are formed by the simple junction of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

(See pars. 39-50.)

XI.

Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.

XII.

Negation.--When another negative word is present the word _ne_ is omitted.

(See pars. 59-62.)

XII.

Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto _ne_ estas forlasata.

XIII.

Direction.--In order to show direction, words take the termination of the accusative.

(See par. 67.)

XIII.

Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.

XIV.

Use of Prepositions.--Every preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition _je_, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition _je_ we can also use the accusative without a preposition.

(See par. 251.)

XIV.

Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion _je_, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio _je_ oni povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.

XV.

Foreign Words.--The so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.

(See pars. 39, 52.)

XV.

La tiel nomataj vortoj _fremdaj_, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto sen ŝanĝo, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe nur la vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ĉi lasta laŭ la reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto.

XVI.

Elision.--The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.

(See pars. 56, 57.)

XVI.

La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.

COMMENTARY ON THE GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH (Parolpartoj).

95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo), Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb (Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio), Interjection (Interjekcio).

Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive terminations. If a word ends in _-O_, it is a noun; if in _-A_, an adjective; if in _-E_, an adverb; if in _-I_, _-U_, _-AS_, _-IS_, _-OS_, or _-US_, a verb. If it ends in _-N_, it is in the accusative case, and if in _-J_, it is plural.

Examples.--_Domo_ = a house. _Facila_ = easy. _Feliĉe_ = happily. _Doni_ = to give (Infinitive). _Batu lin_ = beat him (Imperative and Accusative). _Mi vidas la homojn_ = I see the men (Present tense and Accusative plural). _Vi diris_ = you said (Past tense). _Ni iros_ = we shall go (Future tense). _Se ili estus bonaj_ = If they were good (Conditional mood and plural adjective).

THE ARTICLE (La Artikolo).

96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English requires it.

Examples.--_Tio estas floro_ = That is a flower. _Patrino kaj filo_ = Mother and son. _Ĉu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo?_ = Do you see a bird on that tree?

97. The definite article is la = _the_. It is, as in English, the same for all genders, numbers, and cases.

Examples.--_La patro_ = The father. _La patrino_ = The mother. _Donu al mi la libron_ = Give me the book. _Ili estas la lernantoj diligentaj_ = They are the diligent scholars.

98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite article "the" in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite.

Examples.--_En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda vilaĝo_ = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each defined by the article _la_, as they are also in English by "the." But if we omit the article the sentence runs:--_En la mezo de korto mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilaĝo_ = In the middle of a yard I saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children might have been in _any_ yard, and have belonged to _any_ village in the neighbourhood of the speaker.

99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also _vice versa_.

(_a_). It is usually used before nouns denoting the _totality_ of persons or things.

Examples.--_La homo estas mortema_ = Man is mortal. _La homoj estas mortemaj_ = Men are mortal. _La medicino estas scienco kaj la pentrado arto_ = Medicine is a science and painting an art. _Kelkaj kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano_ = Some doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. _Sen la akvo nia terglobo rapide fariĝus dezerto_ = Without water our earth would rapidly become a desert. _La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peĉo_ = The night was as dark as pitch. _La azenoj amas la kardojn_ = Donkeys love thistles. _La vento kaŭzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj landoj_ = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this case _la vento_ means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but "To-day we shall have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: _Hodiaŭ ni havos venton_.) _Hajlo falas_ = Hail is falling (viz., some hail), but _La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero_ = Hail is very injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.

(_b_). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In English it is sometimes used and sometimes not.[13]

Examples.--_Danubo_ = The Danube. _Tibro_ = The Tiber. _Mediteraneo_ = The Mediterranean. _Alpoj_ = The Alps. _Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj Amerikaj_ (or, _Usono_) = The United States of America.

Footnote:

[13] This is too strict. In practice the definite article is often used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) _la Alpoj_, _la Mediteraneo_, etc.

(_c_). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word, the article is used.

Examples. _La glora poeto, Dante_ = The famous poet, Dante. _La imperiestro de Japanujo_ = The Emperor of Japan. _La bona reĝino Viktorio_ = The good Queen Victoria.

100. The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a possessive pronoun.

Examples.--_Li havas doloron en la kapo_ = He has a pain in his (the) head. _Ŝi prezentis al mi la manon_ = She offered me her hand. _Mi malkovris la okulojn_ = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(_a_)).

(_a_). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in speaking of one's own relatives, or when there is no doubt as to the person to whom the article la refers.

Examples.--_Mi amas la patron_ = I love my (the) father. _Iru al la patrino_ = Go to your (the) mother. _Kie estas la kuzo?_ = Where is your (the) cousin? _La patro staras apud la filo_ = The father stands by (at the side of) his (the) son.

101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood.

Example.--_Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto_ = To-day is the 27th of March.

(_a_). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also before each separate noun or adjective.

Examples.--_En la vintro_, or, _En vintro_ = In the winter. _En la somero_, or, _En somero_ = In the summer. _La arboj, la floroj kaj la kreskaĵoj de la ĝardeno_ (or, _La arboj, floroj kaj kreskaĵoj_) = The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden.

(_b_). It is not generally used after ĉiuj = _all_, or, _all the_.

Example.--_Mi ne vidis ĉiujn arbojn en la ĝardeno_ = I did not see all the trees in the garden.

(_c_). It is not used after da (see par. 259).

N.B.--From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be careful to use it with words defining a _class_ or the _totality_ of persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will carefully study the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.

In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is better to omit it.

102. Elision.--The final _A_ of the article may be omitted in certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).

THE NOUN (La Substantivo).

103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in _-O_. The accusative is formed by the addition of _N_. In the plural it ends in _-OJ_, and the accusative plural is formed by adding _N_ to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:--

Arb-o = _a tree_ (nominative, singular). Arb-on = _a tree_ (accusative, singular). Arb-oj = _trees_ (nominative, plural). Arb-ojn = _trees_ (accusative, plural).

Examples.--_Domo_ = A house. _La domo_ = The house. _La domoj_ = The houses. _Rigardu la domojn_ = Look at the houses. _Knabo_ = A boy. _La knabo_ = The boy. _Mi vidis la knabon_ = I saw the boy. _Knabino_ = A girl. _La knabino_ = The girl.

Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns.

104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz., the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is obtained from the nominative by adding _N_ to the singular or plural. Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:--

Nominative Mia bona patro = _My good father_. Accusative Mian bonan patron = _My good father_. Genitive or} {_Of my good_ Possessive } De mia bona patro = {_father, or, My_ } {_good father's_. Dative Al mia bona patro = _To my good father_. { De mia bona patro = _From_ (_by_, see par. 259 (9)) { _my good father_. Ablative { Kun mia bona patro = _With my good { father._ { Per bona glavo = _With (by means { of) a good sword._

Note that per = _by_ is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by means, or aid, or use, of," and that kun = _with_ means "in company with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in English, e.g., _I held him with both hands_ = Mi lin tenis per ambaŭ manoj, not _kun_ ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).

Plural.

(_a_). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of the plural termination _J_, as:--

Genitive De miaj bonaj filoj = _Of my good sons._ Accusative Miajn bonajn filojn = _My good sons._

Examples.--_La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas_ = The brother is writing and the sister reading. _La patro donis la libron al sia filo_ = The father gave the book to his son. _Tiu ĉi kaŭĉuka ringo_ (or, _ringo el kaŭĉuko_) _estas por la infaneto_ = This india-rubber ring is for the baby. _Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo_ = I saw Joseph with his cousin. _Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de la mondo_ = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. _Mi lin salutis per la mano_ = I saluted him by the hand. _La domo estas kovrita per ardezoj_ = The house is covered with slates. _Mi vidis vian patron kun liaj du filoj_ = I saw your father with his two sons. _Kie estas la domo de via patro?_ = Where is your father's house?

105. Ellipsis.--The case (nominative or accusative) of words in Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in a phrase, and unless we write the sentence in full, or think what the ellipsis is, we may not at first know what case to use to express our meaning. A glance at the following examples will show how easy it is to determine the case. The words in brackets show the ellipsis:--

_Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vi_ (_konas lin_) = I know him better than you (do, _or_ know him).

_Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vin_ (_ol mi konas vin_) = I know him better than you (than I know you).

_Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom_ (_li amas_) _Johanon_ = Peter loves Paul as much as (he loves) John.

_Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom Johano_ (_amas lin_) = Peter loves Paul as much as John (loves him).

N.B.--In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).

_Li iris tien, kiel ankaŭ vi_ (_iris_) = He went there as well as you (went).

_Mi vidis lin tie, kiel ankaŭ_ (_mi vidis_) _vin_ = I saw him there as well as (I saw) you.

_Mi neniam vidis tian hundon, kia_ (_estas_) _via_ = I never saw such a dog as yours.

105 (_a_). Elision.--The final _O_ of a noun may be omitted (par. 57, and Rule 16, par. 94).

106. Possession is (_a_) expressed by help of the preposition de.

Examples.--_La domo de la patro_ = The father's house, _or_, the house of the father. _La libro de mia patrino_ = My mother's book, _or_, the book of my mother. _La tranĉilo de Georgo_ = George's knife. _Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj_ = That is my brothers' house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)

(_b_). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in _ES_, viz.:--ies = _someone's_, _somebody's_, ĉies = _everyone's_, kies = _whose_, nenies = _nobody's_, ties = _that one's_, _of those_ (see par. 154).

Examples.--_Ĉies ideo estis diversa_ = Everyone's idea was different. _Kies domo estas tiu?_ = Whose house is that? _Ĝi estas nenies domo_ = It is nobody's house. _Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies tranĉilo?_ = Is this anyone's (someone's) knife? (see par. 154).

(_c_). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we employ an apostrophe.

Examples.--_Unutaga laboro_ (for, _la laboro de unu tago_) = One day's work. _La unuataga laboro_ (for, _la laboro de la unua tago_) = The first day's work. _Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo_ = His first day's work was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day's work in the house. _Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon_ = I awaited the captain's reply.

(_d_). In speaking of places, the English preposition "of" is not translated.

Examples.--_La urbo Londono_ = The City of London. _La Kolonio Natalo_ = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (_a_)).

For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of accusative with proper names, par. 69 (_d_); for the infinitive used as a noun, par. 180.

THE ADJECTIVE (La Adjektivo).

107. The Adjective always ends in _-A_ in the singular. _J_ is added to _A_ to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the addition of _N_ to the singular or plural termination.

Examples.--_Forta_ = Strong. _Saĝa_ = Wise. _Brava_ = Brave. _Forta homo_ = A strong man. _Saĝa patro_ = A wise father. _Saĝaj patroj_ = Wise fathers. _La brava filo_ = The brave son. _La bravaj filoj_ = The brave sons.

108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:--(_a_) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = _put adjacent_), and (_b_) Predicative (predikateca).

(_a_). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).

Examples.--_Johano havas bonan panon_ = John has good bread. _Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn_ = William sharpened the blunt knives.

(_b_). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb, denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).

Examples.--_La pomo estas bona_ = The apple is good. _Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakraj_ = William found the knives blunt. If the adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would be quite altered, for, _Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn_ would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is generally _esti_. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence might be as follows:--William found (that) the knives (are) blunt--_Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj_. If we elide _ke_ and _estas_, the substantive takes the accusative (_tranĉilojn_) and the adjective (_malakraj_) remains in the nominative. Other examples are:--_La kutimo faris lin_ (_ke li estu_) _indiferenta por tio ĉi_ (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. _Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri_ (_ke vi estas_) _inda filo de via kara patro?_ (Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on ellipsis).

109. Predicative Noun.--A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35).

Examples.--_La patro nomis sian filon Johano_ = The father named his son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the name of "John" to his son, or whether he made mention of his son whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the name, for otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (_Johanon_, so:--_La patro nomis sian filon Johanon_ = The father named (made mention of) his son John. _Ili nomis lin Adolfo_ = They called him (gave him the name of) Adolphus.

110. Nominative or Accusative.--The rule, therefore, for qualifying and predicative adjectives or nouns is:--

(_a_). The word will be in the accusative if the object already possesses the quality in question.

(_b_). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given to the object.

111. Participial Adjectives.--Participles are often used in Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are called "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj).

Examples.--_Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj_ = John and George were lost. _Ni trovis ilin mortantajn_ = We found them (who were) dying. _Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis_ = We had finished when you arrived (see par. 209 (_b_)).

112. Comparison of Adjectives.

(_a_). The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = _as_, _so_ ... _as_.

Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = _John is as strong as George._

(_b_). The comparative of superiority is pli ... ol = _more_ ... _than_.

Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = _John is stronger than George._

(_c_). The comparative of inferiority is malpli ... ol = _less_ ... _than_.

Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = _John is less strong (weaker) than George._

(_d_). The other modes of expressing comparison are:--

tia ... kia = _such_, _such a_, _such kind_ ... _as_.

sama ... kia = _the same_ ... _as_.

same ... kiel = _the same_ ... _as_.

Ju pli ... des pli = _the more_ ... _the more_.

Ju malpli ... des malpli = _the less_ ... _the less_.

Ju pli ... des malpli = _the more_ ... _the less_.

Ju malpli ... des pli = _the less_ ... _the more_.

Examples.--_Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata_ = Such a house as that is rarely seen. _Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via_, or, _Mia bastono estas same, kiel via_ = My stick is the same as yours. _Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas_ = The more I know him, the more I esteem him. _Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi_ = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to sleep. _Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi_ = The more I see him, the less he pleases me. _Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi trinkas_ = The less I eat, the more I drink.

_Be careful to note_ that the second term in a comparison is in the nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or complement, e.g., Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino = _I love my brother more than my sister (loves him)_. Mia fratino is in the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mian fratinon = _I love my brother more than my sister_. Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly clear. In English we should have to add "does" to the first example to make the phrase clear: "I love my brother more than my sister does" (see par. 105).

113. Superlatives (_Superlativoj_).

(_a_). The superlative of superiority is la plej = _the most_.

(_b_). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = _the least_.

The preposition el = _out of_, _of_, is used with the superlative when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a "group," "society," etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate preposition is used.

Examples.--_Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj_ = John is the strongest of the boys. _Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj_ = Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. _Georgo estas la malplej kuraĝa knabo en la domo_ = George is the least courageous boy in the house. _Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis_ = She was the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. _Tiuj ĉi estas la plej grandaj arboj en la arbaro_ = These are the largest trees in the wood. _Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo_ (_klubo_, _societo_) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club, society). _Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon_ = Put the largest glasses upon the table. _Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn_ (_malplej grandajn_) = Do not throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least large).

(_c_). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre = _very_, or treege = _exceedingly_, or troe = _excessively_, or some other suitable adverb.

Example.--_Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa_ = That woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat.

114. Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the aid of the suffixes _-EG-_ and _-ET-_ with or without an adverb. The suffix _-EG-_ is stronger in its application than the adverb tre = _very_. For instance, take the adjective bela = _beautiful_, or _fine_. Tre bela = _very beautiful_, or _very fine_; but belega = _magnificent_, or _superb_. So, the diminutive _-ET-_ shows more diminution than the adjective malgranda = _small_, or _little_, would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero = _a small river_, but rivereto = _a brook_, or _stream_. The following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes tre varmega = _broiling hot_ and tre malvarmega = _intensely cold_, supposing we were speaking of the weather:--

Tre varmega = _Broiling hot_. Tre malvarmega = _Intensely cold_. Varmega = _Hot_. Malvarmega = _Bitterly cold_. Tre varma = _Very warm_. Tre malvarma = _Very cold_. Varma = _Warm_. Malvarma = _Cold_. Iom varma = _Warmish_. Iom malvarma = _Coldish_. Varmeta = _Mild_. Malvarmeta = _Cool_.

See remarks on the suffixes _-EG-_ and _-ET-_, par. 277.

NUMERALS.

Cardinal Numbers (_Numeraloj fundamentaj_).

115. The cardinal numbers are:--

(1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses, (7) sep, (8) ok, (9) naŭ, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000) mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo.

Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-.

(_a_). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek before the first nine, as:--(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.

(_b_). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by the addition cent, or mil, as:--(101) cent unu, (102) cent du, (110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu, (1,006) mil ses, (1,114) mil cent dek kvar.

(_c_). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:--(20) dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900) naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil.

(_d_). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:--(21) dudek unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121) cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.

(_e_). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or number.

Examples.--_La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn_ = The two children divided between themselves seven apples. _Unu prenis tri kaj la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj_ = One took three and the other took four of the apples. _Kvin kaj sep faras_ (or, _estas_) _dek du_ = 5 and 7 make (are) 12.

(_f_). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means _some_. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = _others_.

Examples.--_El ŝiaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj_ = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and others bad. _Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj aliajn malbonaj_ = He examined the apples, and found some good and others bad. Note that _bonaj_ and _malbonaj_ are predicative adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108 (_b_)).

(_g_). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is employed as a numeral.[14]

Example.--_Ĉar ĉiu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu mian_ = Since we have each _a_ dictionary, take yours and leave mine.

Footnote:

[14] This use of _unu_ is not recommended.

Ordinal Numbers (_Numeraloj ordaj_).

116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto, made such in the usual way by adding _A_ to the cardinals, as:--unua = _first_, dua = _second_, tria = _third_, kvara = _fourth_, kvina = _fifth_, sesa = _sixth_, sepa = _seventh_, oka = _eighth_, naŭa = _ninth_, deka = _tenth_.

(_a_). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, _A_ is added to the last only, as:--dek-unua = _eleventh_, dek-dua = _twelfth_, dek-naŭa = _nineteenth_, dudeka = _twentieth_, dudek-unua = _twenty-first_, cent-tridek-naŭa = _hundred and thirty-ninth_.

N.B.--Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens.

(_b_). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and number.

Examples.--_Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran_ = Give him the third, and take the fourth. _La kvinaj etaĝoj de tiuj domoj estas tre altaj_ = The fifth stories of those houses are very high.

(_c_). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours, days, months, years, kings, etc.

Examples.--_Paĝo trideka_ = Page thirty. _Vidu paĝon kvardekan_ (or, 40an) = See page forty (40). _Henriko kvara_ = Henry IV. _La dek-unua horo_ = 11 o'clock. _En la dek-sesa_ (_tago_) _de Aprilo_ = On the 16th of April. _En la jaro mil-okcent-naŭdek-naŭa_ = In 1899. _Mil-naŭcent-kvara_ = 1904.

In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often used.

Examples.--_Sur kioma paĝo vi vidis tion?_ = On what page did you see that? _Kioma paĝo estas?_ = What page is it? _Kioma horo estas?_ = What o'clock is it? _Estas la dua_ = It is two o'clock. _Kiun daton ni havas?_ = What is the date (or, day of the month)? _Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa_ (or, 27a) _de Marto_ = To-day is the 27th of March.

117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding _E_ to the cardinals, as:--unue, _firstly_, due, _secondly_, sepe, _seventhly_, etc.

118. Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding _O_. They have various meanings, as:--Unuo = _a unit_, or _a one_. Duo = _a duet_, or _a two_ (of cards). Trio = _a trio_, or _triplet_, or _a three_ (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = _a four_, etc. (of cards, etc., up to ten). Dek-duo = _a dozen_. Deko = _half a score_. Dudeko = _a score_. Cento = _a hundred_. Milo = _a thousand_. Miliono = _a million_.

Examples.--_Li havas dudekojn da ĉevaloj, centojn da ŝafoj, kaj milojn da birdoj_ = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and thousands of birds. _Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso kera_ = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts. _Tiu cifero estas oko_ = That figure is an eight.

Multiples (_Numeraloj multoblaj_).

119. Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix _-OBL-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_, _E_, or _O_ to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive verbs by the suffix _-IGI-_, or intransitive by the suffix _-IĜI-_.

Examples.--_Unuobla_ = Single. _Unuoble_ = Singly. _Duobla_ = Double, twofold. _Duoble_ = Doubly. _La duoblo_ = The double. _Duobligi_ = To double, to duplicate. _Duobliĝi_ = To become double. _Triobla_ = Triple, threefold. _Trioble_ = Trebly. _La trioblo_ = The treble (of). _Triobligi_ = To treble, to triplicate. _Kvarobla_ = Fourfold, quadruple. _Kvaroble_ = Quadruply. _Kvaroblo_ = A quadruple. _Kvarobligi_ = To quadruple, to make fourfold. _Kvarobliĝi_ = To become quadruple. _Sepobla_ = Sevenfold, septuple. _Centoblo_ = A centuple. _Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin_ = Five times (fivefold) 7 is 35. _Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du_ = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72. _Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses_ = Four times four is 16. _Dudek estas la kvaroblo de kvin_ = Twenty is the quadruple of five. _Duobla fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla_ = A double thread is stronger than a single (one). _Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de tri_ = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3.

Fractional Numbers (_Numeraloj nombronaj_).

120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix _-ON-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_, _E_, or _O_ to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun, as:--Duona = _half_, duone = _by halves_, duono = _a half_ (1/2), triona = _third_, trione = _by thirds_, triono = _a third_ (1/3).

Examples.--_La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du, tio estas ses_ = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6. _Unu triono_ = One third (1/3). _Tri okonoj_ = Three eighths (3/8). _Neniam faru ion poduone_ = Never do anything by halves. _Duone ses estas tri_ = half of six is three.

The Collectives (_Numeraloj kolektaj_).

121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix _-OP-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_ or _E_ to mark adjectives or adverbs, as:--Duopa = _double_, _two together_, duope = _by twos_, _in pairs_, triope = _in threes_, _in triplets_, dekope = _by tens_.

Example.--_Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min_ = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me.

Reiteratives (_Numeraloj ripetaj_).

122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the cardinals, as:--Unufoje = _once_, dufoje = _twice_, trifoje = _thrice_, kvarfoje = _four times_.

Examples.--_Hieraŭ mi renkontis lin unufoje_ (or, _unu fojon_), _sed hodiaŭ dufoje_ (or, _du fojojn_) = Yesterday I met him once, but to-day twice.

N.B.--Note that when the substantive _fojo_ is used, it is in the accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (_b_)).

Distributives (_Numeraloj disdividaj_).

123. Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before the cardinals, meaning _at the rate of_, _in the proportion of_.

Examples.--_Al ĉiu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin ŝilingoj_ = I paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. _Tiu ĉi libro enhavas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see "_po_" in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).

The Time of Day (_La horo_).

124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day. "A quarter to three" (2.45) may be either:--

(_a_). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = _three-quarters of the 3rd_ (_hour_).

(_b_). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = _the 2nd_ (_hour_) _and three-quarters_.

(_c_). Kvarono antaŭ la tria = _a quarter before the 3rd_ (_hour_).

The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is, however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general use. Therefore to the question:--_Kioma horo estas?_ = What time (hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:--

2.0 =_La dua_ (_horo_). 2.15 =_La dua_ (_horo_) _kaj dek kvin_ (_minutoj_). 3.5 =_La tria_ (_horo_) _kvin_. 10.2 =_La deka_ (_horo_) _du_. 11.45 =_La dek-unua_ (_horo_) _kvardek kvin_.

In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:--4.10 p.m. in Italy = 16.10 = _La dek-sesa_ (_horo_) _dek_.

PRONOUNS (Pronomoj).

125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:--(1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.

As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139-157), so under the head of "Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive.

Personal Pronouns (_personaj pronomoj_).

126. The personal pronouns are:--

Nominative.

Singular. 1st Person. Mi = _I_. " 2nd Person. Vi = _you, thou_. (Ci = _thou_ is rarely used). " 3rd Person. Li = _he_, Ŝi = _she_, Ĝi = _it_. Plural. 1st Person. Ni = _we_. " 2nd Person. Vi = _you_, _ye_. " 3rd Person. Ili = _they_.

Accusative.

Singular. 1st Person. Min = _me_. " 2nd Person. Vin = _you, thee_. (Cin = _thee_ is rarely used). " 3rd Person. Lin = _him_, Ŝin = _her_, Ĝin = _it_. Plural. 1st Person. Nin = _us_. " 2nd Person. Vin = _you_. " 3rd Person. Ilin = _them_.

Oni = _one_, _people_, _they_, _we_ (like the French "on"), is an indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or plural.

Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular, and may be used without hesitation if desired.

Si = _self_, _selves_, _oneself_, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, singular or plural.

Vi, like "you" in English, represents both the singular and plural, but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it take the plural form.

Ĝi, like "it" in English, is used to represent things, and also persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex.

Examples.--_Mi lin amas_ = I love him. _Li min vidas_ = He sees me. _Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno_ = They found him and me in the garden. _Vi ne vidis nin_ = You did not see us. _Vi_ (plural) _estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas)_ = You are wiser than they are. _Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro_ = She saw them in the bedroom. _Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion"_ = They (people) say (it is said), "With money one (_or_, we) can buy everything. _Mi vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda_ = I saw the house, but it was too small. _Se oni estus riĉa_, or _riĉaj_ = If one were rich.

(_a_).--In words like infano = _child_, persono = _person_, individuo = _individual_, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is it in the general name of an animal, as:--leono = _a lion_, hundo = _a dog_, birdo = _a bird_, etc., unless we add the feminine suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use the pronoun ĝi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi respectively. Zamenhof advises the use of li and ŝi for human beings only, and of ĝi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is known and indicated; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is nevertheless legitimate if desired.

Examples.--_La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al ĝi_ (or _li_ if we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. _Tio estas bela ĉevalino, ĝi_ (or, _ŝi_) _trotas bone_ = That is a fine mare, she trots well. _Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al ĝi, ke ĝi revenu morgaŭ_ = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow.[15]

Footnote:

[15] This use of _ĝi_ for a person is not recommended, and _li_ (or _tiu_) would be better in a case where there is doubt as to the sex.

127. The word mem = _self_ or _selves_ is sometimes used with a personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis.

Examples.--_Mi mem ĝin vidis_ = I myself saw it. _Ni mem ĝin trovis_, or, _Ni ĝin trovis mem_ = We found it ourselves. _Vi venu mem_ = Come yourself. _Ŝi mem parolos_ = She herself will speak. _Li mem respondu_ = Let him answer (for) himself. _La virinoj venu mem_ = Let the women come themselves.

128. Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons.[16] We cannot say _Mi lavas sin_, or _Ni_, or _Vi lavas sin_, for "I wash myself," "We wash ourselves," "You wash yourself." We must, in each of these cases, use the pronoun which is the subject of the verb, as:--Mi lavas min--Ni lavas nin--_Vi lavas vin_ = _I wash myself_--_We wash ourselves_--_You wash yourself_ (or if vi = _you_ is plural), _You wash yourselves_. Si, therefore, is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, when it refers to the _subject_ of the verb. It takes the accusative termination _N_ when necessary, and then represents "_himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _oneself_, _themselves_."

Examples.--_Li razis sin_ = He shaved himself. _Petro razis sin_ = Peter shaved himself (_Petro razis lin_ would mean Peter shaved _him_, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). _Ŝi diris al si_ = She said to herself (_Ŝi diris al ŝi_ would mean "She said to her," viz., some other woman). _Ĝi vundis sin_ = It wounded itself (_Ĝi vundis ĝin_ would mean "It wounded it," viz., some other animal). _Ili mortigis sin_ = They killed themselves. _Li pensis en si mem, ke ..._ = He thought to (in) himself that ... _La du fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed, tiel farante, ili vundas sin_ (or, _sin mem_) = The two brothers meet the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing, they wound themselves. _Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion por si, kaj nenion por ŝi_ = My sister has a friend, who does everything for herself, and nothing for her. _Oni kelkfoje tro laŭdas sin_ = One (_or_ people) sometimes praises oneself (_or_ praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb, par. 170).

Footnote:

[16] The reason for the use of si is the avoidance of ambiguity. Si is not used with the 1st and 2nd persons, because there is no possibility of ambiguity in these cases.

129. The pronoun "it" is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see par. 164).

Examples.--_Kiu estas tie? Estas mi_ = Who is there? It is I. _Neĝas_ = It snows. _Pluvis_ = It rained. _Necesas, ke oni manĝu_ = It is necessary to eat.

Possessive Pronouns (_Pronomoj posedaj_).

130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival _A_ to the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the accusative.

131. They are mia = _my_, _mine_, via = _your_, _yours_, _thy_, _thine_ (cia = _thy_, _thine_, like its personal pronoun, ci, is rarely used), lia = _his_, ŝia = _her_, _hers_, ĝia = _its_, nia = _our_, _ours_, ilia = _their_, _theirs_, sia = _his_ (_own_), _her_ (_own_), _hers_, _its_ (_own_), _their_ (_own_), _theirs_, _one's_ (_own_).

Examples.--_Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, ŝia onklo, kaj iliaj onklinoj, estas en la domo_ = My father, your brother, his sister, her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. _Mi vidis vian libron, lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo_ = I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station. _Mi havas viajn librojn_ = I have your books. _Ĝia koloro estas ruĝa_ = Its colour is red. _Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj viajn amikojn_ = My sister met your brother and your friends.

132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the writer's option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the ground that it is superfluous.

Examples.--_Ĉar ni ĉiuj havas_ (or, _ĉar ĉiu el ni havas_) _unu vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian_ = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. _Ŝiaj infanoj estas pli grandaj, ol (la) viaj_ = Her children are bigger than yours.

Note in the first example that _ĉiuj_ is in the plural because it is in apposition to _ni_ (see par. 69 (_c_)).

133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection.

Examples.--_Patrino mia_ = Mother mine, or Mother dear. _Fratino mia_ = Sister dear.

134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may, as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural.

Example.--_Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino_, or, _liaj patro, patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo_ = His father, his mother, and his sister were in the house.

134 (_a_). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are sometimes used in a possessive sense.

Examples.--_Mi kovris al mi la orelojn_ = I covered my (to myself the) ears. _Li fermis al si la okulojn_ = He closed his (to himself the) eyes (see also par. 100).

135. Sia, Lia, etc.--Great care must be taken not to use sia, when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd person, or _vice versâ_. Sia can _only_ refer to the _subject_ of the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and _being reflexive_, it can never form _part_ of the _subject_ of a sentence, as:--_Li diris al ni, ke_ lia (not, sia) _hundo ĵus mortis_ = He told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent "his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one's (own)."

Since sia, being reflexive, can never form _part_ of the _subject_ of a sentence, we cannot say _Li_ kaj sia _edzino iris Parizon_, because _li_ and _edzino_ are equally subjects of the _same_ clause. But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the _sole_ subject, and we can correctly say, _Li_ kun sia _edzino iris Parizon_, or, _Li iris Parizon_ kun sia _edzino_ = He went to Paris _with_ his wife. If we use kaj we must say, _Li_ kaj lia _edzino iris Parizon_ = He _and_ his wife went to Paris.

136. In the four following examples sia _refers to the subject_ of the sentence:--

_Mia patrino forgesis sian libron_ = My mother forgot (_or_, has forgotten) her book. _Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn_ = Those children have lost their parents. _La hundo amas sian mastron_ = The dog loves its master. _Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem_ = One must love one's neighbour as oneself. N.B.--_Sin_ is here in the accusative owing to ellipsis, the words _oni amas_ after _kiel_ being understood (see par. 105).

137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun _does not refer to the subject_ of the sentence, and therefore we use lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, as the case may be:--

_Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon_ = He saw my friend and his (his friend's) wife. _Ŝi venis al mi hieraŭ, por ke mi redonu ŝiajn leterojn al ŝi_ = She came to me yesterday in order that I might return her letters to her. _La reĝo amas Johanon kaj lian filon_ = The king loves John and his son.

N.B.--Here the English does not show whether it is John's son or his own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is John's son, otherwise it would be _sian filon_; _lian filon_ is in the accusative here, because the conjunction _kaj_ connects like cases (see par. 266).

(_a_). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in accordance with the construction of the sentence.

_El ĉiuj siaj amikinoj, ŝi plej amas Marion_ = Of all her friends (female), she loves Mary best. (Here _siaj_ refers to _ŝi_).

_El ĉiuj ŝiaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata_ = Of all her friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here _ŝiaj_ refers to some woman not mentioned.)

_Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis_ = After reading (having read) his book, he fell asleep. (Here _sian_ refers to _li_, understood in _leginte_ = When _he_ had read his book, _he_ ...). _Leginte lian libron, li ekdormis_ = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here _lian_ refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the book.)

_Johano, legante sian libron, venkiĝis de dormo_ = John, while reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep.

138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:--

_Petro skribis al Paŭlo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon_ = Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (_sian_ refers to Paul because _li_ = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and _sia_ always, as we have said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if, therefore, _lian_ had been the possessive, it would have been Peter's dog.)

_Post kiam la reĝo mortis, lia filo edziĝis kun sia/lia kuzino_ = After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here _sia_ would refer to _filo_, the son's cousin, but _lia_ to _reĝo_, the king's cousin.

_Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke ŝi donu al sia/ŝia fratino sian/ŝian libron._ This sentence in English, whichever of the possessives be used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to give (that she give) to her sister her book." Now the mother is the first subject in this sentence, therefore _sian filinon_ is the mother's daughter (_ŝian_ would mean someone else's daughter). But afterwards _ŝi_ (the daughter) becomes the subject, therefore _sia fratino_ would be the daughter's sister, and _ŝia fratino_ the mother's. For the remainder of the sentence _ŝi_ (the daughter) still remains the subject, therefore _sian libron_ would be the daughter's book, and _ŝian libron_ the sister's or the mother's book. _Ties libron_ would definitely specify it as the sister's book.

138 (_a_). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and 138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia always refer to the _subject_ (noun or pronoun) of _their own_ clause.

(_b_). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to which they refer is not expressed, but only understood.

Example.--_Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian_ (or, _la_) _ĉapelon!_ = That is a new method of brushing one's hat!

(_c_). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied: i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the full sentence implied.

Examples of Infinitive.--_Estas bone ne trompi_ (_ke oni ne trompu_) _sin_ = It is well not to deceive oneself. _La patrino lasis Marion legi_ (_ke ŝi legu_) _sian libron_ (Mary's book); _ŝian libron_ (the mother's book). _La oficiro petis Aŭguston rigardi_ (_ke li rigardu_) _lin_ (him) _sin_ (himself). _La patro petis sian filon, helpi_ (_ke la filo helpu_) _sian_ (the son's) _amikon_; _lian_ (the father's) _amikon_.

Examples of Participle.--_La reĝo ordonis, ke ĉiuj renkontante_ (_kiam ili renkontis_) _lin, eliru. La princo montris viron, starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn_ (_kiuj ludas_) _per sia_ (their own) _pupo_--_per lia_ (with his) _pupo. La reĝo forveturis, ne sciiginte_ (_kaj ne sciigis_) _sian ministron pri sia_ (the king's) _devo_--_pri lia_ (the minister's) _devo._

(_d_). Boirac names _lia_, _ŝia_, _ĝia_, etc., the direct or normal form of the pronoun, "_La rekta formo_," and _sia_ the secondary or accessory form, "_flanka kaj akcesora_." He points out that where the use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is nevertheless not _obligatory_. It is even possible, as shown by Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., "_La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn samajn signojn en ilia_ (instead of _sia_) _lingvo_ (_F.K._, p. 258). In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form. It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used, than to omit it when it might be used.

CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)

139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan. They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V.

140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also expressions which require several English words to define clearly.

141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter _I_ is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal letters following _I_ show how that idea is applied, and consequently the full meaning of the word.

(_a_). The initial letters convey the following ideas:--

I- that the word is "indefinite." Ĉ- that the word is "distributive" or "collective." K- that the word is "interrogative" or "relative." NEN- that the word is "negative" (nen- = ne, _not_, and _N_ added for euphony). T- that the word is "demonstrative."

(_b_). The terminal letters following _I_ denote that the idea is to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:--

-A in relation to "quality" or "the kind of" (adjectival). -AL in relation to "motive" or "reason for" (adverbial). -AM in relation to "time" (adverbial). -E in relation to "place" (adverbial). -EL in relation to "manner" (adverbial). -ES in relation to "possession" (pronominal). -O in relation to "a thing" (substantival or pronominal). -OM in relation to "quantity" or "number of" (adverbial). -U in relation to "person" or "thing specified". (pronominal or adjectival).

142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels _A_, _E_, _O_, _U_, must not _necessarily_ be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not _grammatical_ terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative _N_, and those ending in _A_ and _U_ also take the plural _J_.

Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in _O_ also to take the plural _J_; but in practice this is seldom useful.

143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = _that_ (thing), tiu = _that one_, _the former_, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the separate word ĉi = _near_, to express the demonstrative pronoun, "this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as before stated. Thus tio = _that_ (thing), tio ĉi = _this_ (thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = _this_ (thing). Tiu = _that one_, _the former_, tiu ĉi = _this one_, _the latter_. Tiuj = _those_, tiuj ĉi = _these_ (lit., "those here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as:--Ĉi tiu = _this one_. In fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Ĉio ĉi = _all this_.

144. The adverb, tie = _there_, is also followed by ĉi to denote "here." Thus tie = _there_, tie ĉi = _here_, tien (accusative) = _thither_, tien ĉi = _hither_. Occasionally ĉi is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.

145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing with _K_) may be followed by the word ajn = _ever_, as kia ajn = _whatever kind of_, kial ajn = _for whatever reason_, kiam ajn = _whenever_, kie ajn = _wherever_, kiel ajn = _however_, kies ajn = _whosesoever_, kio ajn = _whatever_, kiom ajn = _however much_, _whatever quantity_, kiu ajn = _whoever_, _whichever_.

Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely used it except after the series _kia_, _kial_, etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when asked the question whether it could be employed after the series _ia_, _ial_, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (_c_) (_d_).

146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc., as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used in writing.

_Ĉiam-a_ = Everlasting, continual. _Ĉiam-e_ = Everlastingly, forever. _Ĉie-a_ = Of everywhere. _Ĉi-tie-a_ (_ĉi tiea_) = Of here. _Tie-a_ = Of there. _Ĉi-tie-ulo_ (_ĉi tieulo_) = A man of this place. _Tie-ulo_ = A man of that place. _Kiom-a_ = Of what quantity. _Kioma horo estas?_ = What time is it? _Neni-igi_ = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. _Neni-iĝi_ = To become nothing, to vanish. _Tiam-a_ = Of then, of that time. _Tiam-ulo_ = A man of that time, a contemporary. _La kial-o_ = The why and wherefore, the reason (cause). _Tiel-e_ = In that way.

147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.

Indefinite. Distributive, Interrogative Negative. Demonstrative. General or and Relative. Collective.

Quality IA ĈIA KIA NENIA TIA Kind of some (any) kind every kind of what kind of? no kind of that kind of (adjectival) or sort of every of what kind? no, no such such a some (any) of every kind what a! of no kind of that kind of some kind ... as (not any kind of)

Motive IAL ĈIAL KIAL NENIAL TIAL Reason for for some (any) for every for what for no for that (adverbial) reason or cause reason/cause reason/cause reason/cause reason/cause for all why? wherefore therefore reasons

Time IAM ĈIAM KIAM NENIAM TIAM (adverbial) at some always at what time? at no time at that time (any) time every time when never then ever for all time once ever

Place IE ĈIE KIE NENIE TIE (adverbial) in some in every place in what place in no place in that place (any) place everywhere where nowhere there somewhere (not yonder (anywhere) anywhere)

Manner IEL ĈIEL KIEL NENIEL TIEL (adverbial) in some (in) every in what in no in that manner/way manner/way manner/way manner/way manner/way somehow (in) every way how? nohow thus, so, (anyhow) all ways ... as by no means like (that) (in any manner) like not at all as ... in such a manner

Possession IES ĈIES KIES NENIES TIES (pronominal) somebody's everybody's whose no one's that one's (someone's) everyone's of which nobody's of that (anyone's) each one's of none of those of each, of all

Thing IO ĈIO KIO NENIO TIO (not specified) something everything what (thing) nothing that (thing) (substantival (anything) all things which not anything or pronominal) all

Quantity IOM ĈIOM KIOM NENIOM TIOM (adverbial) some quantity every quantity what quantity no quantity that quantity somewhat all, the whole how much none so much/many rather, some all of it how many none at all as much/many a little, at all (any)

Individuality IU ĈIU KIU NENIU TIU Person or thing some one each one, each which one no one that one (pronominal or (anyone) everybody who, he who nobody the former adjectival) _ĉiuj_=all, which, that all the ...

Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.

148. In the following examples (pars. 149-157) we have taken the correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.

149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.

Ia = _some sort of_, _some_, _a_, _an_.

Ĉia = _every_ (_each_) _kind of_, _every sort of_.

Kia = _what a_! _what kind of_? _of what kind_, _... as_.

Nenia = _no_, _no such_, _no kind of_, _of no kind_, _not any kind of_.

Ia ajn, _of any kind_ (_whatever_).

Tia = _such a_, _that kind of_, _of that kind_.

Tia ... kia = _such ... as_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion?_ = Have you not some book which will explain that?

_Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari_ = I have some (_or_, an) idea how to do it.

_Ekster ĉia dubo_ = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.

_Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj_ = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (_or_, in any) books.

_Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas_ = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are.

_Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa_ = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.

_Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas_ = Such a woman one always esteems.

_Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas_ = I gave him the book such as it was.

_Kiun aĝon li havas?_ = How old is he? (what age has he?)

_Kia estas la vetero?_ = How (what kind) is the weather?

_Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento_ = Commencing at any (whatever) moment.

_Kia bela domo!_ = What a beautiful house!

_Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj?_ = What are the stipulations (or terms)?

_Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj_ = They are proud, we are not so.

_Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni_ = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand.

_Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi_ = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).

_Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis_ = Here is the monument such as they described.

_Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato_ = Your age is the same as your brother's.

N.B.--Do not confuse the series ending in _A_ with that ending in _U_.

Examples.--_Kian libron vi bezonas?_ = What (sort of) book do you want? _Kiun libron vi bezonas?_ = What (_or_ which) book do you want? _Tia homo_ = Such a man, that sort of man. _Tiu homo_ = That man. _Ĉiaj libroj_ = All (kinds of) books. _Ĉiuj libroj_ = All (_or_, all the) books. _Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas_ = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.

150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.

Ial = _for some reason or cause_ (_for any reason_)

Ĉial = _for all reasons_, _for every reason_, _for every cause_.

Ial ajn, _for any reason_ (_whatever_).

Kial = _why?_ _wherefore_, _for what reason_.

Nenial = _for no reason, or cause_.

Tial = _therefore_, _for that reason_.

Examples.--_Ial li subite forlasis Londonon_ = For some reason he suddenly left London.

_Ĉial tio estas la plej bona_ = For every reason that is the best.

_Kial vi ne respondis?_ = Why did you not answer?

_Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi_ = He for no reason ceased writing to me.

_Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin_ = She never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.

_Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris_ = I cannot imagine why ever he did it.

151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.

Iam = _ever_, _at some time_ (_any time_), _once_, _one day_, _once upon a time_.

Ĉiam = _always_, _for all time_, _ever_, _at every time_.

Kiam = _when_, _at what time_, _as_ (relating to time).

Neniam = _never_, _at no time_.

Tiam = _then_, _at that time_.

Examples.--_Se iam mi venos_ = If ever I come (shall come).

_Ĉiam skribu legeble_ = Always write legibly.

_En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io_ = On such occasions something is always wanting.

_Kiam vi skribis tiel?_ = When did you write like that (thus)?

_Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron_ = When the priest comes (shall come), tell him the truth.

_Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_, or, _Kiam mi estis riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa_ = At that time when (_or_, when) I was rich I was not happy, _or_, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply _Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_ = When I was rich I was not happy.

_Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn_ = I never write long letters.

_Mi neniam aŭdis tion_ = I never heard that.

_Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos_ = Send him to me whenever he comes.

_Kiam ajn li venos?_ = Whenever will he come?

N.B.--Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time" except antaŭ = _before_, when ol is generally used, though kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. 259 (3)).

Examples.--_Unutage, kiam_ = One day, when. _Iun tagon, kiam_ = On a day, when. _Tuj kiam_ = As soon as, immediately when. _Samtempe, kiam_ = At the same time, when. _De l' tempo kiam_ = From the time when, since. _Post kiam_ = After. _Antaŭ ol li venis_ = Before he came.

152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.

Ie = _somewhere_ (_anywhere_), _in some_ (_any_) _place_.

Ĉie = _everywhere_, _in every place_, _in all places_.

Ie ajn, _anywhere_ (_whatever_).

Kie = _where_, _in what place_, _in which place_.

Tie = _there_, _yonder_, _in that place_. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi = _here_, _in this place_.

Examples.--_Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro_ = I could _not_ find my book _any_where in the room.

_Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien?_ = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?

_Ĉie mi trovis amikojn_ = Everywhere I found friends.

_Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie_ = That can be bought (one can buy) anywhere (everywhere).

_Kien vi iras?_ = Where are you going?

_Mi iras nenien_ = I am going nowhere.

_Kie estas la poŝtoficejo?_ = Where is the post office?

_Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo_ = It is there where that house stands.

_Kien vi iras?_ = Whither are you going?

_Mi iras tien_ = I am going thither.

_Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie?_ = Are you here?

_Li venas ĉi tien_ = He is coming here.

_Kie ajn li estas?_ = Wherever is he?

_Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi_ = Wherever he is, he is not here.

153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.

Iel--_somehow_ (_anyhow_), _in some way_, _in some manner_.

Iel ajn, _in any way_ (_whatever_).

Ĉiel = _in every way_, _in every manner_, _in all ways_.

Kiel = _how_, _in what manner_, _like_, ... _as_.

Neniel = _nohow_, _in no manner_, _not at all_, _by no means_.

Tiel = _thus_, _in that manner_, _like_ (_that_), _so_, _as_ ...

Tiel ... kiel (in comparison) = _as ... as_; _so ... as_.

Examples.--_Iel li ĉiel sukcesas_ = Somehow he succeeds in every way.

_Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari_ = I had no idea how to do it.

_Kiel vi fartas?_ = How do you do? _or_, How are you?

_Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon francan_ = She could nohow (_or_, not at all) understand him as long as he spoke in the French language.

_Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto estas donita al la besto_ = Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts.

_Kaj tiel plu_ (often written _k.t.p._) = And so on, and so forth.

_Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.)_ = As soon as possible.

_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.

_Kiel ajn malmulte_ = However little.

154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing or person, singular or plural.

Ies = _somebody's_, _someone's_ (_anyone's_, _anybody's_).

Ĉies = _everyone's_, _each one's_, _of each_, _of all_.

Kies = _whose_, _of whom_, _of which_.

Nenies = _no one's_, _nobody's_, _of none_.

Ties = _that one's_, _of that_, _of those_.

Examples.--_Ĉies devo estas nenies_ = Anybody's (everybody's) duty is nobody's.

_Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno_ = Someone's loss is not always somebody's gain.

_Ĉies ideo estis diversa_ = Everyone's idea was different.

_Kies libro estas tiu ĉi?_ = Whose book is this?

_Kies plumon vi uzas?_ = Whose pen are you using?

_La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro_ = The house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.

_El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj_ = From all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.

_Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas_ = That book is very dirty, whosesoever it is.

_Ties opinio ne multe valoras_ = That one's opinion is not worth much.

_Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon_ = I never take (follow) that one's (his, her, their) advice.

N.B.--Be careful not to use _kies_ for "of which," when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say _La afero kies ni parolis_ for "The affair of which we spoke"; we must say _La afero, pri kiu ni parolis_.

155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite), substantival or pronominal.

Io = _something_.

Io ajn, _anything_ (_whatever_).

Ĉio = _everything_, _all things_, _all_.

Kio = _what_ (_thing_), _which_.

Nenio = _nothing_, _not any thing_.

Tio = _that_ (_thing_). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = _this_ (_thing_).

Examples.--_Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas?_ = What is that (_or_, that which) you are writing?

_Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie_ = Something was under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.

_Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis_ = He saw something he liked very much.

_Estas tempo por ĉio_ = There is a time for everything.

_Ĉio_ (_tio_) _ĉi montras, ke_ ... = All this shows that ...

_Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas_ (_la_) _via_ = All I have is yours.

_Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas?_ = What is this that I see?

_Nenio estas preta_ = Nothing is ready.

_Mi nenion trovis_ = I found nothing.

_Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas_ = It (that) has a bad smell, whatever it is.

_Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi_ (or, _ĉio ĉi_) _al iu_ = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.

156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.

Iom = _somewhat_, _some quantity_, _rather_, _a little_, _some_.

Ĉiom = _all_, _all of it_, _the whole_, _every quantity_.

Kiom = _how much_, _how many_, _what quantity_.

Neniom = _none_, _none at all_, _no quantity_.

Tiom = _so much_, _so many_, _as much_, _as many_, _that quantity_.

Tiom ... kiom = _as much_ (_many_) ... _as_.

Examples.--_La vetero estas iom pli varma_ = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer.

_Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom_ = Here is sugar, take some, but not all (the whole).

_Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas?_ = How many horses have you?

_Mi havas neniom_ = I have none (none at all).

_Tiom pli bone_ = So much the better.

_Tiom estas malfacile memori_ = So much is difficult to remember.

_Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino_ = Give me as much water as wine.

_Kiom vi scias_ = As far (much) as you know.

_Kiom eble_ = As far (much) (many) as possible.

_Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble tiom_ = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can) hold, this one will hold twice as much.

157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal or adjectival.

Iu = _someone_, _somebody_.

Iu ajn, _anyone (whatever)_.

Ĉiu = _everyone_, _each one_. Ĉiuj = _all_, _all (of) the_....

Kiu = _who_, _which_, _that_, _which one_.

Neniu = _nobody_, _no one_, _no_.

Tiu = _that (one)_, _the former_. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = _this one_, _the latter_. Tiuj, _those_; Ĉi tiuj, _these_.

Examples.--_Iu estas tie_ = Someone is there.

_Mi ne vidis iun_ = I did not see anyone (someone).

_Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn_ = Each age has its duties.

_Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi_ = She read every book she could get.

_Kiu estas en la ĝardeno?_ = Who is in the garden?

_Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis_ = I knew every man whom I met.

_Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi_ = I read all the books that you lent to me.

_Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa_ = That bread is new, but this is newer.

_Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn_ = He who has the black hair.

_Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun_ = No one was there, therefore I saw nobody.

_Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo_ = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool.

_Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol_ ĉiun _alian_ = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker, whom she knew better than _any_one (everyone) else.

Ĉiu _vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia_ = Any (each) word can be combined with _any_ (each) other word.

_Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol_ (k)iu _ajn el liaj parencoj_ = He was more sincerely sorry for him, than _any_ of his relations.

_La pafilo povos en_ ĉiu _tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita_ = The gun can be (will be able to be) loaded at _any_ time.

_Li ne permesos al_ (k)iu ajn _tion fari_ = He will not allow _anyone_ (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (_d_)).

158. General Remarks.--The foregoing remarks on the correlative words show the importance of a correct knowledge of their true meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page of the "Krestomatio." Note the following difference in meaning of those ending in:--

(_a_). -_AL_ and -_EL_. It will be noticed that the series _AL_ represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:--"for some reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series _EL_ the phrases commence with "in," as:--"in some way," "in every way." Bear in mind that -_AL_ relates to _motive_, and -_EL_ to _manner_. Note the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = _for the reason that_, _forasmuch as_, _because that_. Tiel, ke = _in such a manner that_, _so that_. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li faras tion? = _Why_ (_for what reason_) _is he doing that?_ Kiel li faras tion? = _How_ (_in what way_) _is he doing that?_

(_b_). -_O_ and -_U_. The series _O_ is rarely used in the plural; it relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a personal pronoun. _Examples_.--Kio estas tio? = _What is that?_ Kiu estas tiu? = _Who is that?_ Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino = _That is my brother who is walking with his wife._ Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = _That is what I wanted._ Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = _That which is growing in my garden is a tree._ Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas kverko = _That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak._

Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and things, as:--_Tio_ (or, _ĝi_) _estis mi, kiu lin vidis_ = It was I who saw him. _Tio estas ponto_ = It (that) is a bridge.

(_c_). -_I_: "_ANY_" (= _SOME_). It will be seen from the table of Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column commencing with _I_ have as their main idea _indefiniteness_, corresponding to the English _some_ (_or other_). Thus: Li estas ie = _he is somewhere_ (_or other_). Mi manĝos ion = _I shall eat something_ (_or other_). Iu faris tion = _Someone_ (_or other_) _did that._

In English, especially in a sentence which is negative, interrogative, or suppositional, the word _any_ is often used in this sense instead of the word _some_. In such cases (as shown in brackets in the table) the i- words may be translated with _any_; thus: Ĉu vi manĝis ion? = _Did you eat anything_ (_something_)_?_ Mi ne manĝos ion = _I shall not eat anything._ Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = _If he were anywhere_ (_somewhere_) _in the room._ Ĉu iu faris tion? = _Did anyone_ (_someone_) _do that?_ Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = _I do not know anyone who could._ Se iu faris tion = _If anyone did that_....

(_d_). "_ANY_" (= _ANY WHATEVER_). Sometimes, however, the word _any_ is used not with the meaning of _some_ (as in the preceding paragraph), but with the meaning _any whatever_. Take, for example, the questions: _What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go?_ The answers might be: _Oh, anything_ (_you like_, _it doesn't matter what_); and _Anywhere_ (_you like_). This meaning of _any_ (_any whatever_) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: _Anyone could do that_, may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion fari.

(_e_). _AJN_. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to the English _-ever_ (see par. 248 (_b_)). It is also occasionally used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin ĉie ajn = _I looked for him absolutely everywhere._ Li estas nenie ajn = _He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere._

THE VERB (La Verbo).

159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is conjugated exactly the same.

160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs, from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see pars. 214-236), three moods (see pars. 171-202), and six participles (see pars. 203-213).

TENSES. (Indicative Mood.)

-AS, Present, as: Mi faras = _I do_, or, _make_. -IS, Past, as: Vi faris = _you did_, or, _have_ (or, _had) done_. -OS, Future, as: Ili faros = _they will do_.

CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.

-US, as: Se mi farus = _if I did_, or, _should_ (or, _would) do_, or, _were to do._

IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD.

-U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = _tell him to do that_ (lit., _that he do that_). Ni faru tion = _let us do that_.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

-I, as: Fari = _to do_.

PARTICIPLES.

-ANTA, Active, Present, as: Faranta = _doing_. Farante (adv.) = _in_ (_when_, or, other prep.) _doing_.

-INTA, Active, Past, as: Farinta = _having done_. Farinte (adv.) = _in having done_.

-ONTA, Active, Future, as: Faronta = (_being_) _about to do._ Faronte (adv.) = _on being about to do_.

-ATA, Passive, Present, as: Farata = _being done_, or, _done_. Farate (adv.) = _on being done_.

-ITA, Passive, Past, as: Farita = _been done_, or, _having been done_. Farite (adv.) = _on having been done_.

-OTA, Passive, Future, as: Farota = (_being_) _about to be done_. Farote (adv.) = _on being about to be done_.

N.B.--For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

There are two classes of verbs--transitive and intransitive.

Transitive Verbs (_transitivaj verboj_).

161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the passive.

(_a_). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be in the accusative case; as:--Johano batis la hundon = _John beat the dog_. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.

(_b_). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject is acted upon; as:--La hundo estis batata de Johano = _The dog was (being) beaten by John_. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:--La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = _The house built by my father is (having been) covered with slates_.

Intransitive Verbs (_netransitivaj verboj_).

162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:--Johano dormas = _John sleeps_, or, _is sleeping_. Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.

Auxiliary Verb (_helpa verbo_).

163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = _to be_. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = _to have_ is in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron = _I have a book_.

In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where English would usually employ "to be," viz., kuŝi = _to lie_; sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = _to find oneself_; troviĝi = _to be found_; stari = _to stand_; farti, or, stati = _to be_ (_well_ or _ill_).

Examples.--_La krajono kuŝas (estas) sur la tablo_ = The pencil is (lies) on the table. _Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis (estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton_ = On the hearth was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out into (on to) the yard. _Kiel statas via tuso?_ = How is your cough?

Impersonal Use of Verbs.

164. Verbs used impersonally (_senpersone_) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:--

(_a_). Verbs which relate to the weather.

Examples.--_Pluvas_ = It rains. _Pluvos_ = It will rain. _Fulmis_ = It lightened. _Neĝus_ = It would snow. _Hajlis_ = It hailed.

(_b_). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without.

Examples.--_Okazas_ = It happens. _Ŝajnos_ = It will seem. _Prosperis al mi trovi_ = It was my fortune to find.

(_c_). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or passive participle-adverb.

Examples.--_Estas pli bone forkuri_ = It is better to run away. _Estas dirite, ke_ ... = It is said that ...

(_d_). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see par. 245).

Examples.--_Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri_ = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. _Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte_ = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.

Reflexive Verbs (_refleksivaj verboj_).

165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive verb).

Examples.--_Mi lavas min_ = I wash myself. _Li lavis sin_ = He washed himself. _Vi razos vin_ = You will shave yourself. _Ili vestis sin_ = They dressed themselves.

166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is not repeated.

Examples.--_Ili batis sin reciproke_, or, _Ili batis unu la alian_ = They beat one another. _Ili ĵetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la alia_ = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another's heads.

167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.

The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid of which all the _compound_ tenses in the active voice and _all_ the tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed. The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = _I am being_, etc., are very rarely used.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Esti = _to be_.

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Estanta = being. Past, Estinta = _been_, or, _having been_. Future, Estonta = _about to be_, or, _going to be_.

Note that participles take the plural _J_ and accusative _N_ if required (see par. 207); also the adverbial _E_ (see par. 209 (_c_)).

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Mi estas = _I am._ Vi, ci estas = _You (thou) are (art)._ Li, ŝi, ĝi, oni estas = _He_, _she_, _it_, _one is_. Ni estas = _We are._ Vi estas = _You are._ Ili estas = _They are._

N.B.--The pronoun ci = _thou_ is rarely used.

Past.

Mi estis = _I was._ Vi estis = _You were._ Li, etc. estis = _He was._ Ni estis = _We were._ Vi estis = _You were._ Ili estis = _They were._

Future.

Singular. Mi estos = _I shall be._ Vi estos = _You will be._ Li, etc. estos = _He will be._ Plural. Ni estos = _We shall be._ Vi estos = _You will be._ Ili estos = _They will be._

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the past, present, or future.

Sing. (Se) Mi estus = _(If) I should be_, _were_, _had been_. (Se) Vi estus = _(If) you would_, _were_, _had been_. (Se) Li, etc. estus = _(If) he would_, _were_, _had been_. Plural. (Se) Ni estus = _(If) we would_, _were_, _had been_. (Se) Vi estus = _(If) you would_, _were_, _had been_. (Se) Ili estus = _(If) they would_, _were_, _had been_.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

The imperative or U mood has no tenses.

The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see par. 199).

Singular. Mi estu = _Let me be._ Estu = _Be_, or, _be you_, or, _be thou_. Li, ŝi, ĝi, estu = _Let him_, _her_, _it be_. Plural. Ni estu = _Let us be._ Estu = _Be_, or, _be you_, or, _be ye_. Ili estu = _Let them be_.

The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = _that_ (par. 200).

Sing. (Ke) Mi estu = _(That) I_ } (Ke) Vi estu = (That) _you_ } (Ke) Li, etc. estu = (That) _he_ }(_may_, _might_, _should_) _be_. Plural. (Ke) Ni estu = (That) _we_ } (Ke) Vi estu = (That) _you_ } (Ke) Ili estu = (That) _they_ }

168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB.

The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to the compound forms.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Simple _Present_, Teni = _To hold._ Compound _Present_, Esti tenanta = _To be holding._ Compound _Past_, Esti teninta = _To have held._ Compound _Future_, Esti tenonta = _To be about_ (or, _going_) _to hold_.

PARTICIPLES.

_Present_, Tenanta = _Holding._ _Past_, Teninta = _Having held._ _Future_, Tenonta = _About_ (or, _going_) _to hold_.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present (Simple).

Sing. Mi tenas = _I hold_, _am holding_, _do hold_. Vi (or, ci) tenas = _You hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_. Li, ŝi, ĝi tenas = _He_, _she_, _it holds_, _is holding_, _does hold_. Plural. Ni tenas = _We hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_. Vi tenas = _You_ (or, _ye_) _hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_. Ili tenas = _They hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.

N.B.--Ci = _thou_ is rarely used. Vi = _you_ is used, as in English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the participle in compound tenses takes the plural _J_.

Past (Simple).

Mi, vi, etc., tenis = _I_, _you_, etc., _held_, _have_ (or, _had_) _held_, _was holding_, _did hold_.

Future (Simple).

Mi, vi, etc., tenos = _I_, _you_, etc., _shall hold_, or, _shall be holding_.

CONDITIONAL MOOD (OR "US" MOOD).

The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context, viz., whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were," "had," or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced by the conjunction se = _if_ (see pars. 190-194).

(Se) mi tenus = (_If_) _I held_, or, _should hold_, or, _should be holding_, or, _were holding_, or, _were to hold_, or, _had held_.

IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR "U" MOOD).

Singular. Mi tenu = _Let me hold._ Tenu = _Hold._ Li, ŝi, ĝi, tenu = _Let him, her, it hold._ Plural. Ni tenu = _Let us hold._ Tenu = _Hold._ Ili tenu = _Let them hold._

Sing. (Ke) mi tenu = (_That_) _I_ } (Ke) vi (or, ci) tenu = (_That_) } _you_ (or, _thou_) } (Ke) li tenu = (_That_) _he_ }_may_, _might_, _should hold._ Plural. (Ke) ni tenu = (_That_) _we_ } (Ke) vi tenu = (_That_) _you_ } (or, _ye_) } (Ke) ili tenu = (_That_) _they_ }

(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195-202).

CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.

169. The following shows the compound tenses in the active and passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and imperative moods:--For the three persons of the plural add _J_ to the participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).

The Present in the Present Mi estas tenanta = _I am holding._ Mi estas tenata = _I am_ (_being_) _held._ Past Mi estis tenanta = _I was holding._ Mi estis tenata = _I was_ (_being_) _held._ Future Mi estos tenanta = _I shall be holding._ Mi estos tenata = _I shall be_ (_being_) _held._

The Past in the Present Mi estas teninta = _I have held._ Mi estas tenita = _I have been_, or, _was held._ Past Mi estis teninta = _I had held._ Mi estis tenita = _I had been held_, or, _was held_, if the action is completed. Future Mi estos teninta = _I shall have held._ Mi estos tenita = _I shall have been held._

The Future in the Present Mi estas tenonta = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to hold._ Mi estas tenota = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to be held._ Past Mi estis tenonta = _I was about_ (or, _going_) _to hold._ Mi estis tenota = _I was about_ (or, _going_) _to be held._ Future Mi estos tenonta = _I shall be about to hold._ Mi estos tenota = _I shall be about to be held._

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD.

Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.

Se mi estus tenanta = _If I should be_, or, _were_, _holding_. Se mi estus tenata = _If I should be_ or, _were (being) held_, or, _if I be held._ Se mi estus teninta = _If I should have held_, or, _if I had held._ Se mi estus tenita = _If I should have been held_, or, _if I had been_, or, _were, held._ Se mi estus tenonta = _If I should be_, or, _were, about to hold._ Se mi estus tenota = _If I should be about to be held._

N.B.--In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "He would not have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so we say:--_Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin_. If we use the simple form, _Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin_, it would be read:--"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the adverb _antaŭe_ instead of the compound form, and say:--_Li ne frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin_ = He would not have struck me if you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (_a_) and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190-194).

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD.

Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.

(Por ke) mi estu tenanta = _(In order that) I may be holding._

(Por ke) mi estu tenata = _(In order that) I may be held._

(Por ke) mi estu teninta = _(In order that) I may have held_, or, _might hold_.

(Por ke) mi estu tenita = _(In order that) I may have been held_, or, _might be held_.

(Por ke) mi estu tenonta = _(In order that) I may be about to hold._

(Por ke) mi estu tenota = _(In order that) I may be about to be held._

(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195-202.)

170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.

(INDICATIVE MOOD).

Present (Simple).

Singular. Mi lavas min = _I wash myself._ Vi lavas vin = _You wash yourself._ Li, ŝi, ĝi, lavas sin = _He, she, it washes himself_, _herself, itself_. Plural. Ni lavas nin = _We wash ourselves._ Vi lavas vin = _You_, _ye wash yourselves._ Ili lavas sin = _They wash themselves._

Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ili ne estas lavantaj sin = _They are not washing themselves._ Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin? = _Have we washed ourselves?_ (lit., _are we having washed ourselves?_) Mi estas lavonta min = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to wash myself_.

Past (Simple).

Ŝi ne lavis sin = _She did not wash herself._ Ĉu ni lavis nin? = _Did we wash ourselves?_ Ĉu ili ne lavis sin? = _Did they not wash themselves?_

Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin? = _When were you washing yourselves?_ Ni estis lavintaj nin = _We had washed ourselves._ Kiam li estis lavonta sin? = _When was he about_ (or, _going_) _to wash himself_?

Future (Simple).

Ĉu ni lavos nin? = _Shall we wash ourselves?_ Li ne lavos sin = _He will not wash himself._

Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ŝi estos lavanta sin = _She will be washing herself._ Kiam li estos lavinta sin? = _When will he have washed himself?_ Mi estos lavonta min = _I shall be about_ (or, _going_) _to wash myself_.

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).

Se li lavus sin = _If he should wash himself._ Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...? = _Would she wash herself, if...?_

Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Se ni estus lavantaj nin kiam.... = _If we should be washing ourselves when_.... Ĉu ili estus lavintaj sin, se.... = _Would they have washed themselves if_...? Se li estus lavonta sin kiam.... = _If he should be about to wash himself when_....

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).

Singular. Mi lavu min = _Let me wash myself._ Mi ne lavu min = _Let me not wash myself._ Lavu vin = _Wash yourself._ Ne lavu vin = _Do not wash yourself._ Li lavu sin = _Let him wash himself._ Li ne lavu sin = _Let him not wash himself._ Plural. Ni lavu nin = _Let us wash ourselves._ Ni ne lavu nin = _Let us not wash ourselves._ Lavu vin = _Wash yourselves._ Ne lavu vin = _Do not wash yourselves._ Ili lavu sin = _Let them wash themselves._ Ili ne lavu sin = _Let them not wash themselves._

MOODS (Modoj).

171 (_a_). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English. They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three tenses:--Present, ending in _-AS_, Past, in _-IS_, Future, in _-OS_; the Conditional (kondiĉa) mood in _-US_, the Imperative (ordona) mood in _-U_, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in _-I_; the three Active Participles:--Present, _-ANT-_, Past, _-INT-_, Future, _-ONT-_, and the three Passive Participles:--Present, _-AT-_, Past, _-IT-_, Future, _-OT-_. These twelve forms serve amply to represent all the various tenses and moods in English. However, to make the forms of the verb clearer to the student accustomed to the use of our indicative mood, we have called the tenses _-AS_, _-IS_, _-OS_, by that name.

(_b_). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear that a mood, under the name of "subjunctive," is not required (see remarks on ke, par. 198).

The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries "may" and "might" of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by the aid of such verbs as _permesi_, _povi_, or some word expressing possibility, as _eble_ (see par. 237 (_m_)).

172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner, although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman. For instance, our verbs in the present and past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same inflection in the first person singular and in the three persons of the plural. In Esperanto there is no such ambiguity. In such a phrase as "If they were rich, they would be happy," we must be careful to use the proper mood. Both the first and second propositions are conditional or suppositive, therefore in Esperanto the Conditional mood is logically employed, as:--Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = _If they were rich, they would be happy_. There is nothing of the past in the first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has not occurred, but which might occur.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).

173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding _-I_ to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_ with one of the active participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ of the verb for the compound tenses, as:--

Present (simple), Skribi = _To write_. Present (compound), Esti skribanta = _To be writing_ (lit., _to be being-writing_). Past (compound), Esti skribinta = _To have written_ (lit., _to be having-written_). Future (compound), Esti skribonta = _To be about to write_ (lit., _to be being-about-to-write_).

174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.

Present, Esti skribata = _To be written_ (lit., _to be being-written_).

Past, Esti skribita = _To have been written_ (lit., _to be having-been-written_).

Future, Esti skribota = _To be about to be written_.

175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the verb.

176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a preposition, whereas in English the preposition "to" nearly always precedes the verb.

Examples.--_Mi volas lerni danci_ = I wish to learn to dance. _Li devigis min kuri_ = He compelled me to run. _Mi hontas esti laŭdata de li_ = I am ashamed to be praised by him. _Mi devas peni atingi tiun rezultaton_ = I must try to attain that result.

177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive are:--(_a_). Por = _To_, or, _in order to_. (_b_). Anstataŭ = _Instead of_. (_c_). Antaŭ ol = _Before_. (_d_). Krom = _Except_, or, _besides_.

178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the word "to" we could substitute the words "in order to" or "for to"; or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).

Examples.--_La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi ĝin_.... = The best methods to (in order to) obtain it (_or_, for, _or_, of obtaining it).... _Mi havas ion por diri al vi_ = I have something to (for to) say to you. _Kion vi havas ankoraŭ por skribi?_ = What have you still to (for to) write? _La tempo por legi_ = The time to read (for reading). _Tio estas malfacila por kompreni_ = That is difficult (for to) understand.

179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense.

Examples.--_Anstataŭ trinki_ = Instead of drinking. _Anstataŭ agi honeste, li fariĝis ŝtelisto_ = Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief. _Antaŭ ol manĝi_ = Before eating. _Antaŭ ol foriri, ili surmetis la ĉapelojn_ = Before going away (before they went away), they put on their (the) hats. _Ne ekzistas alia bono por la homo krom manĝi kaj trinki_ = There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred. II, 14; III, 12).

180. As in English, the infinitive is used:--

(_a_). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general.

Examples.--_Erari estas home_ = To err is human. _Bone pensi kaj bone agi sufiĉas por vivi bone kaj feliĉe_ = To think well and to act well suffice for living well and happily.

(_b_). As the complement to explain an idea.

Examples.--_Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas_ = To live is to act; he who acts not, lives not. _Li ĉesis kuri_ = He ceased to run (running, _or_, from running).

181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but, of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word, used as its predicate, takes the adverbial _-E_. The infinitive, when used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by substituting _-O_ or _-ADO_ for _-I_; the noun then takes the article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Scii estas utile_ = To know (_or_, to have knowledge) is useful; or, _La scio estas utila_ = Knowledge is useful. _Legi estas agrabla okupo_, or, _La legado estas agrabla okupo_ = Reading is an agreeable occupation.

182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a gerundial phrase in English.

Examples.--_Promenadi estas sanige_, or, _La promenado estas saniga_ = Walking is healthy. _Instrui infanojn diligentajn_ (or, _La instruado al infanoj diligentaj_) _estas agrabla okupo_ = Teaching diligent children is an agreeable occupation.

183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix _-EBLA_ is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (_c_)).

Examples.--_Vi bone faris, ke vi venis_ (or, _venante_) = You did well to come (that you came). _Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu_ = Tell him, then, to answer me. _Estos pli saĝe, se ni ne piediros domen_ = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we shall not walk). _Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol lia_ = It would be difficult to meet with more complete devotion than his. _Ŝi ŝajnis (esti) forgesinta, ke ŝi estas maljunulino_ = She seemed to have forgotten that she was (is) an old woman.

184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the participle.

Examples.--_Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti_ = I shall take my skates and go skating. _Mi ĉesos kanti, se vi farados tiom de bruo_ = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise. _Mi kredis vidi ŝipon_ = I thought I saw a ship.

185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive (present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed, as:--

_La deziro morti_ = The desire of dying (to die). _La ĝojo esti venkinta_ = The joy of having conquered. _Tro laca marŝi_ = Too tired for walking. _Lerta paroli_ = Clever in speaking. _Bona por manĝi_ = Good for eating.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

186. As stated in par. 171 (_a_), the indicative is not an Esperanto mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto verbs.

The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations, viz., _-AS_ for the Present, _-IS_ for the Past, and _-OS_ for the Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_, is used with one of the three Active participles of the verb, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_.

187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one of the Passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.

188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true, either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is therefore the mood of certainty.

Examples.--_La patro venas_ = Father comes, _or_, is coming. _Patrino venis_ = Mother came, has come, _or_, did come. _Kiam mia frato venos, ni foriros_ = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go away. _Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin_ = If he is ill, I excuse him. _Li estis juste rekompencita_ = He had been justly rewarded. _Oni devas pardoni al li_ = One must pardon him. _Li estis amata de ĉiuj_ = He was (being) loved by all. _Mi estas vestita du horojn_ = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am having-been-dressed two hours).

189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain.

Examples.--_Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiaŭ_ = I hope that he will come to-day. _Ŝi ne estas certa, ĉu Petro sukcesis_ = She is not sure whether Peter succeeded (_or_, has succeeded). _Mi ne dubas, ke li venos_ = I do not doubt that he will come. _Mi timas, ke la respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta_ = I fear that the answer will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. _Mi timas, ke li venos, kaj eble difektos la ĝardenon_ = I fear that he will come, and possibly (perhaps) damage (_or_, and may damage) the garden. _Mi ne dubas, ke ŝi estos vestita kiam mi alvenos_ = I do not doubt that she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. _Ĉu vi opinias, ke li estas juste rekompencita?_ = Do you think that he has been justly rewarded?

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondiĉa Modo).

190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding _-US_ to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by _ESTUS_ and one of the participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ for the compound forms. These compound forms are not often used.

191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by _ESTUS_ and one of the participles _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.

192. It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past), and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have happened if something else actually occurred. In English the pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto.

193. After the conjunction "if," expressing a supposition, both the chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in Esperanto, when the act is conditional.

Examples.--_Se li estus riĉa, li havus multajn amikojn_ = If he were rich, he would have many friends. _Se vi volus, vi estus feliĉa_ = If you wished, you would be happy. _Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus defendintaj vin_ = If we had been (should have been) warned, we should have defended you. _Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne trovus lin_ = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his (the) mother would not find him.

193. (_a_). Note the various ways in which estus may be translated with the present and past passive participles in the following two sentences:--

(1). _Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian edzinon hejme._

(2). _Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian edzinon hejme._

(1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to leave his wife at home.

(2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been compelled to leave his wife at home.

194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative, if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies some unexpressed condition.

Example.--_Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiaŭ vespere_ = I should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the condition might be, "if you possibly can do it" (see par. 202 as to _estu_, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).

THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo).

195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is formed by adding _-U_ to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, or _-ONTA_ for the compound forms; but the latter are very rarely used.

196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, or _-OTA_.

197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo), entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness (konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention (intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider application than what is usually understood by the "Imperative" mood, for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood.

198. The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = _that_; but it must be borne in mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more frequently, by the Infinitive.

199. In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative.

Examples.--_Venu tien ĉi_ = Come here. _Donu al mi tiun libron_ = Give me that book. _Li venu tien ĉi tuj_ = Let him come here at once. _Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ_ = Let us go to Paris to-morrow. _Do ne maltrankviligu vin_ (or, _Vi do ne maltrankviliĝu_) _pri la afero_ = Do not then trouble yourself about the matter. _Ordonu, ke li venu_ = Order him to come (that he come). _Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru_ = Tell her to go away (that she go away). _Atentu, ke vi ne falu_ = Take care not to fall (_or_, lest you fall). _Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni_ = Let us not suffer him in that way to oppose us (_or_, Let us not tolerate that he oppose us in that manner). _Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti_ = Let us take care that he can damage nothing. _Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta_ = Tell him that I desire him to be silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (_m_).

200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative, implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (_a_), 237 (_m_) (3)).

Examples.--_Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron_ = I ordered him to give me the book. _Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon_ = I beg you to send me the dog. _Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la fenestron_ = He did not require me to shut the window. _Mi volas, ke vi skribu al via frato_ = I wish you to write to your brother. _Estas necese, ke ni tien iru_ = It is necessary for us to go thither. _Vi meritas, ke oni pendigu vin_ = You deserve to be hanged (that they hang you). _Mi bezonas, ke li venu_ = I want him to come (I have need that he come). _Mi ne volis, ke li venu_ = I did not wish him to come (that he should come). _Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron_ = She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the letter"). _Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon_ = I invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. _Ili skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ_ = They wrote to me not to come to-day (They wrote that I should not come to-day, _or_, They wrote "do not come to-day").

201. The expression por ke = _in order that_, _to the end that_, _so that_, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this expression implies "order."

Examples.--_Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ĉi ŝuldon, estas necese, ke vi kunportu sufiĉe grandan sumon da mono_ = In order to be able to pay (in order that you may be able to pay) this debt it is necessary for you to bring (that you bring) a sufficient large sum of money. _Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun ekstrema energio_ = In order to be elected (that you may be elected), you need to fight with extreme energy. _Por ke oni rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi tion meritu_ = In order that they may reward you, it is fitting that you merit it. _Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta pri mi_ = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that you may be satisfied with me). _Respondu al mi antaŭ morgaŭ, por ke mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li_ = Answer me before to-morrow, so that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. _Mi volas, ke li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon_ = I wish that he may be ordered to await my arrival, _or_, I wish him to be ordered to await my arrival.

201 (_a_). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give exactitude to an expression.

Examples.--_Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je la dua horo morgaŭ posttagmeze_ = I desire that he be awaiting me in the station at 2 o'clock to-morrow afternoon. _Estas necese, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo_ = It is necessary that he have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o'clock. _Mi ne volas, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu finonta ĝin_ = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.

202. From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost always preceded by the conjunction ke = _that_, and that the English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the _actor_ of the _first_ verb is also the _actor_ of the _second_.

Examples.--_Mi volas lin vidi morgaŭ_ = I wish to see him to-morrow. _La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon_ = The schoolmaster desired to reward the boy. _Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras fini la falĉadon hodiaŭ vespere_ = We shall need to work hard if we wish to finish the mowing this evening.

THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj).

There are three forms of the participle, viz.:--The adjectival in _-A_, the adverbial in _-E_, and the substantival in _-O_.

203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ to the root of the verb, as:--

Present, Skribanta = _Writing_ (lit., _being writing_).

Past, Skribinta = _Having written_.

Future, Skribonta = _About_ (_going_) _to write_.

204. In the passive voice by adding _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_, as:--

Present, Skribata = _Being written_.

Past, Skribita = _Written_, or, _having been written_.

Future, Skribota = _About_ (or, _going_) _to be written_.

205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound tenses of the active voice.

206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the moods and tenses in the passive voice.

207. Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.

Examples. _Ni estas vidintaj la viron_ = We have seen the man. _Ŝi vidis la virojn legantajn_ = She saw the men who were reading (the reading men). _Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ĉiutage sur la stratoj_ = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets.

208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as nouns and adverbs, by substituting _-O_ for _-A_ for a noun, and _-E_ for _-A_ for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice govern the accusative.

209. Examples in the active voice.

(_a_). _Participial nouns_, as:--_La leganto_ = _The reader_ (_person now reading_). La leginto = _The reader_ (_person who has been reading_). La legonto = _The reader_ (_person about to read_).

Examples.--_La leganto havas bonan voĉon, sed la leginto havis pli bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan voĉon el ĉiuj_ = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous) reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader will have the best voice of all. _Ĉi tiu_ (or, _tiu ĉi_) _ideo okupis la grandan pensanton ĝis la fino de lia vivo_ = This idea occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life.

(_b_). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (_d_)).

Examples.--_La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda lito_ = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. _Ŝi paliĝis kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta_ = She grew pale and appeared like a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might be used when the translation in English would be word for word the same, as:--_La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Ŝi paliĝis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino._ This shows the wonderful flexibility of Esperanto!

(_c_). Participial adverbs are invariable.

Examples.--_Legante ni lernas_ = In reading we learn. _Fininte sian laboron, li iris hejmen_ = Having finished his work, he went home. _Aĉetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri ŝilingojn_ = Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him) three shillings.

210. Examples in the passive voice.

(_a_). Participial nouns, as:--La aludato = _The person being spoken of_, or, _the person in question_. La aludito = _The aforesaid_ (_person_). La aludoto = _The person about to be spoken of_.

Examples.--_La pendigotino nun aperis sur la eŝafodo_ = The woman about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. _La batito tute meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li_ = The beaten one quite deserved the punishment that the beater gave him.

(_b_). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo = _The house under construction_. La konstruita domo = _The (actually) constructed house_. La konstruota domo = _The house (about) to be constructed_. Konstruota does not show obligation to construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and that it will be eventually built.

Examples.--_Li venis al mi tute ne atendite_ = He came to me quite unexpectedly. _Ne estas atendate ke li venos_ = It is not expected (being expected) that he will come. _La domo estas vendota morgaŭ_ = The house is to be sold to-morrow.

N.B.--Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).

211. Relation of the participle to the subject.

(_a_). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time, occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as its use would be against the spirit of the language.

Examples.--_Promenante sur la strato, mi falis_ = (While) walking in the street, I fell. _Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis_ = Having found an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (_a_)).

(_b_). If, however, the participle does _not_ relate to the _subject_ of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make the participial portion of the sentence relate to the subject, or else use another mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc.

For instance, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we crossed the bridge," but we cannot translate this literally into Esperanto, because "having run away" does not relate to those who crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say _La malamiko forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton_. So we must change the construction, thus:--"Having put to flight (made to run away) the enemy, we crossed the bridge" = _Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni transiris la ponton_. Or, another construction would be:--"After the enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = _Post kiam la malamiko forkuris, ni transiris la ponton_. In the sentence, "Swimming in the lake, the man saw a large swan," it is not clear whether the man or the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the sentence, _Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon_, the participle, _naĝante_, relates to the man, the subject of _vidis_. If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with _cignon_, and say, _Naĝantan sur la lago_, etc. But it would be better to alter the order, thus: _La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu naĝis) sur la lago_.

212. Participial expressions with prepositions.

(_a_). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.

Examples.--_Li alvenis, ne avertinte min_ (or, _sen averto al mi_) = He arrived without (not) having warned me. _Mi ne povos tion ĉi fari, ne estante subtenata_ (or, _ne subtenate_, or, _sen subteno_) = I shall not be able to do this without being supported. _Ni iru al la danĝero, ne timante la morton_ (or, _sen timo pri la morto_) = Let us go to the danger without fearing death.

(_b_). For can be rendered by ke = _that_ (or, pro tio, ke or, tial, ke) and the indicative.

Examples.--_Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min_ = I am thankful to you for having (that you) warned me. _Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel faras_ = Pardon me for so doing. _Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel faris_ = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).

(_c_). Of, by por and the infinitive.

Example.--_Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto_ = I reflected on a means of turning him from his project.

(_d_). After, by an adverbial past participle.

Example.--_"Kion ni faros?" li diris, sidinte momenton silente_ = "What shall we do?" he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment in silence.

(_e_). Before, by antaŭ ol and the infinitive.

Example.--_Li ludis antaŭ ol labori_ = He played before working.

213. The participle for the adjective.

(_a_). Be careful not to use the participle terminations _-ANTA_, _-INTA_ for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some English words ending in "ing" and "ed" may be used either as participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes _action_, whilst the adjective denotes _quality_, _state_, etc.

(_b_). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in accordance with the sense.

Examples..--_Laboranta_ and _labora_ = Working. _Ĉarmanta_ and _ĉarma_ = Charming. _Interesanta_ and _interesa_ = Interesting. _Sufokanta_ and _sufoka_ = Suffocating. _Kontentigita_ and _kontenta_ = Satisfied; pleased, content.

(_c_). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:--

_Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo!_ = Look at that man, working in the field! _Rigardu tiun homon laboran_ (better, _tiun laboriston_) _sur la kampo!_ = Look at that working-man in the field! In the first sentence, _laborantan_, the participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, _laboran_, the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. _Ŝi estas ĉarmanta nin per sia kantado_ = She is charming us with her singing. _Ŝi estas ĉarma, kiam ŝi kantas_ = She is charming when she sings. It would be better, instead of using the participle _ĉarmanta_, to say, _Ŝi ĉarmas nin per sia kantado._ _Mi ne estas kontentigita per liaj respondoj_ = I have not been satisfied with his replies. _Mi ne estas kontenta je li_ = I am not pleased with him.

THE TENSES (La Tempoj).

The Tenses, Active Voice.

214. The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound. The simple tenses are formed by adding -_AS_, -_IS_ or -_OS_ to the root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_, and one of the participles of the verb which must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in exactly the same way as all other verbs.

215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and Future.

216. Duration of action of the verb.--(_a_). In English, to express the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive verb is used after the verb "to be" in all the moods and tenses--as "I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving"; imperative, "Be thou loving." If great exactness as regards time be necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas (estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.

(_a_). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix _-AD-_ may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix _-AD-_, par. 270 (1)).

Examples.--_Ŝi kantadas la tutan tagon_ = She keeps on singing the whole day. _La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo_ = The birds were (kept on) flying from tree to tree.

(_b_). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by adding the prefix _EK-_.

Examples.--_Ŝi ekkantis_ = She began to sing. _La lumo brilis_ = The light shone. _La lumo ekbrilis_ = The light flashed (see remarks on prefix _EK-_, par. 288).

217. Emphatic form of verb.--In English this form consists of the verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is confined to the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the imperative mood of the active voice, as:--"I do love," "He does love," "I did love," "Do love." This form in Esperanto can be represented by the adverb ja = _indeed_, or by suitable adverbs, such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.

Examples.--_Mi ja lin amas_ = I _do_ love him. _Mi tiel multe amis ŝin_ = I _did_ so love her.

The Present.

218. The Present tense (simple) ends in _-AS_. It is used to express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what happens in all time, or what is understood to be present.

Examples.--_Mi kuras_ = I run, _or_ am running. _La vero ĉiam venkas_ = Truth always conquers. _La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke_ .... = The author says in his book that.... _Kiun vi vidas?_ = Whom do you see? _Mi vidas neniun_ = I see nobody. _Mi foriras, ĉar mia patro min atendas_ = I am going away, for my father awaits (_or_ expects) me. _Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue_ = I always get up (rise) very early. _Nenion oni faras sen peno_ = One does nothing without effort.

219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.--In Esperanto, as in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future, to give vividness to an expression.

Examples.--_Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi aŭdas post mi voĉon_ = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a voice. _Hodiaŭ plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgaŭ la akiro de la tombo_ = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey (acquirement) of the tomb.

220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the time in question.

Example.--_Ĉiuj, kiuj ŝin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la patrinon_ = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the) mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to them, hence _ili vidas_.

221. Present in place of the Past.--If it is a question of the truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of, English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present is always employed.

Examples.--_Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn_ = We learnt that you were (are) in London for eight days. _Ni kredis, ke vi estas kuracisto_ = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. _Li instruis nin, he ĉiam oni devas esti indulga_ = He taught us that one must always be forbearing (merciful).

222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti = _to be_ and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169).

Examples.--_Li estas vojaĝanta_ = He is travelling. The simple form, _Li vojaĝas_, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., _li nun vojaĝas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laŭte_ = When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly (see par. 216 (_a_)). _Esti skribanta_ = To be writing.

The Past.

223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -_IS_. It expresses something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity.

Examples.--_Mi skribis_ = I wrote, I was writing, _or_, I have written. _Li venis antaŭ du horoj_ = He came two hours ago. _Pluvis hieraŭ_ = It rained yesterday. _Se li estis malsana, li ne povis veni_ = If he was ill, he could not come. _Ĉu vi lin vidis?_ = Did you see (_or_, have you seen) him? _Li foriris, antaŭ ol mi alvenis_ = He had left before I arrived. _Mi promenis hieraŭ, kaj renkontis vian amikon_ = I took a walk (_or_, I was walking, better _promenadis_) yesterday, and met your friend.

224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_ and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen_ = When he had finished his work, he went home. _Mi estis skribanta leteron, kiam okazis tertremo_ = I was writing a letter when an earthquake took place. _Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis_ = They mutually agreed, and were about to enter the country, but something happened which prevented them.

225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going to happen, the words ĵus = _just_, or tuj = _immediately_, are often used respectively.

Examples.--_Mi ĵus vidis tre belan pentraĵon_ = I have just seen a very beautiful picture. _Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis_ = We were on the point of (_or_, just) going out when it began to rain.

226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle (_-INTA_) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in _-IS_ sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed.

Examples.--_Kiam ŝi estis rakontinta ĉion, kio okazis, ŝi ekploris_ = When she had related everything that happened, she began to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that _had_ happened," but "_ĉion, kio estis okazinta_" is unnecessary in Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "_okazis_." _Li ne estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li "Silentu!"_ = He had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, "Be silent!"

226 (_a_). The adverb antaŭe = _beforehand_ (or jam, or jam antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses, or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood, instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).

Examples.--_Kiam vi eniris en la ĉambron, la gastoj jam antaŭe foriris (or, estis foririntaj)_ = When you entered the room, the guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). _Kiam vi venos al mi, mi jam antaŭe finos_ (or, _estos fininta_) _la laboron_ = When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work. _Li ne aĉetus la libron, se vi antaŭe ne donus_ (or, _estus doninta_) _al li la monon_ = He would not have bought the book unless you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give him the money).

The Future.

227. The Future (simple) ends in _-OS_. The future (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_, but the compound form should be used only when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking place previous to that of the principal action.

228. The future denotes an action yet to take place.

Examples.--_La patro venos post du tagoj_ = Father will come in two days. _Ĉu vi pruntos al mi la libron?_ = Will you lend me the book? _Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he arrive? _Li venos la lundon proksiman_ = He will come next Monday.

229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the adverbs tuj = _immediately_, baldaŭ = _soon_, tre baldaŭ = _very soon_.

Examples.--_Li tuj alvenos_ = He will arrive immediately. _Li tre baldaŭ estos tie ĉi_ = He will very soon be here.

230. The future compound with the present participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be _going on_ at some particular time in the future.

Example.--_Je la deka morgaŭ matene mi estos veturanta Parizon_ = At 10 o'clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris.

231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be _finished_ at some particular time in the future (see par. 226 (_a_)).

Example.--_Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgaŭ vespere_ = I shall have finished my work at six o'clock to-morrow evening.

232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.--Be careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive for the future.

Examples.--_Se pluvos, li ne venos_ = If it rains, he will not come. _Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo?_ = What will you do when I am in the grave? _Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos_ = I shall write the letter whilst you are resting. _Ŝi skribis al ni, ke ŝi estos tie ĉi morgaŭ_ = She wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what? not "that she _would_," but "that she will," so the future is the correct tense).

The Tenses, Passive Voice.

233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the active participles, _J_ is added to the three persons of the plural in all the tenses.

234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it represents the two English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; we must, therefore, translate it accordingly.

235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For instance, the participles of skribi = _to write_ used alone mean--

Present, Skribata = _Written_, or, _being written_ (action going on).

Past, Skribita = _Written_, or, _been written_ (lit., _having been written_) (action completed).

Future, Skribota = _About to be_, or, _going to be_, _written_ (action about to occur).

236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the _time_ of the action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following examples:--

_La pordego estas fermata, ĉar la ludo estas ludota_ = The gate is being shut, for the game is about to be played.

_La pordego estas fermita, ĉar la ludo estas ludata_ = The gate is (_or_, has been) shut, for the game is being played.

_La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata_ = The gate was (_or_, had been) shut whilst the game was being played.

_Kiam estos pendigata la homo?_ = When will the man be (being) hanged?

_Li estis pendigota morgaŭ, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata ĝis mardo_ = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow, but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday.

_Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota?_ = And when he is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note that after the interrogative _kiam_ the English present tense is often future in Esperanto, as:--_Kiam li venos?_ When is he coming? _or_, When will he come?

_Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kaĝon, sed kiam la pordeto de la kaĝo estis malfermata, ĝi forflugis_ = A sparrow was (_or_, had been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was being opened it flew away.

N.B.--In the above sentence we see that the sparrow _was_ (estis) first in the state of _having been caught_ (kaptita); then in the state of _having been put_ (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door was in the state of _being opened_ (malfermata), and that during this action the bird _flew away_ (forflugis).

(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)

(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)

THE USE OF CERTAIN VERBS.

Devi.

237 (_a_). Devi = _to be obliged to, to have to_, means to be physically or morally obliged to do something, as:--Vi devas fari tion = _You must (have to, are to) do that_. Vi ne devas fari tion = _You are not obliged to do that_. If, however, the action is not immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:--Vi devos fari tion morgaŭ = _You must (will have to) do that to-morrow._ In its Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an expression, and then it can be translated by "ought," as:--Vi devus ne fari tion = _You ought not to (should not) do that._ Here devus is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari tion would mean _You must not (are not to) do that_ (see par. 194, also pars. 237 (_o_), (_p_), on "should," "must," "ought," and par. 59 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Mi devas vin forlasi, ĉar oni atendas min_ = I must (have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. _Ĉu mi devas fari tion tuj?_ = Must I (am I to) do that at once? _Ĉu mi devos veni morgaŭ_ = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? _Mi devis skribi leteron_ = I had (have had) to write a letter. _Li devis min vidi hodiaŭ, sed li ne povas veni_ = He was to see me to-day, but he cannot come. _Ili devis vidi min hieraŭ, sed ili ne povis veni_ = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come. _Li estis kolera hieraŭ, ĉar li devis iri lernejon_ = He was angry yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. _Sed por tio ĉi mi devos atendi iom da tempo_ = But for this I shall have to (I must) wait some time. _Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li_ = If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. _Se mi lin vidus, mi estus devinta paroli kun li_ = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have been obliged (have had) to speak to him. _La celo de ĉiu estas, aŭ devus esti, bonfaradi_ = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should) be, to do good. _Li devus kolekti kaj aranĝi siajn faktojn_ = He ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. _Kiam vi estas tie, vi devus vidi la kastelon_ = When you are there, you ought to see the castle. _Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi_ (or, _vi devus esti vidinta_) _la kastelon_ = When you were there, you ought to have seen the castle. _Mi devus tute ne aŭskulti ŝin_ = I ought not to listen to her at all.

From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear.

Present.

_Vi devas (paroli)_ = You must, have to, are to (speak).

_Past._

_Mi devis (paroli)_ = I had to (speak); _or_, I was to (speak, or, have spoken).

_Mi estas devinta (paroli)_ = I have been obliged, _or_, I have had to (speak).

_Mi estis devinta (paroli)_ = I had been obliged to (speak).

_Future._

_Mi devos (paroli)_ = I shall have to, I am to, I must (speak).

_Conditional._

_Mi devus (paroli), se ..._ = I should have to, or, be obliged to (speak), if ...

_Mi estus devinta (paroli), se ..._ = I should have had to, _or_, have been obliged to (speak), if ...

_Conditional (softened sense)._

_Vi devus (paroli)_ = You ought to, or, you should (speak, or, have spoken).

_Vi devus (esti parolinta)_ = You ought to have, or, you should have (spoken).

N.B.--Do not use _devi_ for "were to," when no obligation is implied. Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:--_Se ili venus, mi vidus ilin_ = If (supposing) they were to come (if they came), I would see them. _Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io malhelpis ilin_ = They were to (have) come last week, but something prevented them.

Also do not use _devi_ for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words express not "obligation," but "_purpose_" or "_intention_." For instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" may mean either (1) "Do you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or, (2) "Have you to (Must you) speak?" So we translate (1) _Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos) ĉe la kunveno?_ or, (2) _Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno?_ In such a phrase as "You are to do that" the obligation is clear, so we say _Vi devas tion fari._

Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as "The man must be a fool," which is _La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo,_ not, _devas esti ..._

Kuŝi.

237 (_b_). Kuŝi = _to lie, to be situated_, is sometimes used to denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It has, therefore, also the meaning of "to be."

Examples.--_La krajono kuŝas sur la libro_ = The pencil lies (is) on the book. _La libroj kuŝas sur la breto_ = The books are (lie) on the shelf.

Koni and Scii.

237 (_c_). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French verbs _connaître_ and _savoir_.

Koni means _to know_, _to be acquainted with_, _to know a person_, or, _thing_.

Examples.--_Mi konas vian fraton_ = I know your brother. _Li konas la hundon, sed li ne konas ĝian posedanton_ = He knows the dog, but he does not know its owner.

N.B.--It is never followed by the conjunction _KE_; _Mi konas, ke_, is wrong. _Mi scias, ke vi_ ... = I know that you ...

Scii means _to know_, _to be aware of_, _to know something is_ or _was happening_, etc.

N.B.--It is never used of persons.

Examples.--_Mi scias, ke li estas prava_ = I know that he is right. _Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hieraŭ_ = I knew he was there yesterday. _Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin_ = I did not know that you knew him. _Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias ĝin_ = I know (recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know it.

Lasi.

237 (_d_). Lasi, like the English verb "to leave," has various meanings.

(1). To let remain, as:--_Li lasis la libron sur la tablo_ = He left the book on the table.

(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:--_Li lasis sian edzinon en la domo_ = He left his wife in the house. _Lasu vian bastonon tie ĉi_ = Leave your stick here.

(3). To lose restraint upon something, as:--_Li lasis fali la libron_ = He let the book fall.

(4). To leave in a certain state, as:--_Li lasis min en la plej granda embaraso_ = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. _Li lasis la domon tre malpura_ = He left the house very dirty.

(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:--_La juĝisto lasis la infanojn al la patro_ = The judge left the children to the father.

(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:--_Kiam li mortis, li lasis_ (or, _postlasis_) _grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj_ = When he died, he left great wealth, which he left to various charitable institutions (note that to "leave," "bequeath," is _testamenti_).

(7). _Lasi_, followed by the preposition _en_, means to "leave in," or to "let into," according as the complement is in the nominative or accusative, e.g.:--_Mi lasis la hundon en la domo_ = I left the dog in the house. _Mi lasis la hundon en la domon_ = I let the dog into the house.

(8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used in the sense to "leave off," "cease," as:--_Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj petis de ili panon_ = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked them for bread.

(9). _Lasi_, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or, "allow," as:--_Lasu al mi ĝin fari_ = Let me do it, _or_, Leave it to me to do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense "allow to be," as:--_Neniu volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas_ = No one wished to let it be noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some national languages. It can be explained as an omission of _onin_ or some other pronoun, thus:--_Neniu volis lasi onin_ (_nin_) _rimarki, ke_ ... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that ...

(10). _Allasi_ = to admit (own the truth), as:--_Li allasis, ke li estas malprava_ = He admitted he was (is) wrong.

(11). _Delasi_ = to allow to leave, as:--_Li delasis lin de la domo_ = He let him leave the house.

(12). _Enlasi_ (like _lasi en_) = to let go in, as:--_Enlasu min!_ = Let me in!

(13). _Forlasi_ = to abandon, as:--_Li forlasis sian postenon_ = He abandoned his post.

(14). _Preterlasi_ = to let pass, as:--_Li preterlasis la okazon_ = He let the opportunity pass, _or_, He missed the opportunity. _Li ne povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis_ = He could not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.

(15). _Tralasi_ = to allow to pass through, as:--_Li tralasis la homon tra la pordo_ = He let the man pass through the door. _Kiam ŝi atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis_ = When she reached the gate, they let her through.

Pesi and Pezi.

237 (_e_). Pesi = _to weigh_, _to examine by balance_ (transitive).

Pezi = _to weigh_, _to have weight_ (intransitive).

Peso = _the weighing_, _the act of weighing_.

Pezo = _the weight_, or, _heaviness of a thing_.

Pesilo = _the scales_, or, _the weighing machine_.

Pezilo = _a_ (_metal_) _weight_.

From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both signify "weight," and care must be taken to use the words in their transitive or intransitive sense.

Examples. _Tiuj ĉi tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj_ = These tables are a great weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty pounds. _Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke ĝi pezas almenaŭ naŭdek funtojn; metu ĝin sur la pesilon, alportu la pezilojn, pesu ĝin, kaj diru al mi la ĝustan pezon_ = That chest is very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.

Povi.

237 (_f_). Povi = _to be able_. Beginners sometimes find a difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, "How can 'can' be both present and future, or 'could' both past and conditional?" The following examples giving translations of povi in its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.

Present, Mi povas = _I am able to_, _I can_.

Past, Mi povis = _I have been_ (or, _was_) _able to_, _I could_.

Future, Mi povos = _I shall be able to_, _I can_.

Future, Ni estos povintaj = _We shall have been able to_.

Conditional, Mi povus = _I should_ (or, _would_) _be able to_, or, _I could_, or, _I might_.

Conditional, Li estus povinta = _He would have been able to_, or, _He could have_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas_ = Are you able to (can you) do that? Yes, I can. _Mi ne povas vidi la arbon, kiun vi montras_ = I cannot see the tree which you point out. _Mi povis fari tion, kion vi volis_ = I was (have been) able to do what you wished. _Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis_ = I was not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you required. _Mi povos tion fari morgaŭ_ = I shall be able to (I can) do that to-morrow. _Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi_ = If you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could see you. _Mi povus tion fari morgaŭ, se...._ = I could (should be able to) do that to-morrow if.... _Ĉu li estos povinta plenumi la laboraĵon, kiam vi lin vidos morgaŭ?_ = Will he have been able to complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? _Se vi venus hieraŭ, mi estus povinta vin vidi_ = If you had come yesterday, I could have seen you. _Li povus veni, se li volus_ = He might (would be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (_l_), (_m_)).

Sidi.

237 (_g_). Sidi = _to sit_, _to be sitting_. Sidi has sometimes the signification "to be" in some defined place.

Examples.--_En la ĉambro sidis nur kelke da homoj_ = In the room were (sat) only a few (some) men. _La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo_ = The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. _En la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo_ = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle.

Sin trovi.

237 (_h_). Sin trovi = _to find oneself_. This expression (or, troviĝi = _to be found_, _to find oneself_, _to be_, or, _to be situated_) is often used for the English verb "to be."

Examples.--_Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj_ = On the tree were (found themselves) many birds. _Super la tero troviĝas aero_ = Over the earth is air.

Ĉesi, Daŭri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci.[17]

237 (_i_). In English the following and many other verbs are used in both a transitive and intransitive sense:--_to stop_, _to continue_, _to pass_, _to finish_, _to commence_. In Esperanto ĉesi, daŭri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we must add _IGI_. On the other hand, fini and komenci are transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add _IĜI_ (par. 280).

Transitive. Intransitive.

_Ĉesigu tiun bruon_ = _La pluvo ĉesis fali_ = Cease (stop) that noise. The rain ceased to fall (stopped).

_Li daŭrigis sian rakonton_ = _La ventego daŭris unu horon_ = He continued his story. The storm lasted an hour.

_Li pasigis du horojn en la budo_ = _La tempo pasas rapide_ = He passed two hours in the booth. Time passes rapidly.

_Li finis sian laboron_ = _La monato finiĝos morgaŭ_ = He finished his work. The month will finish to-morrow.

_Ŝi komencos sian vojaĝon morgaŭ_ = _La semajno komenciĝis hieraŭ_ = She will commence her journey tomorrow. The week commenced yesterday.

Footnote:

[17] The following is a list of the chief Esperanto verb roots whose English equivalents are used both transitively and intransitively. (E.g., _wakes_, in _he wakes her_, is transitive; in _she wakes_ it is intransitive.) Esperanto follows international usage in giving such verbs one meaning only, either transitive or intransitive.

Transitive Verbs (can be used in the passive, and with -ebla, -inda; may be used intransitively with -iĝ-):--

Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks, izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt, renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ, ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.

Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):--

Bol, brul, ĉes, daŭr, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit, halt, kresk, krev, kuŝ, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor, ŝpruc, ŝrump, ŝvel, velk.

Do, Did.

237 (_j_). The English verb "to do" is represented as follows:--

(1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc., it is represented by fari or agi.

Examples.--_Ne faru tion_ = Don't do that. _Batante la knabon, li faris_ (or, _agis_) _malprave_ = He did wrong in beating the boy. _La ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis_ = The chambermaid did what I ordered.

(2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).

Examples.--_Ĉu vi pensas, ke li venos?_ = Do you think that he will come? _Ĉu vi lin vidis hieraŭ?_ = Did you see him yesterday? _Mi ne konas lin_ = I do not know him.

(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja = _indeed, in fact_, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par. 217).

Example.--_Mi ja esperas, ke li venos_ = I do hope he will come.

(4). As an inquiry after health.

Example.--_Kiel vi fartas?_ or, _Kia estas via sano?_ or, _Kiel vi statas?_ = How do you do? or, How are you?

(5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi. In the sense of "to suffice" by sufiĉi.

Examples.--_Li friponis min_ = He did (cheated) me. _Tio sufiĉos_ = That will do.

(6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrases.

Examples:--

To do away with (abolish) = _neniigi_, (destroy) = _detrui_. To do business = _komerci_, _fari negocon kun_. To do for, or away with (murder, kill) = _mortigi_. To do into (translate) = _traduki_. To do well (prosper) = _prosperi_. To do up (arrange) = _aranĝi_, (tie up) = _kunligi_, (repair) = _ripari_. To do with (make use of) = _fari uzon el_. To do without (dispense with) = _forlasi, ne bezoni_.

Get.

237 (_k_). The English verb to "get" must be translated in accordance with its numerous meanings. For instance:--

(1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," may be rendered by iĝi = _to become_, or the suffix _-IĜ-_.

Examples.--_Edziĝi_ = To get married (man). _Edziniĝi_ = To get married (woman). _Leviĝi_ = To get up. _Alproksimiĝi_ = To get near. _Laciĝi_ = To get tired. _Tediĝi_ = To get bored. _Ĉu vi pretiĝas_ = Are you getting ready? _Mi malsatiĝas_ = I am getting hungry. _Mi kutimiĝas je tio_ = I am getting accustomed (used) to that. _Mallumiĝas_ (or, _Iĝas mallume_) = It is getting dark. _La tagoj pli mallongiĝas_ = The days are getting shorter. _La infanoj kuŝiĝis_ = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). _La vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas_ = The dinner is getting cold; but _malvarmumi_ = to get (or catch) a cold.

(2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by igi = to make, or the suffix _-IG-_ added to a verb.

Examples.--_Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado_ = Get her to come to our dance. _Mi presigos la libron baldaŭ_ = I shall get the book printed soon.

(3). To "get," in the sense of to "have got," or to "possess," is not translated.

Examples.--_Mi havas_ (or, _posedas_) _du ĉevalojn_ = I have got two horses. _Kion vi havas?_ = What have you got?

(4). To "get," in the sense of to "procure," "fetch," is rendered by havigi, or, venigi.

Examples.--_Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos_ = I shall get as much as I can. _Venigu al mi veturilon_ = Get me a carriage. _Venigu la kuraciston_ = Send for (get) the doctor.

(5). "Get" is translated in various other ways according to its meaning. Note the following examples:--

_Alveni en_ = To get to, to arrive at. _Alkonduku mian ĉevalon_ = Get my horse. _Alportu al mi la mustardon_ = Get me the mustard. _Mi ricevis vian leteron_ = I got your letter.

(6). To "get," followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrase.

Examples:--

To get across = _transiri_. To get along, forward, on = _antaŭeniri_. To get at (attain, reach) = _atingi_. To get back (something lent) = _rericevi_, (to a place) = _reveni_. To get down = _deiri_, _malsupreniri_. To get off (be acquitted) = _senkulpiĝi_, (escape) = _forkuri_, (a horse or coach) = _deiri_. To get dirty = _malpuriĝi_. To get on (a horse or coach) = _supreniri_, (in learning) = _progresadi_, (in business) = _prosperi_. To get on with (continue) = _daŭrigi_. To get out (of doors) = _eliri_, (publish) = _eldoni_, or, _elirigi_. To get over (across) = _transiri_, (surmount) = _venki_. To get ready = _pretigi_ (trans.), _pretiĝi_ (intrans.). To get round (coax, allure) = _logi_, _allogi_, (persuade) = _konvinki_. To get up (rise) = _leviĝi_, (ascend) = _supreniri_.

Can and Could.

237 (_l_). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = _to be able_, except when "can" has the permissive sense of "may" (see par. 237 (_m_) (3)).

Examples.--_Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe_ = I cannot see him at present. _Li ne povis iri hieraŭ_ = He could not go yesterday. _Li povus iri hodiaŭ, se li volus_ = He could (would be able to) go to day, if he would.

For other examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (_f_).

May and Might.

237 (_m_). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4) possibility, (5) power or ability.

(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the Esperanto Imperative mood.

Examples.--_Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu ĝustatempe_ = He hastens that he may arrive in time. _Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu la vagonaron_ = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.

(2). When they express "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also used.

Examples.--_Vi estu feliĉa!_ = May you be happy! _Via deziro efektiviĝu!_ = May your wish be realized! _Ĉielo vin benu!_ = May Heaven bless you! _Nenio difektu vian feliĉon!_ = May nothing mar your happiness! _Ĉia beno estu via!_ = May every blessing be yours!

In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and English, some such words as _mi deziras, ke ..._ = I wish that..., being omitted (par. 66 (_c_)). _Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora deziro!_ = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! _Ke li vivu, estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo!_ = That he might live, was my daily prayer! _Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas!_ = May I die, if I am lying at all!

(3). When they express "permission," some word denoting this must be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing permission being omitted (par. 58 (_a_)). The English verb "can" is sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of "may"; in that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = _to be able_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi?_ = May (can) I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) _Ĉu oni permesas_, (or, _ĉu estas permesate_), _ke mi vidu la kastelon?_ = May (can) I see the castle? _Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi volas_, or, _Vi faru tion, se vi volas_ = You may (I permit that you) do that, if you like. _Se mi estus permesita tion diri_ (or, _se estus permesite_, or, _se oni permesus_, _ke mi tion diru_) = If I might (were permitted to) say so (that).

The above questions may be shortened thus:--_Ĉu mi parolu kun vi? Ĉu mi vidu la kastelon?_ in this sense. The ellipsis understood here might, however, equally well be _Ĉu_ (_vi volas_, _ĉu necesas_, _ĉu estas bone_, _ke_) _mi parolu? vidu la kastelon?_ = Shall I (Am I to) speak (see the castle)?

(4). When they express "possibility," some word showing that the action is more or less a matter of doubt must be used, as eble = _possibly_, kredeble = _probably_, etc.

Examples.--_Eble li venos_ = He _may_ come, _or_, Maybe (possibly) he will come. _Eble li tranĉos la fingron, se vi donos al li tranĉilon_ = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will) give him a knife. _Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus_ = He might (possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. _Se vi tien irus, eble_ (_kredeble_) _vi lin vidus_ = If you went (were to go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him.

Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the adverb used. "May" rendered by _eble_ throws greater doubt on the contingency than _kredeble_.

(5). When they express "power," or "ability," povi = _to be able_ can be used.

Examples.--_La malsano povas konduki el komplikaĵoj_ = The illness may lead to complications. _Li povus tion fari, se li antaŭe volus_ (or, _estus volinta_) _ĝin fari_ = He might (could) have done that, if he had wished to do it.

Shall and Will.

237 (_n_). These verbs are used in English to denote:--

(1). Futurity. (2). Determination or will.

As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student, not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good English Grammar.

(1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, "shall," in _direct_ speech, is generally used for the first person, and "will" for the second and third persons, as "_I_, or _we_, _shall go_," "_He_, _you_, or _they will go_," except in interrogation, when "shall" is generally used for the second person, as "Shall you go?" But in _indirect_ speech "shall" is used for all three persons, as, "_He says he shall come._" "_You say you shall write._" In any of these cases they are translated by the future in _-os_.

(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but _determination_ on the part of the speaker, then, in _direct_ speech, "will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and third persons, as, "I _will_ do it, you cannot stop me." "You _shall_ not kill that bird." "Thou _shalt_ not steal." But in _indirect_ speech "will" is used for all the persons, as, "He says he _will_ go" (it is his determination to go). "You say you _will_ try it" (you are determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing "will" or "determination."

N.B.--In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above senses "shall" or "will" is used, unless the context makes it clear; so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to emphasize them strongly when they mean "determination." Note carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes.

Examples.--(1). _Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros_ = I shall come back when they go away. (2). _Mi intencas ĝin fari, ĉu vi konsentos, aŭ ne_ = I _will_ (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). _Vi mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos_ = You will kill that bird if you shoot straight. (2). _Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon_ = You _shall_ not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). _Mi scias, ke vi ĝin faros_ = I know that you will do it. (2). _Mi scias, ke vi povas ĝin fari, se vi volos_ = I know you can do it if you _will_.

Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following sentences:--I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early. If "shall" be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged; therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the sentence, as in English, by the future, as:--(1). _Mi ne vidos vin morgaŭ, se vi ne_ (or, _krom se vi_) _venos frue_. But if "will" be used, determination on the part of the speaker is implied; nothing prevents him; he could see you if he wished, but he _will_ not (won't). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination, and say (2). _Mi ne volas_ (or, _mi ne intencas_) _vin vidi morgaŭ, krom se vi venos frue_ = I _will_ not (I do not intend to) see you to-morrow unless you come early. (1). _Mi ne mortos sola_ = I shall not die alone. (2). _Mi ne volas_ (or, _mi certe ne intencas_) _morti sola_ = I _will_ not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1). _Ĉu vi estos_ (or, _ĉeestos_) _tie ĉi morgaŭ?_ = Will you be here to-morrow? (1). _Jes, mi estos_ = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of "shall." (1). _Li diras, ke li venos, sed_ (1) _ĉu li venos?_ or, (2) _ĉu li volos?_ = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed, viz.:--(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?

The phrase "Shall I do that?" can be translated by the future, _Ĉu mi tion faros?_ = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, _Ĉu estos plej bone tion fari_ = Is it best to do that? or, _Ĉu estos profite_, _saĝe_, _k.c._ = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or, _Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru?_ = Will it be proper (right) to do that? or, _Ĉu vi volas_ (or, _deziras_), _ke mi tion faru_, or, _Ĉu mi faru tion?_ = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). _Ĉu vi iros?_ = Shall you go? (2). _Ĉu vi volas iri?_ = _Will_ you go? _Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru?_ or, _Ĉu mi iru?_ = Shall I go? Am I to go? (pars. 58 (_a_), 237 (_m_) (3)). "Will I go" is bad English, and untranslatable!

Should and Would.

237 (_o_). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and "will" when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:--

(1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or merely supposed (par. 192), as "_I should do it if I knew how._"

(2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (_a_)) as "He _should_ not do that."

(3). Determination, as "Nothing could influence him, he _would_ do it."

(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as "Would you object to do that?"

(5). The future in _indirect_ speech (par. 232), as "_She said she would (will) come._"

(6). Would, when it signifies _custom_ or _habit_, is sometimes translated by adding the suffix _-AD-_ to the verb.

The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under which class of meanings it comes.

Examples.--(1). _Mi ĝin farus, se vi min permesus_ = I should do it if you would permit me. (1). _Li min frapus, se li ne timus_ = He would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). _Li insistis ĝin fari malgraŭ la danĝero_ = He _would_ do it in spite of the danger. (4). _Ĉu vi donus al mi tiun libron?_ = Would you give me that book? (1). _Se vi vidus Johanon morgaŭ_ (2) _vi devus diri al li, ke li ne aĉetu tiun domon_ = If you should see John to-morrow, you should tell him not to buy that house. (5). _Ŝi diris al mi, ke ŝi venos_ = She told me that she would (will) come. (1). _Mi iomete suspektis, ke ili venos_ = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6). _Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la branĉoj tuŝadis iliajn ŝultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la freŝaj folioj_ = They would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.

Must, Ought.

237 (_p_). "Must" and "Have to" always signify physical or moral obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which implies moral obligation or duty. Compare "_You must_ (_have to_, _are to_) _go_" with "_You ought to go._" The former can be rendered by devi, and the latter, "ought," by _deci_, or some word implying moral obligation. Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood; devus, in this case, being the softened form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken not to translate "must" when it signifies "have to" or "am to" by havi or esti (see par. 237 (_a_) on devi).

Examples.--_Li devas labori_ = He must (has to) work. _Mi devas havi tiun libron_ = I must have that book. _Ĉio, kio troviĝas en tiu ĉi libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ĉiuj_ = Everything which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. _La "Fundamento de Esperanto" devas resti severe netuŝebla_ = The "Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable (untouchable). _Vi devus ne fari tion_, or, _Ne decas, ke vi tion faru_ = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do that. _Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron_ = You ought to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. _Li devus ne forgesi_ (or, _esti forgesinta_) = He ought not to have forgotten. _Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la reĝo_ = I ought to offer my services to the king. _Kiam vi devos vidi la homon?_ = When must you (will you have to) see the man? _Mi devus vidi lin hieraŭ, sed li malsaniĝis, tial nun mi devos atendi ĝis morgaŭ_ = I ought to have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till to-morrow.

N.B.--Note, in the last example, that the adverb _hieraŭ_ = yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore unnecessary to use the past infinitive _esti vidinta_.

ADVERBS (Adverboj).

238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by adding the adverbial termination _E_. This facility enables the Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = _In such a manner_. Matene = _In the morning_. Vespere = _In the evening_.

239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a complement.

Example.--_Li parolas saĝe_ = "He speaks wisely," has the same signification as _Li parolas kun saĝeco_ = He speaks with wisdom.

240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Examples.--_Li agas bone_ = He acts well. _Tiu ĉi estas tre granda domo_ = This is a very large house. _Li skribas treege bone_ = He writes extremely well.

N.B.--When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:--Multe antaŭ la horo = _Much before the time_ (_hour_).

241. Position.--Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow the words which they modify (see par. 88).

242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the sake of distinction we will call (_a_) "Primary" and (_b_) "Grammatical."

(_a_). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination.

(_b_). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding _E_ to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by adding _E_ to a primary word.

A list of adverbs will be found at page 166.

243. No influence on case.--Adverbs exercise no influence on the case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative, it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:--Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = _I love John as warmly as my brother_. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas. Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative, as:--Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = _I love John as warmly as my brother_ (_does_). Ask yourself the question, "as my brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English we are obliged to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto the meaning is quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).

244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.--When a preposition has no complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial termination _E_. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (_I am standing by him_); apud here is a preposition because it is followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must alter the sentence, as:--Li staras apude = _He is standing by_ (_near_).

245. Subject not expressed.--When, in a sentence in Esperanto, there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is used in Esperanto in place of the adjective.

Examples.--_Mensogi estas honte_ (not _honta_) = To lie is shameful. _Estas necese, ke...._ = It is necessary that.... _Estas bele, varme, malvarme_ = It is fine, warm, cold. _Ne estas atendate, ke...._ = It is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed, then the adjective is used, as:--_La vetero_ (or, _ĝi_) _estas bela_, _varma_, _malvarma_ = The weather (_or_, it) is fine, warm, cold.

245 (_a_). Participle-Adverbs.--In Esperanto, when the participle relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164 (_d_).

Examples.--_Legante, ni lernas_ = In (by, when, while) reading we learn. _Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la preĝejon_ = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the church. _Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo_ = Being (as she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. _Malferminte la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato_ = Having opened (_or_, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the street. _Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon_ = Having glanced (_or_, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the table. _Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego_ = Having been (_or_, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in the forest. _Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis_ = Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.

246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity, usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.

Examples.--_Multe da homoj_ = Many men. _Nur malmulte da virinoj_ = Only a few women. _Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas?_ = How many horses have you? _Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo_ = Much more beef than mutton. _Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino_ = Less bread than wine. _Tro da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon_ = Too many cooks spoil the broth. _Ne estas sufiĉe da supo_ = There is not sufficient soup.

246. (_a_). Expressions such as "more and more," "at most," etc., are thus rendered:--

Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = _More or less_.

Plie = _In addition, besides_, _moreover_. Malplie = _Less and less_.[18]

Pleje = _At (the) most_, _mostly_. Malpleje = _At (the) least_, _least_.[18]

Troe = _In excess_, _too many_.

Footnote:

[18] These usages are seldom employed.

Examples.--_Unu pomo plie aŭ malplie ne gravas_ = One apple more or less does not signify. _Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke...._ = Moreover, I must tell you that.... _Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep malpleje_ = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. _En la kesto mi trovis du librojn troe_ = In the box I found two books too many (in excess).

247. Adverbs and the accusative case.--Adverbs exercise no influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a preposition (see par. 66 (_b_)).

After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc., it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al, kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de = _with the exception of_); spite de (see par. 258 (_a_)).

248. Comparatives and superlatives.--These are marked in the same way as adjectives (see pars. 112-114).

Examples.--_Pli rapide, ol bone_ = More quickly than well. _Malpli forte, ol kutime_ = Weaker (less strong) than customary. _Tiel dolĉe, kiel eble_ (or, _kiel eble plej dolĉe_) = As sweetly as possible. _Ŝi kantas la plej bone el ĉiuj_ = She sings best of all. _Li agis tre saĝe_ = He acted very wisely.

248 (_a_). Adverbs and adjectives.--Be careful not to use the adjective for the adverb.

Examples.--_Li kuras rapide_ = He runs rapidly. _Parolu pli laŭte_ (not _laŭta_) = Speak louder (more loudly). _Ŝi vidis lin piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime_ = She saw him walking (that he was (is) walking) more slowly than usual.

N.B.--Note that _piediranta_ is predicative (see par. 209 (_b_)).

LIST OF ADVERBS.

248 (_b_). The following list of adverbs contains all those found amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of useful grammatical adverbs.

Adiaŭ = _Adieu_, _farewell_, _good-bye_.

Example.--_Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris_ = He said good-bye to her, and departed.

Afrankite = _Post-paid_.

Ajn = _Ever_. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words beginning with _K_, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in "ever," but, unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145).

Examples.--_Kia ajn_ = Whatever kind of. _Kiam ajn_ = Whenever, whensoever. _Kie ajn_ = Wherever, wheresoever. _Kiel ajn_ = However. _Kies ajn_ = Whosesoever. _Kio ajn_ = Whatever, whatsoever. _Kiom ajn_ = However much. _Kiu ajn_ = Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever.

Aliloke = _Elsewhere_.

Alivorte = _In other words_.

Almenaŭ = _At least_.

Example.--_Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito_ = Give me at least the half of that biscuit.

Alvenante, Alveninte = _On arrival_.

Ambaŭ = _Both_, _one and the other_ (pronoun).

Examples.--_Ili ambaŭ kuris al la stacidomo_ = They both ran to the station.

Ankaŭ = _Also_, _too_.

Examples.--_Li ankaŭ ĝin faris_ = He, too, did it. _Nek mi ankaŭ_ = Nor I either (also).

Ankoraŭ = _Yet_, _still_. (See remarks on Jam).

Examples.--_Ĉu li estas ankoraŭ tie ĉi?_ = Is he still here? _Mi ankoraŭ ne vidis lin_ = I have not seen him yet.

Antaŭe = _Formerly_, _previously_, _beforehand_, _in front_.

Aparte = _Aside_, _apart_, _separately_, _specially_.

Apenaŭ = _Hardly_, _scarcely_.

Example.--_Mi apenaŭ pensas tion_ = I hardly think that (_or_, so).

Baldaŭ = _Soon_.

Example.--_Mi esperas, ke li venos baldaŭ_ = I hope he will (may) come soon.

Bis = _Once more_, _again_, _encore_.

Example.--_Bis!_ = Encore!

Bonstate = _In good condition_.

Certe = _Certainly_.

Ĉi = _The nearest_ (tio = _that_, tio ĉi or ĉi tio = _this_), (tiu = _that_, _the former_, tiu ĉi or ĉi tiu = _this_, _the latter_), (tie = _there_, tie ĉi or ĉi tie = _here_), (tien = _thither_, tien ĉi = _hither_), (ĉio = _all_, ĉio ĉi = _all this_) (par. 143).

Examples.--_Restu ĉi tie_ = Remain here. _Venu ĉi tien_ = Come hither.

Ĉial = _For all reasons_, _for every reason_ (par. 150).

Example.--_Ĉial tio estas la plej bona_ = For every reason that is the best.

Ĉiam = _Always_, _ever_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Li venas ĉiam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin_ = He always comes when one does not want him.

Ĉiame = _Perpetually_, _continually_.

Example.--_La infano ploras ĉiame_ (or, _senĉese_) = The child cries perpetually.

Ĉie = _Everywhere_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Ĉie mi lin vidas_ = Everywhere I see him. _Li iras ĉien_ = He goes everywhere.

Ĉiel = _In every (manner) way, all ways_ (par. 153).

Example.--_Tiu estas ĉiel la plej bona sidejo_ = That is in every way the best seat.

Ĉiom = _All of it, the whole, all, every quantity_ (par. 156).

Example.--_Prenu iom, ne ĉiom_ = Take some, not the whole.

Ĉirkaŭe = _Round about_.

Ĉiufoje kiam, or, ĉiun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = _whenever_.

Ĉiujare = _Yearly, annually, every year_.

Ĉiumonate = _Monthly, every month_.

Ĉiusemajne = _Weekly, every (each) week_.

Ĉiutage = _Daily_. Laŭtage = _By the day_. Tage = _By day_. Nokte = _By night_.

Ĉu = _Whether_. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply shows that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it, we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to preface the interrogation with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has," "is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc. etc.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi komprenis?_ = Did you understand? _Ĉu Johano skribas?_ = Is John writing? _Ĉu vi povas fari tion?_ = Can you do that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).

Ĉu = _whether_ (or _if_ in the sense of _whether_) (a conjunction) is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if."

Examples.--_Diru al mi, ĉu li venos_ = Tell me if (whether) he will come. _Diru al mi, se li venos_ = Tell me if he comes.

Ĉu ... Ĉu = _Whether ... whether_.

Example.--_Ĉu li venos, ĉu li ne venos, Paŭlo foriros_ = Whether he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul will depart.

Dekstre = _On the right._ Maldekstren = _To the left._

Denove = _Afresh_, _again_, _once again_.

Due = _Secondly_, _in the second place_.

Dum = _While_, _whilst_, _as_ (also a preposition and conjunction).

Dume = _Meanwhile._

Eble = _Possibly_, _perhaps_.

Eĉ = _Even._

Examples.--_Li eĉ pensis, ke...._ = He even thought that.... _Eĉ la infanoj insultis min_ = Even the children abused me.

Efektive = _In fact_, _really_, _as a matter of fact_.

Ekstere = _Outwardly._ Interne = _inwardly_, _internally_, _within_, _inside_.

Entute = _On the whole_, _as a whole_.

Facile = _Easily._ Malfacile = _With difficulty._

Fine = _In conclusion_, _lastly_.

For = _Away_, _forth_.

Example.--_For de ĉi tie fripono!_ = Get thee hence (away), rascal!

Forme = _In shape_, _in form_.

Galope = _At a gallop._

Grandnombre = _In great numbers._

Ĝisdate = _Up to date._ Ĝisnune = _Up to now_, _hitherto_. Ĝisplue = _Until further notice._

Ĝissate = _Till satiety (is reached)._

Ĝustatempe = _Opportunely_, _to time_.

Hieraŭ = _Yesterday._

Examples.-_-Mi lin vidis hieraŭ_ = I saw him yesterday. _Antaŭhieraŭ_ = The day before yesterday.

Hieraŭ matene = _Yesterday morning._

Hodiaŭ = _To-day._

Example.--_Li alvenos hodiaŭ_ = He will arrive to-day.

Hodiaŭ vespere = _This (to-day) evening._

Ial = _For some_ (_any_) _reason_, _or cause_ (par. 150).

Example.--_Ial li venis Londonon_ = For some reason he came to London.

Iam = _At some_ (_any_) _time_, _once_, _ever_ (par. 151).

Examples.--_Venu iam morgaŭ_ = Come some time to-morrow. _Ĉu vi iam renkontis lin?_ = Did you ever meet him?

Ie = _Somewhere_, (_anywhere_) (par. 152).

Examples.--_Mi ne povas ĝin trovi ie en la ĉambro_ = I cannot find it anywhere in the room. _Ĝi estas ie_ = It is somewhere. _Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien?_ = Did you put it anywhere?

Iel = _Somehow_, _in some way_, _in some manner_, _anyhow_, (_in any way_) (par. 153).

Examples.--_Iel li sukcesas en ĉio_ = Somehow he succeeds in everything. _Respondu iel_ = Answer in some manner.

Iom = _Somewhat_, _some quantity_, _a little_, _some_ (par. 156).

Examples.--_La vetero estas iom pli varma_ = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. _Jen estas cigaroj, ĉu vi deziras iom?_ = Here are cigars, do you want some?

Iomete = _A very little_, _in a very slight degree_, _at all_.

Example.--_Ĝi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo_ = It was slightly larger than a gnat.

Intence = _Intentionally_, _on purpose_.

Ja = _In fact_, _indeed_.

Examples.--_Li ja alvenos morgaŭ_ = He in fact will arrive to-morrow. _Ja_ may be used to express the emphatic English use of "do," "did," as:--_Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi_ = I do wish he were here (par. 217).

Jam = _Already_, _as yet_, _by now_, _now_.

Examples.--_Vi jam diris tion_ = You said (have said) that already. _Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon?_ = Have you _as yet_ found your watch? _Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis_ = I have _not yet_ looked for it. _La knabo jam ne ridas_ = The boy does not laugh _now_ (no longer laughs).

N.B.--Compare _jam_ with _ankoraŭ_. Jam shows that the circumstances are changed; _ankoraŭ_, that there is no change. Ex.:--_La infano jam dormas_ = The child is _now_ sleeping (it was not sleeping before). _La infano ankoraŭ dormas_ = The child is _still_ sleeping.

Jen = _Behold_, _here_. Jene = _As follows_.

Examples.--_Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas_ = Here is what (that which) you want. _Jen estas la libroj_ = Here are the books.

Jes = _Yes_, _it is so_ (par. 63). Jese = _Affirmatively_.

Examples.--_Jes, vi estas prava_ = Yes, you are right. _Mi vin certigas, ke jes_ = I assure you that it is so.

Ju pli ... des pli = _The more ... the more_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas_ = The more I know him, the more I love him.

Ju pli ... des malpli = _The more ... the less._

Example.--_Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi_ = The more I see him, the less he pleases me.

Ju malpli ... des malpli = _The less ... the less_.

Example.--_Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi_ = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need (to sleep) of sleeping.

Ju malpli ... des pli = _The less ... the more_.

Example.--_Ju malpli mi trinkas, des pli mi manĝas_ = The less I drink, the more I eat.

Ĵus = _Just_, _at the_ (_past_) _moment_, _just now_.

Examples.--_Mi ĵus vidis ŝin_ = I have just seen her. _Mi ĵus diris al vi lian nomon_ = I have just told you his name. _Lia ĵusa parolo_ = The speech he has just made.

Kaŝe or sekrete = _In secret_.

Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = _Sometimes_. Iafoje = _At times_. Multfoje = _Many times_.

Kia ajn = _Whatever_ (_kind of_) (par. 145).

Example.--_Mi aĉetos de vi tiun libron, kia ajn ĝi estos_ = I will buy from you that book whatever it may (shall) be.

Kial = _Why_, _wherefore_ (par. 150).

Example.--_Kial vi silentis?_ = Why were you silent?

Kiam = _When_, _at what time_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he arrive?

Kiam ajn = _Whenever_, _whensoever_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos_ = Send him to me whenever he comes (shall come).

Kie = _Where_, _in what place_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Kie kreskas tiuj floroj?_ = Where do those flowers grow? _Diru al mi, kie li estas_ = Tell me where he is. _Kien_ (accusative) = Whither. _Kien vi iras?_ = Whither (_or_, where) are you going? _De kie li venis?_ = Whence did he come?

Kie ajn = _Wherever_, _wheresoever_ (par. 145).

Examples.--_Kie ajn li estas, li estas ŝatata_ = Wherever he is, he is liked. _Kien ajn_ = Whithersoever. _Oni lin estimus, kien ajn li irus_ = He would be esteemed whithersoever he went (should go). _De kie ajn ĝi venis, ĝi estas tre bela katido_ = Whencesoever (from wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten.

Kiel = _How_, _in what manner_, _like_ (in comparison = _... as_).

Examples.--_Kiel vi fartas?_ = How do you do? (how are you, _or_, fare you?) _Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari_ = I have some idea how to do it. _Tiel longe kiel_ = As long as. _Se vi estus kiel mi_ = If you were (should be) like me. _Kiel eble plej bone_ = As well as possible (as possibly, most well). _Kiel bona vi estas!_ = How good you are! (par. 153).

Kiel ajn = _However_, _in whatever manner_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Kiel ajn vi ĝin faros, faru ĝin bone_ = In whatever way you (will) do it, do it well.

Kiom = _How much_, _as much as_, _as far as_ (par. 156).

Examples.--_Kiom kostas tio?_ = How much does that cost? _Kiom mi scias_ = As far as I know. _Kiom li povos_ = As much as he can (will be able).

Kiom ajn = _However_ (_many_) _much_, _whatever quantity_.

Examples.--_Mi ĝin aĉetos, kiom ajn ĝi kostos_ = I shall buy it, however much it may (will) cost. _Kiom ajn da teo estas tie, tiom sufiĉas_ = Whatever quantity of tea is there, it (that quantity) is sufficient (par. 145).

Kompare = _Comparatively_, _in comparison_.

Kompate = _Compassionately_, _mercifully_. Senkompate = _Pitilessly_.

Kompreneble = _Of course_.

Kondiĉe = _Conditionally_, _on condition_.

Konforme = _Conformably_, _in accordance_.

Konsekvence = _Consistently_.

Konsente = _By consent_.

Kontente = _Contentedly_. Malkontente = _Discontentedly_.

Kontentige = _Satisfactorily_, _in a satisfactory manner_.

Kontraŭe = _On the contrary_, _opposite to_, _vice versâ_.

Kredeble = _Likely_, _probably_.

Kune = _Together_, _jointly_. Kune kun = _Together with_, _along with_. Malkune = _Separately_.

Kvazaŭ = _As if_, _as though_, _as it were_ (also conjunction).

Examples.--_Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas fantomon_ = He stood as though he saw (sees) a phantom. _Li parolis, kvazaŭ li vidis ŝin_ = He spoke as if he had seen her.

Laŭlarĝe = _In breadth_, _broadways_, _transversely_.

Laŭlonge = _In length_, _lengthwise_.

Laŭvole = _At option_, _at will_.

Laŭte = _Loudly_, _in a loud voice_. Mallaŭte = _Softly_, _in a soft voice_.

Lerte = _Cleverly_. Mallerte = _Awkwardly_.

Longe = _Long_, _for a long time_. Mallonge = _Briefly_, _in short_. Antaŭ ne longe = _Recently_, _not long ago_, _a short time ago_. De longe = _Long ago_, _long since_, _for a long time_.

Male = _On the contrary_, _contrarily_.

Malpleje = _Least_, _at least_.

Examples.--_Li malpleje donis_ = He gave least. _Ni estos tri mapleje_ = We shall be three at least (see _pleje_).

Malpli = _Less_ (for comparatives) (par. 112).

Example.--_Georgo estas malpli forta, ol Johano_ = George is less strong than John.

Malproksime = _Afar_, _away_, _far off_, _in the distance_.

Matene = _In the morning_. Vespere = _In the evening_.

Mem = _Self_, _selves_, _very_ (pronoun) (par. 127).

Examples.--_Mi mem iros_ = I shall go my_self_. _Eĉ la virinoj mem laboris sur la kampoj_ = Even the women them_selves_ (_or_, the very women) were working in the fields. _Ĉe la pordo mem_ = At the very door (door it_self_).

Morgaŭ = _To-morrow_.

Examples.--_Mi iros tien morgaŭ_ = I shall go there to-morrow. _Li alvenos postmorgaŭ_ = He will arrive the day after to-morrow.

Multe pli multe da ... = _Many_ (_much_) _more of_ ... Nemulte = _Not much_, _not many_. Malmulte = _Little_, _few_.

Ne = _No_, _not_, _nay_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi deziras kafon?_ = Do you wish for coffee? _Ne, mi jam havas_ = No, I have (some) already (see remarks on negation, par. 59).

Ne tute = _Not entirely_, _not altogether_, _not quite_.

Example.--_Li ne estis tute malprava pri tio, kion li diris_ = He was not altogether wrong in what he said.

Nenial = _For no cause_ (_reason_) (par. 150).

Example.--_Nenial li ĉesis skribi al mi_ = For no reason he ceased writing to me.

Neniam = _Never_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Mi neniam vidis lin_ = I never saw him.

Nenie = _Nowhere_, _in no place_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Nenie oni povis trovi mian hundon_ = Nowhere could they find my dog. _Mi iras nenien speciale_ = I am going nowhere in particular.

Neniel = _Nohow_, _by no means_, _in no way_ (par. 153).

Example.--_Li neniel povis kompreni ŝin_ = He could in no way (not at all) understand her.

Neniom = _None_, _nothing_, _nothing at all_, _no quantity_ (par. 156).

Example.--_Li havas neniom_ = He has none at all.

Nepre = _Unfailingly_, _surely_, _infallibly_, _without fail_.

Example.--_Tiu libro nepre apartenas al mi_ = That book certainly belongs to me.

Norden = _Northwards_, _to the north_. Suden = _Southwards_, _to the south_. Orienten = _Eastwards_, _to the east_. Okcidenten = _Westwards_. Okcidente = _In the west_.

Nun = _Now_.

Examples.--_Mi nun foriras_ = I am now going out. _Mi ne povas lin vidi nun_ = I cannot see him now.

Nune = _At present_.

Example.--_Mi estas okupata nune_ = I am busy at present.

Nuntempe = _Now-a-days_, _at the present time_.

Nur = _Only_ (_but_, in the sense of _only_), _merely_.

Example.--_Li havas nur du ĉevalojn_ = He has but (only) two horses. N.B.--Care should be taken to place _nur_ in such a position in a sentence so as to convey the required meaning of the phrase. It is best generally to place it before the word to which it specially refers (see par. 88).

Pace = _In peace_, _peacefully_.

Page = _In payment_. Senpage = _Gratuitously_.

Parkere = _By heart_.

Parole = _Verbally_, _by word of mouth_. Skribe = _In writing_.

Example.--_Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe_ = He communicated that to me verbally and in writing.

Pasie = _With passion_, _passionately_. Kolere, _angrily_.

Pere = _Indirectly_. Senpere = _In a direct way_, _direct_.

Persone = _Personally_, _in person_.

Piedire = _On foot._

Example.--_Mi trapasis la arbaron piedire_ = I traversed the wood on foot.

(la) Plej = (_the_) _Most_ (for superlatives), _most_ (par. 113).

Examples.--_La plej bela el ĉiuj_ = The finest of all. _Vi agis plej saĝe, farante tion_ = You acted most wisely in doing that.

Pleje = _Most_, _mostly_, _mainly_, _at most_.

Examples.--_Ŝi donis pleje_ = She gave most. _Pleje_ (or, _plejofte_) _mi forgesas, ke ..._ = Mostly (frequently) I forget that ... _Ni estos kvin pleje_ = We shall be five at most (see _malpleje_).

Plezure = _With pleasure._

Pli = _More_ (for comparatives), _rather_ (par. 112).

Examples.--_Li ne vivos pli ol unu tagon_ = He will not live more than one day. _Pli kaj pli mi ŝin amas_ = More and more I love her. _Mi pli volis labori, ol ludi_ = I preferred to work than to play.

Plie = _Further_, _moreover_.

Plivole = _Preferably_, _rather_ (par. 112).

Plu = _Further_, _farther_, _more_. Ne ... plu = _No longer._

Examples.--_Mi ne faros unu paŝon plu_ = I shall not go (make) one step further. _Li ne plu faros tion_ = He will not do that any longer (more), or, He will no longer do that.

Plue = _Furthermore._

Poduone = _By half_, _by halves_.

Poste = _Afterwards_, _after_, _then_.

Precipe = _Especially_, _particularly_.

Prefere = _Preferably_, _rather_.

Preskaŭ = _Almost_, _nearly_, _well-nigh_.

Examples.--_Li preskaŭ falis_ = He nearly fell. _Ni preskaŭ pensas, ke ..._ = We almost think that ...

Pripensinte = _On reflection._

Proksime = _Near._ Malproksime = _Far off._

Proksimume = _Approximately._

Prunte = _On loan._

Example.--_Mi prenis (donis) la monon prunte_ = I took (gave) the money on loan.

Rapide = _Rapidly_, _quickly_, _apace_. Malrapide = _Slowly_, _tardily_.

Rapidire = _With speed_, _by express_. Malrapidire = _By slow train._

Rave = _Enchantingly_, _delightfully_.

Ree = _Again_, _in return_.

Rekte = _Straightforwardly_, _direct_. Malrekte = _Aslant._

Renversite = _Topsy-turvy_, _upset_.

Returne = _Back._ Returnen = _Backwards._

Ŝajne = _Seemingly._

Samtempe = _At the same time_, _simultaneously_.

Sekve = _Consequently_, _therefore_. Intersekve = _Consecutively_, _successively_.

Sendube = _No doubt_; _without doubt_, _doubtless_.

Senintermanke = _Continuously_, _without intermission_.

Skribe = _In writing._

Sovaĝe = _In a wild state._ Malsovaĝe = _In a tame state._

Somere = _In summer._ Vintre = _In winter._

Speciale = _Specially._

Sube = _Beneath_, _below_, _under_, _underneath_.

Sufiĉe = _Enough_, _sufficiently_.

Supre = _Above_, _up_. Supren = _Upwards._ Malsupre = _Below._ De supre = _From above._

Surgenue = _On one's knees_, _kneeling_.

Surprize = _By (with) surprise._

Tial = _Therefore_, _accordingly_, _for that (such) reason_.

Example.--_Tial mi konsilas, ke vi skribu al li_ = For that reason (therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150).

Tiam = _Then_, _at that time_. The correlative is kiam, and tiam, kiam = _then_, _when_ (or, _when_) (par. 151).

Examples.--_Tiam ni povos iri al la kunveno_ = We shall at that time be able to go to the meeting. _Mi vizitos vin (tiam), kiam mi venos Londonon_ = I will visit you (then) when I (shall) come to London.

Tiamaniere = _In this (such a) manner_, _thus_.

Tie = _There_, _yonder_. Tien = _Thither_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Ĉu iu estos tie?_ = Will anyone be there? _Vi ne vidos iun tie._ = You will not see anyone there. _Ĉu vi iras tien?_ = Are you going thither (there)?

Tie ĉi, or, Ĉi tie = _Here._ Tien ĉi, or, Ĉi tien = _Hither_, _here_ (par. 143).

Examples.--_Ĉu viaj fratoj estas tie ĉi?_ = Are your brothers here? _Venu tien ĉi_ = Come here (hither). _Ĉi tie ni vidis amasojn da viroj kaj virinoj_ (or, _geviroj_) = Here we saw crowds of men and women.

Tiel = _Thus_, _in that way_, _like that_, _so much so_. Its correlative in comparison is kiel. Tiel ... kiel = _as ... as_ (par. 153).

Example.--_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.

Tiel ... ke = _So ... that._

Example.--_Li tiel kriegis, ke li raŭkiĝis pro tio_ = He shouted so, that he became hoarse through it.

Tiom = _As much_, _as many_, _so much_, _so many_. Its correlative is kiom, and tiom, kiom = _as many as_, _as much as_ (par. 156).

Examples.--_Tiom estas malfacile memori_ = So much is difficult to remember. _Li tiom laboris, kiom vi_ = He worked as much as you. _Donu al mi tiom da pomoj, kiom da piroj_ = Give me as many apples as pears.

Tiom pli = _So much the more._

Examples.--_Tiom pli bone_ = So much the better. _Tiom pli malbone_ = So much the worse.

Trae = _Right through._

Tre = _Very_, _much_.

Examples.--_Li estas tre dika_ = He is very corpulent. _Mi tre estimas lin_ = I esteem him much.

Treege = _Extremely_, _exceedingly_.

Example.--_Ŝi estas treege kolera_ = She is extremely angry.

Trie = _Thirdly._

Triumfe = _Triumphantly_.

Tro = _Too_, _too much_.

Examples.--_Li estas tro grasa_ = He is too fat. _Mi lin tro amas_ = I love him too much.

Troe = _In excess_.

Example.--_Dudek funtoj troe_ = Twenty pounds in excess.

Tuj = _At once_, _immediately_, _just_ (_at the moment to come_).

Examples.--_Li tuj iris hejmen_ = He went home immediately (at once). _Tuj kantonta_ = just about to sing.

Tuj kiam = _As soon as_ (_immediately when_).

Example.--_Tuj kiam mi lin vidis, kuris al li renkonte_ = As soon as I saw him, I ran to meet him.

Tute = _Entirely_, _quite_, _utterly_, _stark_.

Examples.--_Vi estas tute prava_ = You are quite right. _Li estas tute freneza_ = He is stark mad.

Tute ne = _Not at all_.

Example.--_Mi tute ne komprenas vin_ = I don't at all understand you.

Unue = _First_, _firstly_, _at first_.

Verŝajne = _Probably_, _presumably_.

Vete = _Emulously_.

Vole = _With one's will_. Kontraŭvole = _Against one's will_. Memvole = _Voluntarily_. Senvole = _Involuntarily_.

Vole-nevole = _Willy-nilly_.

Volonte = _Willingly_, _readily_.

248 (_c_). From the above list we see that the adverb is often used in Esperanto in place of a preposition and its complement (par. 252).

Examples.--_Ŝi estas nigre vestita_ = She is dressed in black. _Li donis al mi du ŝilingojn page por la libro_ = He gave me two shillings in payment for the book. _Forme ĝi estis simila al krono_ = In shape it was like a crown. _La libro estas angle skribita_ = The book is written in English. _Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten_ = Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word _Esperanten_ the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67).

PREPOSITIONS.

The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the paragraphs under which remarks and examples of their use will be found:--

Par. Al _To, towards_ 259 (1). Anstataŭ _Instead of_ 259 (2). Antaŭ _Before, in front of_ 259 (3). Apud _Beside, close by_ 259 (4). Ĉe _At, with_ 259 (5). Ĉirkaŭ _About, around_ 259 (6). Da _Of_ 259 (7). De _Of, from, by_ 259 (8). Dum _During_ 259 (9). Ekster _Outside_ 259 (10). El _Out of_ 259 (11). En _In_ 259 (12). Ĝis _Till, as far as_ 259 (13). Inter _Between_ 259 (14). Je _(Indefinite)_ 259 (15). Kontraŭ _Against, opposite_ 259 (16). Krom _Besides, except_ 259 (17). Kun _With_ 259 (18). Laŭ _According to_ 259 (19). Malgraŭ _Notwithstanding_ 259 (20). Per _By means of_ 259 (21). Po _At the rate of_ 259 (22). Por _In order to, for_ 259 (23). Post _After, behind_ 259 (24). Preter _Beyond, past_ 259 (25). Pri _Concerning, of, about_ 259 (26). Pro _Because of, for_ 259 (27). Sen _Without_ 259 (28). Sub _Under_ 259 (30). Super _Above, over_ 259 (31). Sur _On_ 259 (32). Tra _Through_ 259 (33). Trans _Across_ 259 (34).

PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj).

249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other thing, action, or quality.

Examples.--_La riveroj fluas al la oceano_ = Rivers flow towards the ocean. _Li manĝas antaŭ la tagmezo_ = He eats before midday. _Nia domo staras ekster la arbetaro_ = Our house stands outside the plantation.

250. Every preposition, but one, in Esperanto has a fixed and definite signification, and great care must be taken to use the preposition which gives the meaning we wish to convey. A careful examination of the list of prepositions in par. 259 will show the errors we should make by translating the English preposition into its apparent corresponding one in Esperanto.

251. The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto without a definite meaning. It should be used only when we have to employ a preposition and are uncertain which we ought to select. We can, however, omit the preposition, and put its complement (noun or pronoun) in the accusative case, provided no ambiguity is likely to arise through the presence of other accusatives in the sentence, as:--Li ĝojas je tio, or, Li ĝojas tion = _He rejoices at_ (or, _over_) _that_. There is no Esperanto preposition which gives exactly the English meaning of "at" or "over" in this sense. We might, perhaps, say that these words are part of the verb "to rejoice at," or, "to rejoice over." The nearest Esperanto preposition would be pri or pro = _about_, or, _because of_, and we could say Li ĝojas pro tio = _He rejoices because of that_ (see Rule 14, par. 94).

(_a_). Je, with the nominative, is generally used before the complement of the adjectives "deep, high, long, thick, wide," but the accusative without a preposition is equally correct.

Examples.--_Profunda_ (_alta_, _longa_) _je kvin futoj_ (or, _kvin futojn_) = Five feet deep (high, long). _La rivero estas larĝa je kvindek metroj_ (or, _larĝa kvindek metrojn_) = The river is fifty metres wide. We could, however, say, _La rivero havas kvindek metrojn da larĝo_ (or, _da larĝeco_).

252. Adverb for preposition.--An adverb is often used instead of a preposition and its complement (par. 248 (_c_)).

Examples.--_Li parolas saĝe_ = He speaks with wisdom, instead of, _Li parolas kun saĝeco_. _Li estis frapata perfortege_ = He was being struck with great violence, instead of, _Li estis frapata kun perfortego_.

253. Preposition omitted.--Not only the preposition Je (par. 251), but also other prepositions, are frequently omitted in Esperanto where we use them in English; but in such case (as stated in par. 68) their complements must be in the accusative to show the omission. Care, however, must be taken that the omission does not make the phrase ambiguous.

Examples.--_Li venos la mardon proksiman_ (or, _en la mardo proksima_) = He will come next Tuesday. _Mi iros Madridon_ (or, _al Madrido_) _morgaŭ_ = I shall go to Madrid to-morrow. _Mi lin vidis la dekan_ (or, _en la deka_) _de Julio_ = I saw him on the 10th of July. _Ni restis en la veturilo du horojn_ (or, _dum du horoj_) = We remained two hours in the carriage.

(_a_). Prepositions are also always omitted between two substantives, when the word nomata = _named_ could be understood (par. 106 (_d_)), as:--

_La urbo_ (_nomata_) _Parizo_ = The city of (named) Paris. _La monato Septembro_ = The month of September. _Li uzadas la lingvon internacian_ (_nomatan_) _Esperanto_ = He uses the international language Esperanto.

(_b_). The preposition el = _of_, _out of_, is sometimes omitted in such an expression as:--

_Tri miaj parencoj_ = Three of my relatives (_or_, three relations of mine).

254. Prepositions as prefixes.--Prepositions are frequently used as prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb.

Examples.--_Mi eliris el la korto_ = I went out of the courtyard. _Li eniris en la ĉambron_ = He entered (into) the room. _La birdo deflugis de la arbo_ = The bird flew from the tree. _Li eliris el la domo_ = He went out of the house. Or we could say, _Li iris el la domo_, omitting the joined preposition.

255. Prepositions and case.--In contrast to prepositions in English, which govern the accusative case, all prepositions in Esperanto govern the nominative case. If the complement of a preposition is in the accusative case, this is owing not to the preposition, but to the rule that the accusative is used to show the direction or place towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made (par. 67).

256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.--As already stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition, then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with the following rules:--

(_a_). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that prepositions govern that case.

(b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative (par. 67).

257. Prepositions denoting movement.--The following two prepositions denote movement, and consequently their complement is never in the accusative:--Al = _To_, _towards_. Ĝis = _Up to_, _as far as_.

As regards the others, the following are those in general use, whose complement takes the accusative of direction when motion towards something is implied:--Antaŭ = _Before_. Ĉirkaŭ = _Around_, _about_. En = _In_. Kontraŭ = _Against_. Sub = _Under_. Super = _Over_. Sur = _On_, _upon_. Tra = _Through_. Trans = _Across_.

Examples.--_Li staris momente antaŭ la spegulo, kaj tuj poste venis antaŭ la reĝon_ = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass, and then came before (into the presence of) the king. _La infano dancis en la korto, kaj poste kuris en la ĝardenon_ = The child danced _in_ (not _into_) the courtyard, and then ran _into_ (not _in_) the garden. _Ĵetu tion sub la tablon_ = Throw that under the table. _Ĵetu la ŝtonon super la muron_ = Throw the stone over the wall. _Mi prenas sur min tiun ĉi aferon_ = I take upon myself this business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since _sur_ does not of itself show movement). _La knabo vadis trans la riveron kaj trans ĝi trovis aliajn knabojn_ = The boy waded across the river, and, on the other side of it, found other boys.

258. Prepositional expressions.--Adverbs are not unfrequently followed by prepositions, thus forming prepositional expressions which take the nominative case, like simple prepositions.

Examples.--_Meze de la kampo_ = In the middle of the field. _Funde de kesto_ = At the bottom of a box. _Flanke de la malliberulo_ = At the side of the prisoner. _Proksime de la preĝejo_ = Near the church. _Dekstre de la vojo_ = On the right of the road. _Supre de la muro_ = At the top of the wall. _Dank' al lia konsilo_ = Thanks to his advice. _Li venis kune kun sia frato_ = He came together (along) with his brother. _Li estas for de tie ĉi_ = He is away from here. _Oni plantis arbon proksime de la puto_ = They planted a tree near the well. _Metu vian manon for de mia kolo!_ = Take your hand off (away from) my neck.

(_a_). A few adverbs, used as prepositional expressions, are sometimes followed by a suitable preposition and sometimes not; in the latter case the complement is in the accusative, to show the omission (par. 253).

Examples.--_Koncerne tiun aferon_ (or, _Koncerne je tiu afero_) = Concerning that matter. _Konforme tion_ (or, _Konforme al_, _kun_ or, _je tio_) = In conformity with that. _Rilate lian karakteron_ (or, _Rilate al lia karaktero_) = With regard to (relative to, as regards, referring to) his character (par. 247)

N.B.--These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We might, in some cases, use _pri_ for _koncerne je_ or _rilate al_, and _laŭ_ for _konforme al_.

(_b_). Two prepositions sometimes are used.

Examples.--_"Eniru!" ekkriegis voĉo de en la pordo_ = "Come in!" shouted a voice from within (inside) the door. _Li rampis de sub la sofo_ = He crept from under the sofa. _La ŝtono havis la alton_ (or, _altecon_) _de ĉirkaŭ ok centimetroj kaj la larĝon_ (or, _larĝecon_) _de ĉirkaŭ kvin centimetroj_ = The stone had the height of about eight centimetres and the width of about five centimetres. _El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton_ = Out from under the chest of drawers the mouse ran under the bed. _Ne rapidu foriri de antaŭ li_ = Do not hasten to leave his presence (go away from before him).

259. The relation of prepositions to their complement.--English grammarians divide prepositions into various classes, but in Esperanto, with the exception of those mentioned in par. 257, denoting motion and rest, there are but two classes to which we need pay special attention, viz., those which relate to both place and time; and of these, two only, viz., antaŭ = _before_, and post = _after_, require care in making their meaning clear.

In the following remarks on prepositions the examples given of their use are placed under the various classes that their English rendering would assign to them; but we must bear in mind that, in accordance with Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This _defined_ meaning is given at the _head_ of each preposition. The meanings given in the _classes_ are only the _various English renderings_ that can be given to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261).

REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS.

259 (1). Al = _To, towards._

Denotes approximation or addition.

Approximation = _To, towards._

Examples.--_Li venis al ni_ = He came to (_or_ towards) us. _Mi iras al Parizo_, or, _Mi iras Parizon_ = I am going to Paris. If _al_ be omitted, _Parizon_ must be in the accusative of direction. _Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj_ = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.

N.B.--_Kaŝata al_, not _de_, which, after a passive participle, means "by"; but independently of this, _al_ is logically used after _kaŝi_, in the sense of "to hide from"; as:--_Sed pro kio kaŝi al li vian amon?_ = But why conceal from him your love?

Addition = _To._

Examples.--_Mi donis akvon al la birdoj_ = I gave water to the birds. _La rozo apartenas al Teodoro_ = The rose belongs to Theodore. _Donu vestaĵon al la malriĉuloj_ = Give clothing to the poor.

N.B.--With some verbs _al_ is often used with the complement in the nominative, when in English we omit the preposition, as:--_Li konsilis al mi fari tion_ = He advised me to do that. _Ordonu al li_ (or, _Ordonu lin_), _ke li ne faru tion_ = Order him not to do that.

_Al_ is also sometimes used with personal pronouns in a possessive sense, as:--_Li lavis al si la manojn_, or, _Li lavis siajn manojn_ = He washed his hands (see par. 134).

As a prefix, _al_ signifies "to," "towards," as:--_Alveni_ = To come to, arrive. _Alpreni_ = To take to, adopt. _Alpaŝi_ = To step towards, approach.

259 (2). Anstataŭ = _Instead of._

One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (see remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179).

Substitution = _Instead of_, _for_, _in place of_, _as a substitute for_, _in room of_.

Examples.--_Anstataŭ li, oni sendis lian fraton_ = Instead of him, they sent his brother. _Anstataŭ kafo li donis al mi teon_ = Instead of coffee he gave me tea. _Anstataŭ eliri, li restis en la domo_ = Instead of going out, he remained in the house. _Anstataŭ unu el la oficistoj_ = In place of one of the officials.

Although, in the first two examples given in the preceding paragraph, anstataŭ, being a preposition, is followed by the nominative, nevertheless, the accusative is often used in such cases when its use helps to remove ambiguity; the accusative being due to the omission of a verb understood. Compare: Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ Vilhelmo = _Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so_, with Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ (bati) Vilhelmon, _Peter beat Paul instead of_ (_beating_) _William_.

As a root-word, _Anstataŭi_ = To replace (intrans.). _Anstataŭigi_ = To replace (trans.), to substitute. _Anstataŭulo_ = A proxy (person instead of).

259 (3). Antaŭ = _Before_, _in front of_.

Denotes place or time. May take accusative of direction.

Place = _Before_, _in front of_.

Examples.--_Oni metis antaŭ mi manĝilaron_ = They put before me a table service. _Morgaŭ mi petos permeson veni antaŭ viajn reĝajn okulojn_ = To-morrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal presence (kingly eyes). _Antaŭ nia militistaro staris pafilegoj_ = In front of our army were (stood) cannon.

Time = _Before_, _ago_.

Examples.--_Antaŭ ne longe_ = Not long ago. _Antaŭ kelkaj semajnoj_ = Some (a few) weeks ago.

N.B.--Since _antaŭ_ and also _post_ are frequently used both in the sense of "time" and "place," care must be taken to word a phrase so that no ambiguity may arise. In sentences like the following, _antaŭ ol_ or _antaŭ kiam_ should be used when time is implied. _Examples._--_La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ la gepatroj_ = The betrothed met before the parents (= place, viz., in the presence of the parents). _La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ ol_ (or, _antaŭ kiam_) _la gepatroj alvenis_ = The betrothed met before the parents arrived (= time, viz., before the parents _arrived_). _Johano venis antaŭ la juĝiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la juĝejo antaŭ ol Johano alvenis_ = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left the court before John's arrival.

As a prefix, _Antaŭdiri_ = To foretell. _Antaŭiri_ = to precede.

259 (4). Apud = _Beside_, _close by_.

Place = _By_, _near_, _near to_, _close by_.

Examples.--_La batalo apud Farsalo ŝanĝis multajn aferojn en Romo_ = The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. _Li estas apud la pordo_ = He is near the door. _Li staris apud Johano_ = He stood by John. _Mi vespermanĝos ĉe tiu tablo apud la fenestro_ = I shall dine at that table close by the window.

As a root-word or prefix, we have:--_Apudeco_ = Contiguity. _Apudesti_ = To be present, or near.

259 (5). Ĉe = _At_, _with_.

Marks the situation of a thing or action. Denotes coincidence, either of place, time, or connection.

Place = _At_, _with_, _to_, _on_.

Examples.--_Li estas ĉe ni_ = He is with us (at our _house_). _Ni estis ĉe via patro_ = We were at your father's. _Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo_ = She is at the door. _Ĉe la alia flanko de la strato_ = On the other side of the street. _Mi gastas ĉe miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj Smith_ = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs. Smith).

Time = _At, on._

Example.--_Ĉe nia alveno la hundo bojis_ = At (on) our arrival the dog barked.

Connection = _In, to, with, on._

Examples.--_Brakon ĉe_ (or, _en_) _brako_ = Arm in arm. _Koron ĉe koro_ = Heart to heart. _Mi kredas, ke ĉe ĉiu vorto, kiun vi diras...._ = I believe that with every word you say.... _Ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion "ol"_ = With the comparative the conjunction "ol" is used. _Por elpagi mian konton ĉe vi, mi sendas...._ = To settle my account with you, I send.... _Ĉe tia vetero, vi estos baldaŭ resanigita_ = With such weather, you will soon be restored to health. _Ĉe tio_ = On that.

As a prefix, _Ĉeesti_ = To be present. _Inter la ĉeestantoj ni rimarkis...._ = Amongst those present we observed....

259 (6). Ĉirkaŭ = About, around.[19]

Denotes place, time, manner, quantity.

Place = _About, around, round._

Examples.--_Je ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj_ = At about three paces. _La hundoj ludis kaj saltis ĉirkaŭ ŝi_ = The dogs played and jumped around her.

Time = _About._

Example.--_La koncerto daŭris ĉirkaŭ tri horojn_ (or, _dum ĉirkaŭ tri horoj_) = The concert lasted about three hours.

Manner = _Round_.

Example.--_Li premis sian edzinon ĉirkaŭ la talio_ = He squeezed his wife round the waist.

Quantity = _About_.

Example.--_Mi volas aĉeti ĉirkaŭ kvar funtojn_ = I wish to buy about four pounds.

As a prefix or root-word, _ĉirkaŭ_ has the signification of "encircling," as:--_Ĉirkaŭfrazo_ = Periphrase, circumlocution. _Ĉirkaŭpreni_ = To embrace. _Ĉirkaŭi_, _ĉirkaŭigi_ = To surround.

Footnote:

[19] It will be seen from the examples that the preposition _ĉirkaŭ_ may be followed by the accusative of direction: _Jakobo metis sakon ĉirkaŭ siajn lumbojn_ (Rabistoj, 52, 2); _La virino ĵetis ambaŭ brakojn ĉirkaŭ la kolon de la knabino_ (Marta, p. 8); _Ĵetante siajn brakojn ĉirkaŭ lian kolon_ (Faraono, II, 57).

259 (7). Da = _Of_.

Used only after words denoting quantity, measure, weight, number, etc. Between two words, da shows that the first word measures the second.

Quantity = _Of_.

Examples.--_Granda nombro da ideoj_ = A great number of ideas. _Dudeko da homoj_ = A score of people. _Funto da teo_ = A pound of tea. _Sur la arbo sin trovis multo_ (or, _multe_) _da birdoj_ = On the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds.

Often de and da may be equally correct. Funto da teo emphasizes the _quantity_ required (funto); funto de teo emphasizes the _thing_ required (teo).

Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de ĝi. Note the difference between "He ate a piece of bread" and "He ate a piece of the (particular) bread." The former is Li manĝis pecon da pano, and the latter Li manĝis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano.

N.B.--_Glaso da vino_ = A glass of wine. _Glaso de_ (or, _por_) _vino_, or, _vinglaso_ = A wineglass. _Alportu al mi tetason, kaj elverŝu por mi tason da teo_ = Bring me a teacup, and pour me out a cup of tea.

Note.--Particular attention should be paid to the prepositions da, de, and el, all of which are often translated by the English preposition "of." Note the following examples:--

Da.--_Cento da pomoj_ = A hundred (of) apples. _Dekduo da kuleroj_ = A dozen (of) spoons. _Miliono da loĝantoj_ = A million (of) inhabitants. _Kvar metroj da ŝtofo_ = Four metres of material. _Ducent kilometroj da longo_ = Two hundred kilometres in (of) length.

De.--_Tri estas duono de ses_ = Three is half of six. _Ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek_ = Eight is four-fifths of ten. _La domo de mia frato_ = The house of my brother, _or_, My brother's house. _Doktoro de juro_ = A doctor of laws.

El.--_Ĉiu el la infanoj_ = Each of the children. _Unu el ni_ = One of us. _Ni faru uzon el tio_ = Let us make use of that. _Domo konstruita el ŝtono_ = A house built of stone. _La plej bela floro el la ĝardeno_ = The most beautiful flower of the garden.

259 (8). De = _Of_, _from_, _by_.

De denotes origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and disconnection or abstraction. It serves to form the genitive or possessive case. These are all variations of the one primary idea: _origin_.

De is not used in speaking of places, etc., when English uses the preposition "of," where nomata = _named_ might be inserted between two substantives.

Examples.--_La urbo Londono_ = The City of London. _La monato Julio_ = The month of July (par. 106 (_d_)).

Care must be taken not to confuse de with da.

Possession = _Of_.

Examples.--_La libro de Petro_ = The book of Peter, _or_, Peter's book. _La domo de mia kara patro_ = My dear father's house.

Origin or Dependence = _Of_, _on_, _from_.

Examples.--_Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj_ = It depends on the number of words. _Tio venis de_ (or, _el_) _lia unua eraro_ = That came from his first error. _Li estas doktoro de medicino_ = He is a doctor of medicine. _Li venis de_ (or, _el_) _Parizo kaj nun iras al Berlino_ = He came from Paris and is now going to Berlin. _Kaj Dio diris: "Kolektiĝu la akvo de sub la ĉielo en unu lokon"_ = And God said: "Let the waters (water) (from) under the heaven be gathered together (collect itself) into one place."

Place = _From_, _of_, _to_.

Examples.--_For de tie ĉi, fripono!_ = Away from here, rascal! _Li forestas de tie ĉi_ = He is away from here. _Li staris meze de la malamikoj_ = He stood in the midst of the enemy. _Proksime de la domo staris arbo_ = Near (to) the house stood a tree. _Ne malproksime de la dometo staris preĝejo_ = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a church.

Time = _From_, _since_, _for_.

Examples.--_De tiu tempo_ = From (since) that time. _De la kreo de la mondo_ = Since the creation of the world. _De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana_ = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.

Cause = _From_, _of_, _with_.

Examples.--_Li eksaltis de surprizo_ = He started (jumped) with surprise. _Li mortis de febro_ = He died of (from) fever. _Kaŭze de tio_ = Because of (due to) (owing to) that.

Agency = _By_ (after a passive verb, to show the _agent_). To show the _means_ per is used.

Examples.--_Mi estas amata de mia patro_ = I am loved by my father. _La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj_ = The house built by my father is covered with slates.

Disconnection or Abstraction = _From_.

Example.--_Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno_ = Separate the straw from the hay.

As a prefix, _de_ signifies "off," "from," as:--_Li deprenis la libron de la breto_ (or, _li prenis la libron for de sur la breto_) = He took the book off the shelf. _Li demetis la ĉapelon_ = He took off his (the) hat.

259 (9). Dum = _During_.

Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always relates to duration of time (see note below).

Time = _During_.

Examples.--_Dum la tuta tago_ (or, _La tutan tagon_) _li restis sola_ = During the whole day he remained alone, _or_, He remained alone the whole day. _Dum_ (or, _En la daŭro de_) _kelkaj monatoj, ŝi ne eliradis el sia ĉambro_ = During (for the space of, for) some months she did not leave (go out of) her room. _Li dormis dum la tuta koncerto_, or, _Li dormis la tutan koncerton_ = He was sleeping during the whole (all through the) concert. _Dum ilia konsiliĝo_ (or, _Dum ili konsiliĝis_) _mi restis en la apuda ĉambro_ = During their consultation (_or_, whilst they were consulting) I remained in the adjoining room.

Note.--Dum, although frequently used as a conjunction by Dr. Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. For our preposition "during" he generally uses the accusative of duration, or the prepositional expression en la daŭro de, or simply en, or turns the phrase by employing an adverbial present participle.

259 (10). Ekster = _Outside_.

Place = _Outside_. Ekster is the opposite of en = _in_.

Examples.--_Li iris en la domon, sed mi restis ekster ĝi_ = He went into the house, but I remained outside it. _Li loĝas ekster la urbo_ = He lives outside the town.

Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used as a synonym of krom (par. 259 (17)).

Examples.--_Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj, ekzistas aliaj_ = Outside (besides, _or_, in addition to) these laws others exist. _Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj ne ekzistas aliaj_ = Outside (beside, _or_, apart from) these laws others do not exist.

As a root-word or prefix, we have:--_Eksteraĵo_ = The exterior, outside. _Eksterlande_ = Abroad.

259 (11). El = _Out of_.

El is the opposite of en = _in_, but only when movement in and out is implied.

Care must be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of which also signify "of," that English preposition with so many meanings. El means essentially "out of," denoting that the noun specified is a _portion of_ something, or is _made of_ some particular material, or _issues from_ something (see par. 259 (7)).

Origin or Dependence = _Of_, _with_, _from_.

Examples.--_Mi estas la plej riĉa el ĉiuj_ = I am the richest of all. _Unu el ni estos elektata_ = One of us will be chosen. _Li faris uzon el ĉio_ = He made use of everything. _Mi faros uzon el la okazo_ = I shall take (make use of) the opportunity. _Kion ni faros el hundo?_ = What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? _El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke_ ... = From the said rule, it follows that ... _Mi ricevis leteron el Parizo_ = I received a letter from Paris.

Disconnection = _Out of_, _from_.

Examples.--_Tri musoj elsaltis el la tirkesto_ = Three mice jumped out of the drawer. _Mi eliris el la domo ĝuste kiam li eniris en la veturilon_ = I went out of the house just as (when) he entered the carriage. _La violono falis el la violonujo_ = The violin fell out of the violin case. _El sub la lito_ = Out of (out from under) the bed.

As a prefix, _el_ signifies "out," and also denotes something done thoroughly well or completely, as:--_Elpensi_ = To think out, to invent. _Elfosi_ = To dig out. _Elirejo_ = An exit, way out. _Ellabori_ = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate. _Eltrinki_ = To drink up. _Ellerni_ = To master, to learn thoroughly (to study).

259 (12). En = _In_, _into_.

May take after it the accusative of movement, and has then the meaning of "into."

Place = _In, into, within, at_.

Examples.--_Li estas en la ĝardeno_ = He is in the garden. _Li iris en la ĝardenon_ = He went into the garden. _Mi loĝas en Parizo_ = I live in Paris. _La birdo flugas en la ĉambro (ĝi estas en la ĉambro, kaj flugas en ĝi)_ = The bird is flying within the room (it is in the room, and is flying in it). _La birdo flugas en la ĉambron (ĝi estis ekster la ĉambro, kaj nun flugas en ĝin)_ = The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying into it). _Helpu min porti tiujn ĉi kestojn en mian fiakron_ = Help me to carry these trunks to (into) my cab. _Li iris en la domon, sed mi mem restis ester ĝi_ = He went into the house, but I myself remained outside of it. _La ĉefa vorto staras en la fino_ = The chief word stands at the end.

Time = _In, on, at, during_.

Examples.--_En printempo floroj aperas_ = In (during) spring flowers appear. _En la tago_ = On the day. _En la unua tempo_ = At the outset (first time), at first. _Mi finos la tasketon en dek tagoj, se mi laboros en ĉiu tago po ok horoj_ = I shall finish the job (little task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in each day at the rate of 8 hours).

Origin or Dependence = _Of, into_.

Examples.--_Apartamento konsistanta en_ (or, _el)[20] unu manĝoĉambro, unu salono, kaj tri dormoĉambroj_ = A flat (apartment), consisting of one dining-room, one drawing-room, and three bedrooms. _Aleksandro ŝanĝiĝis en polvon_ = Alexander was turned into dust.

Footnote:

[20] _El_ is preferable. _En_ cannot be correctly used here.

Connection = _In_.

Example.--_Manon en mano_ = Hand in hand.

259 (13). Ĝis = _Till, as far as_.

Place = _To, down to, up to, as far as_.

Examples.--_Ni akompanis ilin ĝis ilia domo_ = We accompanied them as far as (to) their house. _Iru ĝis la rivero_ = Go to (down to, as far as) the river.

Time = _Till, until, to_.

Examples.--_De sabato ĝis mardo_ = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday. _Ni devas atendi ĝis Junio_ = We must wait till June. _Ĉu ne estus pli bone atendi ĝis ni havos la hundon?_ = Would it not be better to wait till we have the dog? _Ĝi povas kuŝi ok ĝis naŭ jarojn_ = It can lie eight to nine years.

N.B.--_Jarojn_ is the accusative of duration (par. 68 (_b_)), for _ĝis_ has here no influence over it, being simply an item in the phrase; but if a preposition be placed before _ok_, then the preposition will influence its complement "_jaroj_," which will be in the nominative; as:--_Ĝi povas kuŝi dum_ (or, _je_) _ok ĝis naŭ jaroj_ = It can lie during eight (up) to nine years.

259 (14). Inter = _Between, among_.

Inter differs from en, in that en implies that something is actually in, or within, something else, while inter implies that something is between, or among, some other things.

Place = _Between, among_.

Example.--_Inter Rusujo kaj Francujo estas Germanujo_ = Between Russia and France is Germany.

Time = _Between_.

Example.--_Inter la deka kaj dek-unua matene, mi renkontis mian amikon_ = Between 10 and 11 o'clock in the morning I met my friend.

Manner = _Among, amongst_.

Example.--_Ili dividis inter si dek du pomojn_ = They divided amongst themselves twelve apples.

As a prefix, _inter_ has much the same meaning as in English, as:--_Intermeti_ = To interpose. _Intermiksi_ = To intermingle. _Interkonsenti_ = To agree mutually.

259 (15). Je.

The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense requires. We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it (Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).

The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:--

Cause = _At, over, of._

Example.--_Mi enuas je la hejmo_, or, _Mi enuas la hejmon_ = I am weary (tired) of home.

Manner = _By, on._

Examples.--_Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia li batis lin sur la vizaĝon_ (or, _li frapis al li la vizaĝon_) = He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he struck him on the face (struck to him the face). _Mi gratulas vian princan moŝton je_ (or, _pri_) _la reveno Danujon_ = I congratulate your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to Denmark.

Time = _At, on._

Examples.--_Je la kvara horo_ = At 4 o'clock. _Je la lasta fojo_ (or, _La lastan fojon_) _mi vidis lin ĉe vi_ = On the last occasion (last time) I saw him with you.

Measure = _Of, by._

Example.--_Longa je dek futoj_, or, _Longa dek futojn_ = Ten feet long.

259 (16). Kontraŭ = _Against, opposite._

Never used in the sense of "by the side of." May take the accusative of direction.

Place = _Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite._

Example.--_La fenestro kontraŭ la strato_ = The window overlooking (towards) the street.

Opposition = _To, against, from._

Examples.--_Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo_ = Face to face. _Kontraŭ min mem, sin turnis mia ruzo_ = Against myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). _Kien ili iras? Kontraŭ Polujon_ = Whither are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet, IV, 4). _Mi sidis sur ŝtono, kie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la orienta vento_ = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from (against) the east wind. _Li batalis kontraŭ la grekoj_ = He fought with (= against) the Greeks.

As a prefix, _kontraŭ_ denotes opposition, as:--_Kontraŭdiri_ = To contradict. _Kontraŭmeti_ = To oppose.

259 (17). Krom = _Not including_, _putting aside_, _apart from_. One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).

Separation, Exclusion = _Besides_, _except_, _save_, _but_.

Examples.--_Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, riĉa_ = He is good, and, besides that, rich. _Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan_ = Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. _Mi estas anglo, kaj mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra_ = I am an Englishman, and I know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on _ekster_ (par. 259 (11)).

259 (18). Kun = _With_.

Never used as "with" in the sense of the instrument or means by which something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)).

Connection = _With_, _to_.

Examples.--_Li paroladis kun sia amiko_ = He was conversing with his friend. _Li fianĉiĝis kun Fraŭlino Berta_ = He became engaged to Miss Bertha. _Resti kun leono estas danĝere_ = To stay with a lion is dangerous. _Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis_ = He was walking with his friend when I met him.

Manner = _With_, _of_.

Examples.--_Li parolas kun granda saĝeco_ = He speaks with great wisdom. _Li estas homo kun gusto_ = He is a man of (with) taste. _Li estis atendata kun granda senpacienco_ = He was expected with great impatience.

As a root-word or prefix, _Kunigi_ = To connect. _Kunulo_ = A companion. _Kunveni_ = To come together, to assemble.

259 (19). Laŭ = _According to_.

Manner = _According to_, _from_, _in_, _in accordance with_.

Examples.--_Li agis laŭ sia opinio_ = He acted according to his own opinion. _Tiu vazo estas farita laŭ modelo el_ (or, _en_) _nia muzeo_ = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of (in) our museum. _Li parolas laŭ saĝa maniero_ = He speaks in a wise manner. _Ili ĝin faris laŭvice_ = They did it in turn. _La pli juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro laŭ sia boneco_ = The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in (according to) her goodness.

Place and Direction = _In_, _along_.

Examples.--_Ni foriris laŭ malsamaj direktoj_ (or, _en diversajn flankojn_) = We went away in a different direction (_or_, in different ways). _Aleksandro iris laŭ tiu ĉi rivero ĝis li venis al la palaco_ = Alexander went along this river till he came to the palace.

N.B.--_Laŭ_ is used in such expressions as:--_Laŭlonge_ = Lengthways. _Laŭlarĝe_ = Across, athwart.

259 (20). Malgraŭ = _Notwithstanding_.

Opposition = _In spite of_, _notwithstanding_, _for_, _despite_.

Examples.--_Li sukcesis malgraŭ la malhelpoj_ = He succeeded in spite of the hindrances. _Li faris sian eblon, sed malgraŭ ĉio, li ne sukcesis_ = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that (notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on _spite_, par. 259 (30)).

259 (21). Per = _By_, _by means of_.

Cause = _By_, _by means of_, _with_, _through_.

Examples.--_Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj aŭdas per la oreloj_ = We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. _Li mortigis lin per glavo_ = He killed him with a sword. _Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that through my brother.

Manner = _With_, _by_, _in_.

Per, used after a passive verb, denotes the means or instrument; de denotes the agent.

Examples.--_La domo, kiu estas aĉetita de mia patro, estas kovrita per pajla tegmento_ = The house, which was bought by my father, is covered with thatch (a straw roof). _Li tenis lin ĉe la kolo per ambaŭ manoj_ = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. _Li iris el la urbo per_ (or, _laŭ_) _flanka vojeto_ = He went out of the town by a by-path. _Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto_ = My uncle did not die (by) a natural death. _Per unu vorto_ (or, _unuvorte_), _la ĉambro estis tute bela_ = In a word, the room was quite beautiful.

As a prefix or root-word, _per_ is not much used. _Perlabori_ = To acquire by one's labour, to earn. _Peri_ = To mediate, to interpose.

259 (22). Po = _At the rate of._

Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals (see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por.

Distribution = _At the rate of_, _in the proportion of_, _at_.

Examples.--_Mi aĉetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj_ = I bought four apples at the rate of twopence (each). "_Por du pencoj_" would mean "for twopence" (all four for twopence). _Tiu ĉi libro havas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book has 60 pages; therefore, if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days. _Silko po 5 ŝilingoj por ulno_ = Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).

As a prefix, _Poduone_ = By half, or, by halves. _Pogrande_ = Wholesale.

259 (23). Por = _For_, _for the sake_ (_benefit_) _of_, _in order to_.

One of the prepositions that may be used before the infinitive (see remarks on infinitive, par. 177).

Purpose = _In order to_, _to_, _for_, _at_, _for the purpose of_, _of_, _on_.

Examples.--_Mi manĝas por vivi_ = I eat in order to live. _Por mi ĝi havas bonan guston_ = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. _Li sin kuracis por resaniĝi_ = He treated himself (took remedies) in order to recover (be restored to health). _La plej bona metodo_ (_por_) _akiri ĝin_ = The best way of getting it (in order to get it). _Mi havas multon por fari_ = I have much to do. _Por miaj kvar infanoj mi aĉetis dek du pomojn_ = For my four children I bought twelve apples. _Litoj por du personoj_ = Beds for two people. _Tiu ĉi ringo estas por vi_ = This ring is for you. _Por ĉio_ (or, _pro ĉio_) _ni lin dankas_ = We thank him for everything. _Por tiu ĉi prezo_ = At this price. _Ni devas konfesi por ŝia laŭdo, ke_ ... = We must confess to her praise that ... _Mi ne havas tempon por fari tion_ = I have not time to do that. _Kiam la momento por foriri alvenis_, or, _Kiam la momento de foriro alvenis_ ... = When the moment for departure arrived ... _Tiu libro estas facile komprenebla por ĉiuj_ = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. _Li aĉetis por unu penco da teo_ = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny) of tea.

259 (24). Post = _After_, _behind_.

Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent "after," care must be taken not to confuse its meaning. For instance, "He came after me" might mean (_a_) next in succession or behind me, (_b_) after my arrival, (_c_) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto we should say:--(_a_). Li venis post mi. (_b_) Li venis post mia alveno. (_c_). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antaŭ, which is the opposite of post (259 (3)).

Place = _After_, _behind_.

Examples.--_Post la reĝo venis lia sekvantaro_ = After (behind) the king came his suite. _"Da" post ia vorto montras, ke tiu ĉi vorto havas signifon de mezuro_ = "_Da_" after any (some) word shows that this word has the signification of measure.

Time = _After_, _in_, _by_, _hence_.

Examples.--_Resendu al mi la libron (post) kiam vi estos traleginta ĝin_ = Send back to me the book after you have read it through. _Post tri monatoj estos la edziĝo_ = The wedding will be three months hence (in three months). _Post kvarono da horo_ = In a quarter of an hour. _Tagon post tago_ = Day by day.

Manner = _After_, _by_.

Examples.--_Ili sekvis unu post la alia_ = They followed one after another. _Iom post iom ŝi pli trankviliĝis_ = Little by little she became more tranquil.

As a prefix, _Postveni_ = To come after, to succeed. _Posttagmezo_ = Afternoon. _Postvivi_ = To survive.

259 (25). Preter = _Beyond_, _past_, _by_.

Differs from trans = _across_ (_beyond_), in that preter shows the movement of something passing by, or alongside, something else. Trans signifies that something is on the other side of a boundary, or is crossing, or has crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)).

Place = _Beside_, _by_, _past_.

Examples.--_Mi iris preter la fenestroj de la domo_ = I went by (past, beside) the windows of the house. _Du sinjorinoj iris preter ni, kaj transiris la straton_ = Two ladies passed (went) by us, and crossed the street.

Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning.

Examples.--_Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo_ = I passed by the windows of the house. _Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin_ = Two ladies went by (passed) us. _Mi preterlasis lin_ = I let him pass by (I let him beyond). _Li preterlasis la okazon_ = He let the occasion (opportunity) pass, _or_, he missed the opportunity.

259 (26). Pri = _Concerning._

Pri can be translated in various ways.

Reference = _Concerning_, _respecting_, _regarding_, _as regards_, _with regard to_, _as to_, _as for_, _about_, _of_, _on_.

Examples.--_Pri mia lerteco, mi povas diri_ ... = Concerning my skill, I can say ... (In this sentence it will be observed that any of the above meanings of _pri_ instead of "concerning" will give the exact sense.) _Pri tio ne diru vorton_ = As to that, don't say a word. _Ne pensu pri ĝi_ = Do not think of (about) it. _Li parolis pri la pentrarto_ = He spoke about (the art of) painting. _Ili miregis pri_ (or, _je_) _lia kolero_ = They were astounded at (about) his anger. _Sed pri ŝia fratino, ni povas diri, ke_ ... = But of her sister, we can say that ... _Tio estas verko pri la politiko_ = That is a work on politics. _Vi estas prova pri tio_ = You are right in that.

As a prefix, _Pripensi_ = To think about, to reflect.

See par. 258 (_a_) as regards the use of the prepositional expressions _rilate_, _koncerne_.

259 (27). Pro = _Because of._

Pro always relates to the cause or reason for something happening or being done. Do not confuse it with por.

Cause = _Because of_, _by reason of_, _on account of_, _for the sake of_ (_cause_), _through_, _owing to_, _from_, _for_, _of_.

Examples.--_Li demandis ŝin, pro kio ŝi ploras_ = He asked her for what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). _Li min mokis pro mia kredemo_ = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. _Li estas mortanta_ (or, _ekmortas_) _pro_ (or, _de_) _malsato_ = He is dying of (from) hunger. _Ŝi agas pro ĵaluzemo_ = She acts from jealousy. _Li ne povis piediri pro sia malforteco_ = He could not walk owing to (on account of, through) his weakness. _Pro tio, mi ne povas akompani vin_ = On that account, I cannot accompany you. _Li ĝin faris pro sia edzino_ = He did it because of his wife.

Pro is not used much as a prefix. _Propeti_ = To intercede. _Propekulo_ = A scapegoat.

259 (28). Sen = _Without_.

Sen always denotes disconnection.

Disconnection = _Without_, _less_, _minus_.

Examples.--_Li alvenis sen sia amiko_ = He arrived without his friend. _Sen vi, ni estus kiel sen kapo_ = Without you we should be as without a head. _Dek sen tri estas sep_ = Ten less (minus) three is seven.

Sen is frequently used as a prefix, having the same meaning as our English suffix "less," as:--_Sendube_ = Doubtless, without doubt. _Sensenta_ = Senseless, without feeling. _Sensenca_ = Senseless, without meaning. _Senhonta_ = Shameless, without shame.

259 (29). Spite = _In defiance of_.[21]

Spite, like malgraŭ, marks opposition, but in a stronger sense. Spite means "in defiance of opposition," whilst malgraŭ has more the sense of "notwithstanding." Spite is not a preposition, but an adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "_in spite of_" it is usually better to use malgraŭ.

Opposition = _In defiance of_, _defiantly_.

Examples.--_Spite ĉion, kion mi povis diri, li vangfrapis la infanon_ = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child's face. _Spite mian malamikon_ = In defiance of my enemy.

Footnote:

[21] The root spit is often used as a verb: spiti, _to brave_, _flout_, _act in defiance of_. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se vi malgraŭ tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root we get the adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb spite. Hence there are often found in the literature such forms as spite al vi, spite de tio; and, consequently (with the accusative instead of the preposition), spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon (par. 247).

259 (30). Sub = _Under_.

Sub may be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the opposite of sur = _on_.

Place = _Under_, _beneath_.

Examples.--_La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, kiu kuŝis sub la tablo_ = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat that was lying under the table. _Muso estas sub la kanapo_ = A mouse is under the sofa.

Manner = _In_, _on_.

Examples.--_Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton_ = Something, in the shape of a cat, ran across the street. _Li iris sub la kondiĉo, ke neniu lin akompanu_ = He went on (under) the condition that no one should accompany him.

As a prefix, _Subetaĝo_ = A basement (floor below). _Submeti_ = To put under, to subdue. _Subtegmento_ = A garret (under roof).

259 (31). Super = _Over_, _above_.

May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from sur, since sur generally means that something is upon or touching something else, whilst super signifies that the object is over or above something, but not in actual contact.

Place = _Over_, _above_, _beyond_.

Examples.--_La balono estis vidata super la urbo_ = The balloon was seen over the town. _Super mia kapo preterflugis birdo_ = A bird flew by, over my head. _Li ĵetis ŝtonon super la muron, sed li ne havis sufiĉe da forto, kaj la ŝtono falis sur la muron_ = He threw a stone over the wall, but he had not sufficient (of) strength, and the stone fell upon (on to) the wall. _La spirito de Dio ŝvebis super la akvo_ = The Spirit of God moved upon the face of (above) the waters (water). _Mi konas nenion super tio_ = I know nothing beyond that.

Super is the root of _Superi_ = To surpass. As a prefix, _Superflui_ = To overflow. _Superhoma_ = Super-human. _Supervesto_ (or, _palto_) = An overcoat.

259 (32). Sur = _On_, _upon_, _on to_.

May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub and super. Do not confound sur with super.

Place = _On_, _upon_ (_resting on_, _touching_).

Examples.--_Sur lia vizaĝo mi vidis ĝojan rideton_ = On his face I saw a joyful smile. _Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo_ = You will find the papers on the writing-table. _La birdo_ (_sur_)_flugis sur la tegmenton_ = The bird flew on to the roof. _Li metis la ĉapelon sur sian kapon_ = He put his (the) hat on his head. _Li staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon_ = He stood above on the mountain, and looked down (below) upon the field (note the accusatives of direction, _malsupren_ and _kampon_). _Laŭ la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon_ = At the command "three" you will shoot at (on to) the tree.

Dependence = _On_, _to_.

Examples.--_Tio ĉi povas tre influi sur la sukceson de nia afero_ = This can have much influence on the success of our business. _Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn_ = I have rights on (to) the Danish throne.

As a prefix, _Surmeti_ = To put on.

259 (33). Tra = _Through_.

Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will best show the meaning of the three prepositions:--

Preterpasi = _To pass by_, _go beyond_.

Trapasi = _To pass through_, _to traverse_.

Transpasi = _To pass over_, _to cross over_.

Example.--_Trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la preĝejon, kaj poste transpasis la riveron per la ponto_ = Having passed through (traversed) the wood, he passed by the church, and then crossed the river by the bridge.

Place = _Through_, _across_.

Examples.--_Li iris tra la amaso, kaj eniris en la domon_ = He went through the crowd and entered the house. _Tra la mondo iras forta voko_ = Through the world goes a powerful call. _Li estas tiel dika, ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallarĝa pordo_ = He is so stout (thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door.

Adverb: _trae_ = right through.

Occasionally the accusative of direction is used after tra, when this seems useful for emphasis, or to remove ambiguity.

As a prefix, _Tralegi_ = To read through. _Trapasi_ = To pass through, to traverse. _Traguti_ = To percolate.

259 (34). Trans = _Across_; _on the other side of_, _beyond_.

May be followed by the accusative of direction.

Place = _Across_, _beyond_, _on the other side of_.

Examples.--_La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, ĉar trans la rivero sin trovis aliaj hirundoj_ = The swallow flew across the river, because on the other side of (beyond) the river were (found themselves) other swallows.

As a prefix, _Transiri_ = To go over, to cross. _Transmigri_ = To migrate. _Transvivi_ = To outlive, survive (a period of time).

ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS.

260. English prepositions are used with many various meanings. In fact, to express the sense of some of those in common use correctly, five or six or more Esperanto prepositions have to be used to give the different meanings of one English preposition. For instance, "_by_" has five different meanings in the following expressions:--"_He went by the house._" "_He was hit by a stone._" "_By his advice._" "_Little by little._" "_He stood by the door._"

261. The following common English prepositions are given with their Esperanto equivalents and examples of their use, viz., "_At_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _in_, _of_, _on_, _to_, _with_."

At.

261. (_a_). Represented by:--

Apud, as:--_La gefianĉoj staris apud la altaro_ = The betrothed stood at the altar.

Ĉe, as:--_Ĉe ĉiu paŝo kiun ŝi faris_ = At every step that she took. _Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo_ = She is at the door.

De, as:--_Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego_ = He was astonished at the lŭury of the court.

En, as:--_En la unua tempo_ = At (in) the outset. _En Parizo_ = At Paris. _En la fino_ = At the end. _En la kunveno_ = At the meeting. _En la interspaco de_ ... = At the distance of ...

Je, as:--_Je la kvara horo_ = At four o'clock.

Po, as:--_Piroj po du pencoj por funto_ = Pears at (at the rate of) twopence a (for a) pound.

Por, as:--_Por tiu ĉi prezo_ = At (for) this price.

Pri, as:--_Ŝi ridetis pri_ (_je_) _lia kolero_ = She smiled at (about) his anger.

Sur, as:--_Ili pafis unu sur la alian_ = They fired at one another.

Accusative, as:--_Ŝi mokadas lian kredemon_ = She jeers at his credulity.

Adverb, as:--_Tuj_ = At once. _Almenaŭ_ = At least. _Iafoje_ = At times. _Nune_ = At present, etc.

By.

261 (_b_). Represented by:--

Apud, as:--_Mi volus stari apud la patrino_ = I would like to stand by mother.

Ĉe, as:--_Mi tenis lin ĉe la kruro per ŝnurego_ = I held him by the leg with a rope.

De, as:--_Li estas amata de ĉiuj siaj amikoj_ = He is loved by all his friends.

Laŭ, as:--_Mi restadas tie ĉi laŭ la konsilo de mia kuracisto_ = I am remaining (staying) here by (according to) the advice of my doctor.

Per, as:--_Li eliris el la urbo per flanka vojeto_ = He left the town by a by-path.

Post, as:--_Iom post iom, ŝi pli trankviliĝis_ = Little by (after) little she became more tranquil.

Preter, as:--_En tiu momento iris preter ni du sinjorinoj_ = At that moment two ladies passed by (beside) us.

Adverb, as:--_Legante, ni lernas_ = By reading, we learn. _Tage_ = by day. _Laŭtage_ = By the day. _Mi staris apude dum li paroladis_ = I stood by (near to, close by) whilst he was talking.

For.

261 (_c_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Ili ekiris al Berlino_ (or, _Berlinon_) = They started for Berlin.

Anstataŭ, as:--_Li skribis trion anstataŭ kvaro_ = He wrote a three for (instead of) a four.

De, as:--_Tro baldaŭ alvenis la horo de foriro_ = Too soon came the hour for (of) departure. _De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana_ = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.

Dum, as:--_Dum la tuta tago li restis sola_ = For (during) the whole day he remained alone.

Laŭ, as:--_Ŝi estas granda laŭ sia aĝo_ = She is big for (according to) her age.

Malgraŭ, as:--_Malgraŭ ĉio li ne estis feliĉa_ = For (notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy.

Por, as:--_Tiu ĉi monujo estas por vi_ = This purse is for you.

Pri, as:--_Li petis lin pri helpo_, or, _Li petis helpon de li_ = He asked him for help. _Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia ŝuldo_ = You have not to beg for that which is our obligation.

Pro, as:--_Oni laŭdis lin pro lia boneco_ = They praised him for (because of) his goodness. _La domo estis vendita pro ŝuldoj_ = The house was (had been) sold for debt. _Mi volas esti amata pro mi mem, ne pro mia riĉeco_ = I want to he loved for myself, not for my wealth.

Pro tio, ke, as:--_Li riproĉis min pro tio, ke mi foriris_ = He reproached me for having gone away (lit., because of that that I went away).

Tra, as:--_Li ne povas ĝin porti tra tia interspaco_ = He cannot carry it for (through) such a distance.

Accusative, as:--_Li restis sola la tutan tagon_ = He remained alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under _dum_).

From.

261 (_d_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj_ = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.

De, as:--_Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno_ = Separate the straw from the hay. _De tiu tempo_ = From that time. _De lundo ĝis vendredo_ = From Monday to Friday.

El, as:--_Mi konkludis el lia mieno, ke li estas oficiro_ = I concluded from (out of) his appearance that he was (is) an officer.

Kontraŭ, as:--_Tie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la vento_ = There I was sheltered from (against) the wind.

Laŭ, as:--_Tiu ĉi figuro estas skulptita laŭ mia modelo_ = This figure is sculptured (carved) from (in accordance with) my model.

Per, as:--_Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that from (by means of) my brother.

Pro, as:--_Li tremis pro_ (or, _de_) _timo_ = He trembled from (because of) fear.

Sen, as:--_Ok sen du estas ses_ = Two from eight (lit., eight without two) is six.

In.

261 (_e_). Represented by:--

Ĉe, as:--_Tio donas helpon ĉe la lernado de la vortoj_ = That gives help in the learning of the words.

Da, as:--_Tri metroj da longo_ = Three metres in length.

En, as:--_Li estas en la domo_ = He is in the house.

Je, as:--_La suna disko ŝajne duobliĝis je grandeco_ = The sun's disc apparently became doubled in size.

Laŭ, as:--_Laŭ mia opinio_ (or, _miaopinie_) _ili estas tute pravaj_ = In (according to) my opinion they are quite right. _Li edukiĝis laŭ la timo al Dio_ = He was brought up in (according to) the fear of God.

Per, as:--_La ambaŭ estis similaj per la vizaĝo kaj la karaktero_ = The two were alike in (by means of) features (the face) and (the) character.

Post, as:--_Ni foriros post du aŭ tri tagoj_ = We are (shall be) going away in (after) two or three days.

Pri, as:--_La instruisto povas pri nenio lin instrui_ = The teacher can instruct him in nothing.

Sub, as:--_Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas_ = Something, in (under) the shape of a man, appears.

Sur, as:--_Promenante sur la strato, mi falis_ = While walking in (on) the street, I fell.

Accusative, as:--_Li estis naskita la vintron de_ 1902a = He was born _in_ the winter of 1902.

Adverb, as:--_Forme_ = In shape. _Troe_ = In excess. _Vespere_ = In the evening. _Alivorte_ = In other words, etc.

Of.

261 (_f_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_La amo al Dio_ = The love of (towards) God. _Ilia timo al la morto estas granda_ = Their fear of (to) death is great. _Pro malamo al mi li foriris_ = Through hatred of me he went away.

Da, as:--_Granda nombro da ideoj_ = A great number of ideas.

De, as:--_La unua vorto de la linio_ = The first word of the line. _La amo de Dio_ = The love of (from) God, God's love.

Dum, as:--_Vojaĝo dum dek kvin tagoj_, or, _Dekkvintaga vojaĝo_ = A journey of (during) fifteen days.

El, as:--_Unu el ni estos elektata_ = One of (out of) us will be chosen. _El ĉiuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej forta_ = Of (out of) all my friends, he is the strongest.

En, as:--_La plej granda ĉambro en la domo_ = The largest room of (in) the house.

Inter, as:--_La plej malgranda inter_ (or, _el_) _ĉiuj arboj en la ĝardeno_ = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden.

Kun, as:--_Ŝi estas virino kun gusto_ = She is a woman of (with) taste.

Pri, as:--_Ne pensu pri ĝi_ = Do not think of (about) it. _Ŝi parolis pri sia frato_ = She spoke of (about) her brother.

Pro, as:--_Li mortis pro_ (or, _de_) _malsato_ = He died of (owing to) hunger.

Adjective, as:--_Li estas sperta homo_ = He is a man of experience (an experienced man).

On.

261 (g). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Peston al la tranĉilo!_ = Plague on the knife!

Ĉe, as:--_Ĉe_ (or better, _sur_) _la alia flanko de la strato_ = On (at) the other side of the street. _Ĉe tio mi eliris el la ĉambro_ = On that, I left the room.

Ĉirkaŭ, as:--_La rado turniĝis ĉirkaŭ sia akso_ = The wheel turned on its axis.

De, as:--_Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj_ = It depends on (from) the number of words.

En, as:--_En la tago difinita_ = On (in) the appointed day.

Je, as:--_Mi gratulas vin je_ (or, _pri_) _via reveno_ = I congratulate you on (concerning) your return.

Kun, as:--_Ŝi ĝin donis al mi kun_ (or, _sub_) _tiu kondiĉo_ = She gave it me on (with) that condition.

Post, as:--_Post plua konsiderado_ = On (after) further consideration.

Pri, as:--_Li gratulis min pri mia edziĝo_ = He congratulated me on (concerning) my marriage.

Pro, as:--_Pro tio mi lin lasis_ = On that account I left him.

Sub, as:--_Li vizitis min sub la preteksto, ke li estas parenco_ = He visited me on (under) the pretext that he was (is) a relation.

Sur, as:--_La paperoj kuŝas sur la tablo_ = The papers are lying on the table.

Accusative, as:--_Li ĝin donis al mi lundon_ = He gave it me on a Monday.

Adjective, as:--_La veturilo estas luebla_ = The carriage is on hire (is able to be hired).

Adverb, as:--_Li staris dekstre_ = He stood on the right. _Li ĝin faris intence_ = He did it on purpose. _Prunte_ = On loan.

To.

261 (_h_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Mi iras al Parizo_ = I am going to Paris. _Li diris al mi_ = He said to me.

En, as:--_Li ridetis en si mem_ = He smiled to (in) himself. _Li reiris en la urbon_ = He went back to (into) the town.

Ĝis, as:--_De sabato ĝis mardo_ = From Saturday to (till) Tuesday. _Li amis ĝis freneziĝo_ = He loved to frenzy.

Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:--_Vi bone faris, ke vi venis_ = You did well to come (that you came).

Kontraŭ, as:--_Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo_ = Face to (opposite) face.

Kun, as:--_Li fianĉiĝis kun mia kuzino_ = He became engaged (affianced) to my cousin.

Por, as:--_Mi havas multe_ (or, _multon_) _por fari_ = I have much to do (for to do). _Ŝi estis muta por ĉiuj liaj demandoj_ = She was dumb to (for) all his questions. _Tia agado estas danĝera por ni_ = Such action is dangerous to (for) us.

Pri, as:--_Pri tio lasu min zorgi_ = Let me look to that.

Sub, as:--_Sub la sono de muziko_ = To (under) the sound of music.

Sur, as:--_Iri sur la kamparon_ = To go to (into) the country.

Adverb, as:--_Li iris dekstren_ = He went to the right. _Morte kondamnita_ = Condemned to death.

Accusative, as:--_Mi iris Parizon_ = I went to Paris.

With.

261 (_i_). Represented by:--

Ĉe, as:--_Por esti ĉe li, mi fordonis ĉion_ = To be with (at) him, I gave up everything.

De, as:--_Li eksaltis de surprizo_ = He started with (from) surprise.

El, as:--_Kion ni faros el tio?_ = What shall we do (make) with (out of) that?

Je, as:--_Li okupis sin je_ (or, _pri_) _meĥaniko_ = He occupied himself with (concerning, about) mechanics.

Kontraŭ, as:--_Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko_ = He fought with the enemy.

Kun, as:--_Li paroladas kun sia amiko_ = He is conversing (talking) with (to) his friend.

Laŭ, as:--_Li kuris laŭ granda rapideco_ = He ran with great rapidity.

Per, as:--_Li mortigis sin per glavo_ = He killed himself with (by means of) a sword.

Pri, as:--_Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri_ = With regard to (concerning) that, I have nothing to say.

Sub, as:--_Mi ĝin donis al li sub tiu kondiĉo_ = I gave it to him with (under) that condition.

Adverb, as:--_Rilate vian leteron_ = With reference to (relating to) your letter.

CONJUNCTIONS (Konjunkcioj).

262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Examples.--_Somero_ kaj _Vintro_ = Summer and Winter. _Tage_ aŭ _nokte_ = By day or by night. _Li diras_, ke _vi estas mallaborema_ = He says that you are lazy. _Li estas fiera_, sed _vi estas humila_ = He is proud, but you are humble.

263. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating. They have no influence over the moods of verbs (par. 171 (_b_)).

264. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect two sentences, or two members of a sentence that are independent of each other. These are of five classes:--

(1). Copulative, as:--_kaj_ = and; _kaj ... kaj_ = both ... and.

(2). Alternative, as:--_aŭ_ = or; _aŭ ... aŭ_ = either ... or; _nek_ = nor, _nek ... nek_ = neither ... nor.

(3). Adversative, as:--_sed_ = but.

(4). Causative, as:--_ĉar_ = for.

(5). Illative, as:--_tial_ = therefore.

265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that is dependent on another. There are six classes, viz., conjunctions of:--

(1). Manner or Degree, as:--_kiel_ = as, _kvazaŭ_ = as if, as though, _ol_ = than, etc.

(2). Consequence, as:--_ke_ = that, _tiel ke_ = so that.

(3). Reason or Cause, as:--_ĉar_ = because, since, _tial ke_ = inasmuch as, since, etc.

(4). Purpose, as:--_timante ke_ = lest, for fear that, fearing that, etc.

(5). Condition, as:--_se_ = if, _esceptinte ke_, _krom se_ = unless, except, _se nur_ = provided that, if only, etc.

(6). Concession, as:--_kvankam_ = though, although, _tamen_ = however, notwithstanding, _eĉ se_ = even if, etc.

266. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. When there is a diversity of case, it is due to ellipsis (see par. 105).

Example.--_Mi vidis lin kaj lian fraton, sed ne lian fratinon_ = I saw him and his brother, but not his sister.

267. The co-ordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted.

Examples.--_Li venis, li vidis, li venkis_ = He came, he saw, he conquered! _Vi iros, Johano restos tie ĉi_ = You will go, John will remain here.

268. Conjunctions and adverbs.--Some English words are sometimes adverbs and sometimes conjunctions, more especially those introducing clauses of time or place. Some are also prepositions as well as conjunctions and adverbs, and care must be taken to use the correct Esperanto words in such cases. For instance, in English "before," "after," and "since" are prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions.

Before (prep.) = _Antaŭ._

Example.--_Li staris antaŭ la reĝo_ = He stood before the king.

Before (adv.) = _Antaŭe._

Example.--_La reĝo neniam lin vidis antaŭe_ = The king never saw him before.

Before (conj.) = _Antaŭ ol._

Example.--_Pripensu antaŭ ol paroli_ = Reflect before speaking.

After (prep.) = _Post_, or, _malantaŭ_.

Example.--_Post la hundoj, venis la homoj_ = After (behind) the dogs came the men.

After (adv.) = _Poste_, or, _malantaŭe_.

Example.--_La rajdantoj iris antaŭe, kaj la hundoj venis poste_ (or, _malantaŭe_) = The riders went in advance, and the dogs came after.

After (conj.) = _Post kiam_, or, _kiam_.

Example.--_Resendu al mi la libron, post kiam_ (or, _kiam_) _vi estos ĝin traleginta_ = Send me back the book after you (will) have read it through.

Since (prep.) = _De_.

Example.--_De la kreo de la mondo_ = Since the creation of the world.

Since (adv.) = _De tiu tempo; de tiam; de kiam; de la tempo, kiam._

Example.--_Mi lin vidis hieraŭ, sed mi lin ne vidis de tiu tempo_ = I saw him yesterday, but I have not seen him since.

Since (conj.) = _Ĉar_.

Example.--_Mi devas ĝin fari, ĉar vi insistas_ = I must do it, since you insist.

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS

(Including Conjunctive Adverbs).

268. (_a_). The following is a list of the principal conjunctions. Some of them, according to the sense in which they are used, are employed also as adverbs or prepositions, and will be found in the lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (_b_) and 259.

Alie = _Otherwise_, _or_, _else_.

Example.--_Mi ne vidis lin, alie mi estus vin sciiginta_ = I did not see him, otherwise (else, or) I should have told (informed) you.

Aliflanke = _On the other hand_.

Example.--_Kelkaj personoj diras, ke Johano estas fripono: aliflanke, aliaj diras, ke li estas naivulo_ = Some persons say John is a knave; on the other hand, some say he is a simpleton.

Almenaŭ = _At least_.

Example.--_Almenaŭ li provis ĝin fari_ = At least he tried to do it.

Ankaŭ = _Also_, _too_, _as well_ (also adverb).

Examples.--_Mi ankaŭ ĝin vidis_ = I, too, saw it. _Johano kaj ankaŭ Mario estis tie_ = John and also Mary were there.

Antaŭ ol = _Before_, _ere_.

Examples.--_Antaŭ ol morti, li diris ..._ = Before dying he said ... _Li vespermanĝis, antaŭ ol li foriris_ = He dined before he went away. _Antaŭ ol ni atingos lin, li estos malproksime_ = Ere we (shall) reach him, he will be far away. _Antaŭ ol iri Londonon, ni veturis Berlinon_ = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin.

Aŭ = _Or._

Example.--_Oni ne scias, ĉu li ploras aŭ ridas_ = One does not know whether he is weeping or laughing.

Aŭ ... aŭ = _Either ... or._

Example.--_Aŭ vi aŭ mi devos ĝin fari_ = Either you or I must (will have to) do it.

Cetere = _Besides_, _for the rest_, _for the matter of that_.

Example.--_Li ne venis; cetere, se li estus veninta, mi ne estus vidinta_ (or, _vidus_) _lin_ = He did not come; besides, if he had (should have) come, I should not have seen him.

Ĉar = _Because_, _for_, _since_.

Examples.--_Tion mi scias, ĉar tie mi estas_ = I know that, because (for) I was there. _Ĉar vi ne estis tie, vi ne povas ĝin scii_ = Since you were not there, you cannot know it.

Ĉiufoje kiam, ĉiun fojon kiam = _Every time when_, _each time when_.

Example.--_Mi lin renkontadis ĉiufoje, kiam mi iris Londonon_ = I met him every time (when) I went to London.

Ĉu = _Whether_, or, _if_ (see remarks on ĉu in the list of adverbs, par. 248 (_b_)).

Ĉu ... aŭ = _Whether ... or._

Example.--_Mi iros, ĉu li venos aŭ ne_ = I shall go, whether he come (will come) or not.

Ĉu ... ĉu = _Whether ... whether_.

Example.--_Ĉu li skribos, ĉu li ne skribos, mi ne respondos al li_ = Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to him.

De l' tempo kiam, or, de kiam = _Since, from the time when._

Example.--_De l' tempo kiam li mortis...._ = Since he died....

Des pli = _So much the_. Des pli is generally used with Ju pli (_which see_), but sometimes alone in reply to questions (par. 112).

Example.--_Mi devas averti vin, ke li eble ne estos hejme_ = I must warn you, that perhaps he will not be (_or_, that he may not be) at home. _Des pli bone! mi tute ne deziras lin vidi_ = So much the better, I don't at all wish to see him.

Do = _Then_, _therefore_, _consequently_ (argumentative).

Examples.--_Mi do povas dormi trankvile_ = Then I can sleep tranquilly. _Estis do vidaĵo mirinda!_ = It was then a wonderful sight! _Kion do Johano diros?_ = What then will John say?

Dum (also preposition) = _While_, _whilst_ (par. 259 (10)).

Examples.--_Dum li estis parolanta, ni eliris el la ĉambro_ = Whilst he was speaking, we went out of the room. _Li povas labori, dum mi estas for_ = He can work, whilst I am away.

Dume = _Meantime_, _meanwhile_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Ili ekbruligis la fajron, dume ni pretigis la manĝaĵon_ = They lighted the fire, meanwhile we got the food ready.

Eĉ se = _Even if_.

Example.--_Ili ne volus iri, eĉ se ili estus invititaj_ = They would not wish to go, even if they were (should be) invited.

Foje kiam = _Once when_, _one day when_, _once upon a time._

Example.--_Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon_ = Once (one day), when walking, I met your friend.

Ĝis (also preposition) = _Till_, _until_ (par. 259 (13)).

Example.--_Atendu, ĝis mi revenos_[22] = Wait till I (shall) return.

Footnote:

[22] N.B.--Some writers would say _ĝis kiam_. Zamenhof never did--the second word appears superfluous.

Jen = _Behold_, _here_ (also an adverb and interjection).

Example.--_Jen la malsameco de la rezulto klariĝas_ = Here the difference of the result is explained.

Jen ... jen = _Now ... now_, _sometimes ... at other times_.

Example.--_Jen li kuras rapide, jen li haltas!_ = Now he runs rapidly, now he stops!

Ju malpli ... des malpli = _The less ... the less_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li enspezas_ = The less he works, the less he earns.

Ju malpli ... des pli = _The less ... the more_.

Example.--_Ju malpli li trinkas, des pli li manĝas_ = The less he drinks, the more he eats.

Ju pli ... des malpli = _The more ... the less_.

Example.--_Ju pli ni trinkas, des malpli ni manĝas_ = The more we drink, the less we eat.

Ju pli ... des pli = _The more ... the more_.

Example.--_Ju pli bona vi estos, des pli vi estos amata_ = The better you are, the more you will be loved.

Kaj = _And_.

Example.--_Vi kaj mi devas ĝin fari_ = You and I must do it.

Kaj ... kaj = _Both ... and_.

Example.--_Mi vidis tie kaj Johanon kaj Georgon_ = I saw both John and George there.

Kaj ceteraj = _And the rest_, _et cetera_ (commonly written k.c.).

Kaj tiel plu = _And so forth_, _and so on_ (commonly written k.t.p.).

Ke = _That_. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio, kiu, tio, or tiu = _that_.

Examples.--_Mi esperas, ke tio, kion vi havas en la mano, ne estas venena insekto_ = I hope that that which you have in your (the) hand is not a poisonous insect. _Mi pensas, ke tiu vorto estas malĝuste tradukita_ = I think that that word is wrongly translated.

Kial = _Wherefore_, _why_ (par. 150) (also adverb).

Example.--_Demandu lin, kial li tion faras_ = Ask him why he does that.

Kiam = _When_, _as_, _after_ (kiam = _after_, when used with the English pluperfect) (par. 151).

Examples.--_Pluvis forte, kiam ni atingis_ (_alproksimiĝis_) _la lagon_ = It rained heavily when (as) we reached the lake. _Kiam mi estis kolektinta la sumon, mi aĉetis novan libron_ = After (when) I had collected the amount, I bought a new book.

Kiam ajn = _Whenever_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Li balbutis, kiam ajn li parolis_ = He stammered whenever he spoke.

Kie = _Where_ (par. 152) (also adverb).

Example.--_Sciigu min, kie li estas_ = Tell (inform) me where he is.

Kie ajn = _Wherever_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Mi lin trovos, kie ajn li estas_ = I shall find him wherever he is.

Kiel = _As_ (in comparison) (par. 153).

Example.--_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.

Kiel ajn malmulte = _However little_.

Example.--_Kiel ajn malmulte vi volos_ (or, _volas_) ... = However little you may (will) wish....

Kiel ankaŭ = _As also_, _as well as_.

Example.--_Mia patro, kiel ankaŭ mi, pensas, ke...._ = My father, as well as I, thinks that....

Kiel eble plej baldaŭ = _As soon as possible_ (lit., as possible, most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used as follows:--

Examples.--_Kiel eble plej frue_ = As early as possible. _Kiel eble plej rapide_ = As quickly as possible. _Sendu lin al mi kiel eble plej baldaŭ_ = Send him to me as soon as possible.

Kiel ekzemple = _As for example_.

Example.--_Oni ne manĝas kelkajn birdojn, kiel ekzemple aglojn, akcipitrojn, vulturojn, cikoniojn, kaj aliajn_ = People do not eat some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and others.

Kio ajn okazos (or, _ĉiuokaze_) = _At all events_ (lit., whatever shall happen).

Example.--_Mi venos morgaŭ, kio ajn okazos_ = I shall come to-morrow whatever happens.

Kondiĉe, ke = _On condition that_.

Example.--_Mi vin forpermesos, kondiĉe, ke vi revenu postmorgaŭ_ = I will give you leave of absence, on condition that you return the day after to-morrow.

Konsente, ke = _It being agreed that_.

Example.--_Mi iros, konsente, ke vi ankaŭ estu tie_ = I will go, it being understood that (agreed that) you also be there.

Kontraŭe = _On the contrary_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Vi preferas la bovaĵon, mi, kontraŭe, preferas la ŝafaĵon_ = You prefer beef, I, on the contrary, prefer mutton.

Krom se = _Unless_.

Examples.--_Krom se ili rapidos_ (or, _se ili ne rapidos_), _ili maltrafos la vagonaron_ = Unless they (will) make haste, they will miss the train.

Krom tio = _Besides_, _moreover_, _apart from that_.

Example.--_Ŝi estis krom tio tre bela knabino_ = She was, besides (moreover), a very beautiful girl.

Kun la kondiĉo, ke = _On_ (_with_) _the condition that_.

Example.--_Mi pruntis al li la libron kun la kondiĉo, ke li redonu ĝin al mi postmorgaŭ_ = I lent him the book on the condition that he should (is to) return it to me the day after to-morrow.

Kvankam = _Although_, _though_.

Examples.--_Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa_ = Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. _Kvankam mi konsentas vian opinion, tamen mi ne povas akordiĝi kun vi_ = Though I agree with your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you.

Kvazaŭ = _As if_, _as though_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas teruraĵon_ = He stood as if he saw a terrible object.

Laŭ tio ... ke = According as.

Example.--_Laŭ tio, ke vi estos atenta aŭ maldiligenta, la lernejestroj vin laŭdos aŭ mallaŭdos_ = According as you are (will be) attentive or idle, the schoolmaster will praise or blame you.

Malgraŭ ĉio = _In spite of all_ (_everything_), _after all_.

Example.--_Li foriris malgraŭ ĉio, kion mi diris_ = He went away in spite of all I said.

Malgraŭ tio, ke = _Notwithstanding that._

Example.--_Malgraŭ tio, ke mi ne havis palton, mi eliris_ = Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out.

Malpli ... ol = _Less ... than_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Li estas malpli kuraĝa, ol lia frato_ = He is less courageous than his brother.

Ne nur, ne sole = _Not only._

Example.--_Li ne nur ŝtelis, sed li mortigis ankaŭ_ = He not only stole, but he committed murder (murdered) also.

Nek = _Nor_ (par. 59 (_c_)).

Example.--_Li ne estis tie, nek mi_ = He was not there, nor I.

Nek ... ankaŭ = _Nor ... also_, _nor ... too_, _nor ... either_.

Example.--_Vi ne estis tie, nek mi ankaŭ_ = You were not there, nor I either.

Nek ... nek = _Neither ... nor_ (par. 59 (_c_)).

Example.--_Nek vi nek mi estis tie_ = Neither you nor I was there.

_Ol_ = _Than_ (par. 112).

Examples.--_Pli bone malfrue, ol neniam_ = Better late than never. _La libro ne kostos pli ol tri ŝilingojn_ = The book will not cost more than three shillings.

Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since.

Example.--_La akvo diferencas de la glacio per tio, ke tiu estas fluida, kaj ĉi tiu malfluida_ = Water differs from ice, in that the former is fluid and the latter solid.

Pli ... ol = _More ... than_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Li estas pli forta, ol vi_ = He is stronger than you.

Plie = _Moreover_, _further_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Plie, mi diras al vi, ke ..._ = Moreover, I tell you that....

Por ke = _In order that_, _so that_, _to the end that_. Por ke is always followed by the Imperative mood, because, when used, this expression implies order (see remarks on Imperative, par. 201).

Examples.--_Por ke mi rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi ĝin meritu_ = In order that I may recompense you, it is proper (fitting) that you merit it. _Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta je mi_ = I wish to do everything, so that you may be satisfied with me, _or_, I will do everything to please you.

Post kiam = _After_.

Example.--_Post kiam la suno subiris, ni revenis hejmen_ = After the sun set we returned home.

Same kiel = _As_, _just as_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Same kiel la patrino amas sian infanon, tiel mi amas vin_ = Just as the mother loves her child, so do I love you.

Se = _If_.

Example.--_Mi ĝin faros, se mi povos_ = I shall do it if I can (shall be able).

Se ne = _If not_, _otherwise_, _lest_.

Example.--_Lernu vian lecionon, se ne, mi vin vergos!_ = Learn your lesson, otherwise I shall cane you!

Se nur = _If only_, _provided that_.

Example.--_Vi vidos Johanon, se nur vi alvenos frue_ = You will see John, provided that you (will) arrive early.

Se okaze = _If perchance_, _in case_, _in the event of_.

Example.--_Se okaze vi venus malfrue, Johano ne estus tie ĉi_ = If perchance you should come late, John would not be here.

Se tamen = _If however_, _if still_, _if though_, _if notwithstanding_.

Example.--_Se tamen vi ne povos veni morgaŭ matene, venu vespere_ = If, however, you are not (will not be) able to come to-morrow morning, come in the evening.

Sed = _But_.

Example.--_Li legas, sed ne komprenas tion, kion li legas_ = He reads, but does not understand what he reads.

Sed ankaŭ = _But also_.

Example.--_Ŝi donis al mi ne nur hundon, sed ankaŭ ĉevalon_ = She gave me not only a dog, but also a horse.

Sed eĉ = _But even_.

Example.--_Ne sole viroj, sed eĉ infanoj estis tie_ = Not only men, but even children were there.

Sekve = _Consequently_.

Example.--_Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen_ = It began to rain, consequently we returned home.

Tamen = _However_, _yet_, _still_, _nevertheless_, _but_.

Examples.--_Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa_ = Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. _Mi ne povis veni hodiaŭ, tamen mi venos morgaŭ_ = I could not come to-day, however, I will come to-morrow. _Kvankam li perdis monon, tamen li ne mortis malriĉulo_ = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a poor man.

Tia, ke = _Such that_.

Example.--_Mia teruro estis tia, ke mi ne povis paroli unu vorton_ = My terror was such, that I could not utter a single word.

Tial = _So_, _therefore_ (par. 150) (also adverb).

Example.--_Li rifuzis labori, tial mi eksigis lin_ = He refused to work, therefore (so) I dismissed him.

Tial, ke = _Inasmuch as_, _since_, _because_.

Example.--_Mi vin ne mallaŭdas, tial, ke tio ne estis via eraro_ = I do not blame you, inasmuch as (since) it (that) was not your mistake.

N.B.--Do not confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = _so that_.

Tiam, kiam = _Then when_, _when_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_, or, _Kiam mi estis riĉa,_ (_tiam_) _mi ne estis feliĉa_ = When I was rich, (then) I was not happy.

Tiamaniere, ke = _In such a manner that_, _so that_.

Example.--_Parolu tiamaniere_ (or, _tiel_), _ke mi povu vin kompreni_ = Speak in such a manner (so) that I can (may be able to) understand you.

Tiel, ke = _So that_.

Example.--_Estis muro inter ili, tiel, ke ili ne povis vidi unu la alian_ = There was a wall between them so that they could not see one another.

Tiel ... ke = _So ... that_.

Example.--_Li estas tiel bona, ke li ĉion pardonas_ = He is so good that he pardons everything.

Tiel ... kiel = _As ... as_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Ŝi estas tiel bona, kiel_ (_ŝi estas_) _bela_ = She is as good as she is beautiful.

Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = _For fear that_, _fearing that_, _lest_.

Example.--_Mi tion diris, timante, ke li venos_ = I said that, fearing that (lest) he would (will) come. Note the use of the future tense here. "What is my fear?" I fear he will perhaps come.

Tio estas (t.e.) = _That is_, _that is to say_, _to wit_. The initial letters are nearly always used just as we say _id est_ = _i.e._

Tiom ... ke = _So many ... that_, _so much ... that_.

Example.--_Mi havis tiom da pomoj, ke mi devis ilin fordoni_ = I had so many apples that I was obliged to give them away.

Tiom ... kiom = _As much ... as_, _as many ... as_.

Example.--_Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas_ = Give me as much (many) as you can.

Tuj kiam = _As soon as_, _immediately when_, _directly_.

Example.--_Mi fermis la pordon, tuj kiam li eliris_ = I shut the door as soon as (directly) he went out.

INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

269. Interjections (_interjekcioj_) and interjectional expressions vary so considerably in force and meaning in different languages that it is impossible to translate some of them. If we translated our English interjections literally into Esperanto, many of them would have no meaning to a foreigner. The following short list appears at present to be in use, but, no doubt, as the language becomes more widely spoken, more will be added.

Adiaŭ! = _Adieu! farewell! good-bye!_

Ah! Aha! = _Ah! hah!_

Aj! = _An exclamation of disgust_.

Antaŭen! = _Forward!_

Atentu! = _Look out! Take care! Attention!_

Aŭskultu! = _Hark! hist!_

Bis! = _Encore!_

Bone! = _Good!_

Bonvenu! Bonvenon! = _Welcome!_

Brave! = _Bravo! capital! splendid!_

Certe! = _Certainly!_

Ĉu estas eble! = _Is it possible!_

Ĉu ne! = _Isn't it! etc._ Ĉu! = _Is it! etc._

Ĉu ne vere! = _Is it not so!_

Dio gardu! = _God save us!_

Dio mia! = _God bless me!_

Dio min savu! = _God save me!_

Dio volu! = _Would to God! may God!_

Efektive! = _Really!_

Fi! = _Fie! for shame!_

For! = _Away! be off!_

For de tie ĉi! = _Begone! be off! avaunt!_

Ha! = _Ah! ha!_

Haltu! = _Stop!_

He! = _Halloo! hey!_

Helpon! Helpu! = _Help!_

Ho! = _O! oh! ho!_

Ho ve! = _Alack! alas! oh dear! welladay!_

Hontu! = _For shame!_

Hura! = _Hurrah! huzza!_

Ja! = _Indeed!_

Jen! = _Lo! there! behold! see!_

Kial do! = _Why indeed! why then!_

Kiel abomene! = _How abominable!_

Kion! = _What!_ Kion do! = _What then!_

Kompreneble! = _Of course!_

Kuraĝe! = _Courage!_

Ne! = _No!_

Nu! = _Well!_

Nu do! = _Well then!_

Pacience! Paciencu! Paciencon! = _Be quiet! Patience!_

Peston! = _Plague on't!_

Pluen! Daŭrigu! = _Proceed! Go on!_

Pro Dio! = _For God's sake!_

Rapidu! Rapide! = _Quick!_

Silentu! Silenton! = _Hist! hush!_

Ŝŝ! = _'Sh! Hush!_

Ts! = _Hist!_

Ve! = _Woe!_

Vere! = _Really! True!_

Verege! Tre vere! = _Very true!_

Vivu! = _Long live!_

269 (_a_). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with which they can agree, as:--_Neeble!_ = Impossible! (par. 245).

REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.

270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.

The suffix -aĉ- denotes _badness of quality or condition_, and is used with any part of speech to show _disparagement_, _contempt_. Fuŝi, _to botch_, _bungle_, _do blunderingly_, is sometimes used as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used than -aĉ.

Aĉa = _nasty_; domaĉo = _a hovel_; veteraĉo = _vile weather_; ĉapelaĉo = _a shabby hat_; fuŝkonstrui, or, konstruaĉi = _to jerry-build_.

The exclamation Fi = _fie! for shame!_ is used as a prefix to denote _shamefulness_, _disgustingness_, _nastiness_. Fi- denotes moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -aĉ-, which has a more general sense.

Fidomo = _a house of ill repute_; fivorto = _a naughty word_; firakonto = _a low story_.

270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. 19.)

(_a_). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus, pafo = _a shot from a gun_ (the gun is fired, and the action is over); but pafado = _a fusillade_ (a continuance of shots of more or less duration).

Thus _dancado_ = dancing, _desegnado_ = designing, drawing, _kantado_ = singing, _legado_ = reading, _pentrado_ = painting, _skulptado_ = (the art of) sculpture, _skribado_ = writing. These words signify not momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc. _Kanto_ = A song. _Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi_ = Her song pleases me. _Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min_ = Her singing charms me.

(_b_). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling, touching, thought, feeling, will, we say aŭdado, flarado, palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of isolated acts of such faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo.

(_c_). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that some -ado is an art.

Examples.--_Danc-arto_ (_dancado_) = the art of dancing, _kant-arto_ (_kantado_) = the art of singing, _pentr-arto_ (_pentrado_) = the art of painting.

N.B.--The hyphens are not necessary.

(_d_). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix is seen in such words as:--

_Movo_ = a motion, _movado_ = movement (general), _progreso_ = a step of progress, _progresado_ = progress (general), _parolo_ = word (spoken), _parolado_ = speech, discourse, _fumo_ = smoke, _fumado_ = smoking (habit of smoking), _verko_ = a work (literary or musical), _verkado_ = composition (lit.).

(_e_). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action is not merely momentary, but is being _continued_, _repeated_, or _is habitual_; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often expressed by the words "keep on," "used to," etc.

Examples.--_Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko_ = I jumped (about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). _Viziti_ = To visit. _Vizitadi_ = To frequent, to haunt.

(_f_). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = _a crown_; kronado = _coronation_; martelo = _a hammer_; martelado = _hammering_, etc.

(_g_). Do not therefore use _-AD-_ without thinking of its significance, or merely for the sake of euphony.

271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20).

(_a_). _-AĴ-_ denotes something having the quality denoted by the root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.

Examples.--_Ĉasi_ = to hunt, _ĉasaĵo_ = game. _Armi_ = to arm, _armaĵo_ = armour. _Bovo_ = an ox, _bovaĵo_ = beef. _Ovo_ = an egg, ovaĵo = an omelet.

(_b_). _-EC-_ denotes an _abstract_ quality, similar to the English suffixes, _-nce_, _-ncy_, _-ness_, _-tude_, _-ity_.

Examples.--_Pura_ = clean, _pureco_ = purity, cleanness. _Feliĉa_ = happy, _feliĉeco_ = happiness, felicity. _Sen_ = without, _seneco_ = dearth, want. _Kuraĝa_ = courageous, _kuraĝeco_ = fortitude. _Danki_ = to thank, _dankeco_ = gratitude, thankfulness. _Riĉa_ = rich, _riĉeco_ = wealth.

(_c_). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used as roots, as aĵo = _a thing_, eco = _a quality_, _a distinctive mark_.

(_d_). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their meaning.

_Amiko_ = a friend, _amikaĵo_ = a friendly act, _amikeco_ = friendship. _Bona_ = good, _bonaĵo_ = a good (action or thing), _boneco_ = goodness. _Fortika_ = solid, robust, _fortikaĵo_ = a stronghold, _fortikeco_ = robustness. _Mola_ = soft, _molaĵo_ = a soft substance, pulp, _moleco_ = softness. _Sprita_ = witty, _spritaĵo_ = a witticism, _spriteco_ = wittiness. _Malsprita_ = dull, stupid, _malspritaĵo_ = a stupidity, a _bêtise_, _malspriteco_ = stupidity, a state of silliness.

(_e_). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither concrete (_-AĴ-_) nor abstract (_-EC-_), we add only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la bono = _the good_, _good (itself)_, and from this arises bonaĵo = _a good action_, or, _something good_, the abstract quality being boneco = _goodness_. Again, acido = _an acid_, acidaĵo = _an acid thing_, something which has an acid taste, acideco = _acidity_. So, heroo = _a hero_, heroaĵo = _an exploit_ (something heroic), heroeco = _heroism_. The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the "_nessness_" of the idea.

Examples.--_La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn_ = The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind acts. _Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam ambaŭ posedas acidecon_ = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a sour fluid, although both possess acidity. _La heroo de la heroaĵo montris grandan heroecon_ = The hero of the exploit showed great heroism. _La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj_ = A friend shows his friendship by friendly acts.

272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21).

These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or other of them serves to show a person's country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine suffix _-IN-_ is added to denote females.

(_a_). Like the English _-an_, _-man_, _-AN-_ denotes a member of something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.

Examples.--_Klubo_ = a club, _klubano_ = a member of a club. _Senato_ = senate, _senatano_ = a senator. _Ameriko_ = America, _amerikano_ = an American. _Londono_ = London, _londonano_ = a Londoner. _Parizo_ = Paris, _parizano_ = a Parisian. _Urbo_ = a town or city, _urbano_ = a townsman or citizen. _Kamparo_ = country (rural), _kamparano_ = a countryman. _Vilaĝo_ = a village, _vilaĝano_ = a villager. _Insulo_ = an island, _insulano_ = an islander. _Kristo_ = Christ, _Kristano_ = a Christian. _Partio_ = a party, _partiano_ = a partisan.

(_b_). The suffix _-AN-_ itself is used as a root. Ano = _a member_, anaro = _a band_ (a collection of members of something).

(_c_). _-IST-_, like the English affix _-ist_, denotes a person following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In short, it denotes _habitual occupation_ (not necessarily for the sake of gain).

Examples.--_Juĝi_ = to judge, _juĝisto_ = a judge. _Kuraci_ = to treat the sick, _kuracisto_ = a doctor. _Drogo_ = a drug, _drogisto_ = a druggist. _Maro_ = sea, _maristo_ = a sailor (by occupation). _Rabi_ = to rob, _rabisto_ = a robber. _Ŝteli_ = to steal, _ŝtelisto_ = a thief. _Pentri_ = to paint, _pentristo_ = a painter (art). _Kolorigi_ = to colour, paint, _kolorigisto_ = a painter (house). _Servi_ = to serve, _servisto_ or _servistino_ = servant (male or female). _Astrologio_ = astrology, _astrologiisto_ (or, _astrologo_) = an astrologer.

(_d_). _-IST-_ is used only when there is a root to which it may be added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = _to sew_, ŝuo = _a shoe_, boto = boot, we get kudristino = _a seamstress_ or _dressmaker_, ŝuisto = _a shoemaker_, botisto = _a bootmaker_. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root, as:--Tajloro = _a tailor_, lakeo = _a lackey_, or _valet_.

(_e_). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.

Examples.--_Juĝanto_ = a judge (of something), _juĝisto_, a judge (by occupation or profession). _Amanto_ = a lover, _amisto_ = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. _Fotografanto_ = a photographer, one who is now photographing, _fotografisto_ = a professional photographer. _Laboranto_ = a person working, _laboristo_ = a labourer, or man who works for a livelihood.

(_f_). _-ESTR-_ denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as the suffix _-AN-_ denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so _-ESTR-_ would designate the head of it, as:--Urbo = _a city_, urbano = _citizen_, urbestro = _a mayor_, _a chief citizen_.

Examples.--_Imperio_ = an empire, _imperiestro_ = an emperor, _imperiestrino_ = an empress. _Regno_ = (the) State, _regnestro_ = a ruler, head of (the) State. _Ŝipo_ = a ship, _ŝipestro_ = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. _Lernejo_ = a school, _lernejestro_ = a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be _instruisto_). From _polico_ = police, we get _policano_ = a policeman (a member of the police force), _policisto_ = an officer of police (one who has made the police his profession), _policestro_ = chief of police.

(_g_). Ĉefo = _chief_, _head_, is used as a prefix as an equivalent of the English _chief_, _main_, _head-_, _prime_.

Examples.--_Episkopo_ = a bishop, _ĉefepiskopo_ = archbishop. _Anĝelo_ = an angel, _ĉefanĝelo_ = archangel.

Compare _-estro_ (the one in command over) with _ĉef-_ (principal in honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = _principal ship_, ŝipestro = _ship's captain_.

(_h_). _-UL-_ denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc.

Examples.--_Riĉa_ = rich, _riĉulo_ = a rich man. _Malriĉa_ = poor, _malriĉulo_ = a poor man, a pauper. _Justa_ = just, _justulo_ = a just or righteous man. _Bona_ = good, _bonulo_ = a good man. _Bela_ = beautiful, _belulino_ = a beauty, a beautiful woman. _Paca_ = peaceful, _paculo_ = a man of peace. _Juna_ = young, _junulo_ = a youth, junulino = a young woman. _Avara_ = avaricious, _avarulo_ = a miser.

(_i_). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.

Examples.--_Tie_ = there, _tieulo_ = an aborigine (a man of there). _Tiam_ = then, at that time, _tiamulo_ = a contemporary (a man of that time). _Kun_ = with, _kunulo_ = a companion (a person with you).

(_j_). Since words like legi = _to read_, viziti = _to visit_, etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in describing a person) by preference not _-UL-_ but _-IST-_ or a participial termination.

Examples.--_Leganto_ = a reader (who is reading), _leginto_ = a reader (who has read), _legonto_ = a reader (who is about to read), _legisto_ = a reader (by habitual occupation). But _legemulo_ = a person who is fond of reading.

273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.)

Aro = _a collection_, and ero = _an item_; therefore aro da eroj might be termed "a collection of items."

(_a_). _-AR-_ denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.

Examples.--_Vorto_ = a word, _vortaro_ = a collection of words, a dictionary. _Homo_ = a man, _homaro_ = mankind. _Arbo_ = a tree, _arbaro_ = a wood, _arbareto_ = a small wood, clump of trees. _Arbeto_ = shrub, small tree, _arbetaro_ = shrubbery, a grove. _Insulo_ = an island, _insularo_ = an archipelago. _Vagono_ = a (railway) carriage, _vagonaro_ = a train. _Sekvanto_ = a follower, _sekvantaro_ = suite, cortège, retinue. _Nomo_ = a name, _nomaro_ = list of names, a register. _Ŝtupo_ = a step, _ŝtuparo_ = a staircase, _ŝtupetaro_ = a ladder, succession of small steps. _Aristokrato_ = an aristocrat, _aristokrataro_ = (the) aristocracy. _Aro_ = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:--_Bruto_ = cattle, _brutaro_ = a herd of cattle. _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafaro_ = a flock of sheep. _Abelo_ = a bee, _abelaro_ = a swarm of bees.

(_b_). _-ER-_ denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.

Examples.--_Sablo_ = sand, _sablero_ = a grain of sand. _Hajlo_ = hail, _hajlero_ = a hailstone. _Fajro_ = fire, _fajrero_ = a spark. _Mono_ = money, _monero_ = a coin. _Polvo_ = dust, _polvero_ = an atom or speck of dust. _Pulvo_ = gunpowder, _pulvero_ = a grain of gunpowder. _Sukero_ = sugar, _sukerero_ = a grain of sugar.

274. Suffixes -ĈJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. 23.)

(_a_). _-ĈJ-_ is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the fifth (occasionally, the sixth).

Examples.--_Vilhelmo_ = William, _Vilhelĉjo_ = Willie, _Vilheĉjo_ = Will, _Vilĉjo_ = Billy, _Viĉjo_ = Bill. _Petro_ = Peter, _Peĉjo_ = Pete. _Johano_ = John, _Johanĉjo_ = Johnnie, _Joĉjo_ = Jack. _Nikolao_ = Nicholas, _Nikolĉjo_ = Nickie, _Nikoĉjo_, _Nikĉjo_, or _Niĉjo_ = Nick. _Ernesto_ = Ernest, _Erneĉjo_, _Ernĉjo_, or _Erĉjo_ = Ernie. _Patro_ = father, _patreto_, _paĉjo_ = papa.

(_b_). _-NJ-_ is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name.

Examples.--_Mario_ = Mary, _Marinjo_ = Molly, _Manjo_ = Polly. _Klaro_ = Clara, _Klanjo_ = Clarrie. _Sofio_ = Sophia, _Sonjo_ = Sophy. _Patrineto_, _patrinjo_, _panjo_ = mamma, mammy, ma.

275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.)

(_a_). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words ebla = _possible_; emo = _propensity_, _tendency_; indo = _worth_, _merit_, _value_. As suffixes they are mostly used to form adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = _to believe_, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning. Kredebla = _credible_, _possible of belief_, _believable_; kredema = _credulous_, _having a tendency to believe_; kredinda = _worthy of belief_.

(_b_). _-EBL-_ denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.

Examples.--_Pagi_ = to pay, _pagebla_ = payable. _Fleksi_ = to bend, _fleksebla_ = flexible. _Rompi_ = to break, _rompebla_ = breakable. _Fidi_ = to rely upon, _fidebla_ = reliable. _Kompreni_ = to understand, _komprenebla_ = comprehensible, _kompreneble_ = of course, comprehensibly.

(_c_). Do not confuse _-EBL-_ with _-EM-_ or _-IND-_ in words which in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings. For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla = _readable_, _legible_, but leginda = _readable_, _worth reading_. Hence we see that _-EBL-_ must always denote possibility. It is possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in Esperanto, aminda = _lovable_, and honorinda = _honourable_. _-EBL-_ is sometimes used for the infinitive.

Examples.--_Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro_ = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. _Tia amo estas malfacile imagebla_ = It is difficult to imagine such love.

(_d_). _-EM-_ denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful.

Examples.--_Paco_ = peace, _pacema_ = peaceful. _Helpi_ = to help, _helpema_ = helpful, obliging. _Trompi_ = to deceive, _trompema_ = deceitful, _trompemo_ = duplicity. _Servi_ = to serve, _servema_ = obliging, _servemo_ = inclination to serve. _Labori_ = to work, _laborema_ = laborious. _Pura_ = clean, pure, _purema_ = cleanly, _purigebla_ = cleanable. _Babili_ = to chatter, _babilema_ = talkative, chattering. _Koleri_ = to be angry, _kolerema_ = irascible, _ekkolerema_ = quick-tempered. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormema_ = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.

(_e_). Do not confuse _-EM-_ with _-IND-_ (or with _-AM-_ (love) in compound words). For instance:--

_Envii_ = to envy, _enviema_ = envious, inclined to envy, _enviinda_ = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. _Honti_ = to be ashamed, _hontema_ = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, _hontemo_ = bashfulness, _hontinda_ = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormema_ = drowsy, _dormama_ = fond of sleep.

(_f_). _-IND-_ denotes worthiness, worthy of.

Examples.--_Inda_ = worthy, _malinda_ = unworthy. _Laŭdi_ = to praise, _laŭdinda_ = praiseworthy. _Memori_ = to remember, _memorinda_ = memorable, worthy of being remembered. _Estimi_ = to esteem, _estiminda_ = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable" in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from _taksi_ = to estimate, to value, _taksebla_ = estimable, appraisable.

276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)

_-EDZ-_ denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a root.

Examples.--_Edzo_ = a husband, a married man, _edzino_ = a wife, a married woman, _edzeco_ = matrimony, a state of marriage, _edziĝo_ = a wedding, nuptials, _edziĝa_ = nuptial, _geedzoj_ = a married couple, husband and wife.

When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix _-IN-_ is added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.

Examples.--_Doktoredzino_ = a doctor's wife; _kudristinedzo_ = a seamstress's husband; _laboristedzino_ = a labourer's wife; _lavistinedzo_ = a washerwoman's husband; _tajloredzino_ = a tailor's wife; _edzigi_ (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), _edzinigi_ (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; _edziĝi_ (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), _edziniĝi_ (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:--_Li edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino_ = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. _Ŝi edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia sinjoro_ = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another gentleman.

277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. 26.)

(_a_). These two suffixes are opposites, _-EG-_ denoting augmentation, and _-ET-_ diminution of degree. When employed in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely used to denote the degree, as:--Grandega (_very large_), malgrandega (_very little_), but a better translation of these words is grandega = _huge_, _enormous_; malgrandega = _tiny_ (see remarks on degrees of intensity of adjectives, par. 114). If we cannot find English adjectives as equivalents of _-EG-_ or _-ET-_, we should use not the adverb "very," but a stronger term, as "excessively," "enormously," etc.

(_b_). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words to express the English meaning.

Examples.--_Montego_ = a huge mountain, _granda monto_ = a big mountain, _monto_ = a mountain, _malgranda monto_ = a small mountain, _monteto_ = a hill, _altaĵo_ = an eminence, _altaĵeto_ = a hillock. Again:--_Riverego_ = a huge river, _larĝa rivero_ = a wide river, _rivero_ = a river, _malgranda rivero_ = a small river, _rivereto_ = a brook, stream, _malgranda rivereto_ = a streamlet.

(_c_). _-EG-_ denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a root, ega = _intense_, egeco = _intensity_.

(_d_). _-ET-_ denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," "pustule." Used as a root, eta = _little_, _tiny_, etulo = _a little one_.

Examples.--_Pluvo_ = rain, _pluvego_ = a downpour, _pluveto_ = a shower. _Ridi_ = to laugh, _ridegi_ = to guffaw, _rideti_ = to smile. _Plori_ = to shed tears, _ploregi_ = to weep bitterly, _ploreti_ = to whimper. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormegi_ = to sleep heavily, _dormeti_ = to doze, _dormeto_ = a nap. _Domo_ = a house, _domego_ = a mansion, _dometo_ = a cottage. _Ŝnuro_ = cord, _ŝnurego_ = rope, cable, _ŝnureto_ = string, twine. _Ami_ = to love, _amegi_ = to idolize, _ameti_ = to have some liking for.

N.B.--From the above we see that _-EG-_ and _-ET-_ may generally be translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than the added suffix.

278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.)

These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is contained.

(_a_). _-EJ-_ denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = _a place_, _a locality_.

Examples.--_Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafejo_ = a sheepfold, or a place specially used for sheep. _Preĝi_ = to pray, _preĝejo_ = a church, a place allotted to prayer. _Fruktarbo_ = a fruit-tree, _fruktarbejo_ = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. _Kafo_ = coffee, _kafejo_ = a café. _Vinbero_ = a grape, _vinberejo_ = a vineyard. _Armilo_ = a weapon, _armilejo_ = an armoury. _Tombo_ = a tomb, grave, _tombejo_ = a cemetery. _Manĝi_ = to eat, _manĝejo_ = a refectory, _manĝaĵo_ = food, _manĝaĵejo_ = a larder. _Planti_ = to plant, _plantejo_ = nursery. _Mallibera_ = captive, _malliberejo_ = a prison. _Bovino_ = a cow, _bovinejo_ = cowshed. _Lerni_ = to learn, _lernejo_ = a school. _Juĝi_ = to judge, _juĝejo_ = a court of justice. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormejo_ = a dormitory. _Herbo_ = grass, _herbejo_ = a meadow, a field. _Paperfari_ = to make paper, _paperfarejo_ = a paper manufactory.

(_b_) _-ING-_ denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as a root, ingo = _a socket_, _a sheath_, _a holder_.

Examples.--_Kandelo_ = a candle, _kandelingo_ = a candlestick. _Plumo_ = a pen, _plumingo_ = a penholder. _Fingro_ = a finger, _fingringo_ = a thimble. _Cigaredo_ = a cigarette, _cigaredingo_ = a cigarette mouthpiece. _Glavo_ = a sword, _glavingo_ = scabbard, sheath (sword). _Bajoneto_ = bayonet, _bayonetingo_ = a scabbard (bayonet).

(_c_). _-UJ-_ denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears. Used as a root, ujo = _a receptacle_, _a container_. It has a wide signification, for it can be used for:--

(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various races.

Examples.--_Franco_ = a Frenchman, _Francujo_ = France. _Turko_ = a Turk, _Turkujo_ = Turkey. _Anglo_ = an Englishman, _Anglujo_ = England. _Germano_ = a German, _Germanujo_ = Germany. _Italo_ = an Italian, _Italujo_ = Italy. _Brito_ = a Briton, _Granda Britujo_ = Great Britain. _Hispano_ = a Spaniard, _Hispanujo_ = Spain.

N.B.--_Lando_ can be used instead of -_ujo_, if desired.

Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (_a_).

(2). The names of trees producing fruits.

Examples.--_Pruno_ = a plum, _prunujo_ = a plum-tree. _Kaŝtano_ = a chestnut, _kaŝtanujo_ = a chestnut-tree. _Piro_ = a pear, _pirujo_ = a pear-tree. _Migdalo_ = an almond, _migdalujo_ = an almond-tree. _Moruso_ = a mulberry, _morusujo_ = a mulberry-tree. _Ĉerizo_ = a cherry, _ĉerizujo_ = a cherry-tree.

_Arbo_ can be used instead of _ujo_ in such cases, and is preferable, because clearer, thus: _prunarbo_, _ĉerizarbo_.

(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.

Examples.--_Teo_ = tea, _teujo_ = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore _tekruĉo_ = a teapot, from _kruĉo_ = a vessel for fluids). _Mono_ = money, _monujo_ = a purse. _Papero_ = paper, _paperujo_ = a portfolio. _Sukero_ = sugar, _sukerujo_ = a sugar-basin. _Karto_ = a card, _kartujo_ = a card-case. _Abelo_ = a bee, _abelujo_ = a, beehive. _Mustardo_ = mustard, _mustardujo_ = mustard-pot.

(_d_). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:--

For instance, _cigaro_ = a cigar, _cigarejo_ = a cigar depot; but if we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we add the word required. If it be a store, we add _tenejo_ = a storehouse, as:--_Cigartenejo_ = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a shop, we add _vendejo_ = a market, or place where things are sold, as:--_Cigarvendejo_ = a cigar shop, or we might say also _cigarbutiko_. _Cigaringo_ = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. _Cigarujo_ = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. _Pomo_ = an apple, _pomejo_ (or, _pomarbejo_) = an apple orchard, _pomujo_, _pomarbo_ = an apple-tree.

279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.)

_-ID-_ denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root, ido = _offspring_, _descendant_; idaro = _issue_, _posterity_.

Examples.--_Kato_ = a cat, _katido_ = a kitten. _Bovo_ = an ox, or a general term for the animal, hence _bovido_ = a calf; if we wished to say a cow's calf, we make _bovo_ feminine, viz., _bovino_ = a cow, _bovinido_ = a cow's calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call _bovidino_, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be _virbovido_, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46). _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafido_ = a lamb. _Cervo_ = a stag, _cervido_ = a fawn. _Hundo_ = a dog, _hundido_ = a puppy. _Ĉevalo_ = a horse, _ĉevalido_ = a foal. _Koko_ = a cock, _kokido_ = a chicken, _kokideto_ = a chick, a tiny chicken. _Birdo_ = a bird, _birdido_ = a fledgeling, a young bird. _Izraelo_ = Israel, _izraelido_ = an Israelite. _Napoleono_ = Napoleon, _napoleonido_ = a descendant of Napoleon. _Reĝo_ = a king, _reĝido_ = a prince, king's son.

280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. 28.)

(_a_). These two are the most important and most widely used of all the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = _to make_, _to cause_, as:--Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = _Make her come to our dance._ Li penis igi sian amikon tuŝi la aferon = _He tried to make his friend broach the subject_ (_touch upon the matter_). (2). Iĝi = _to become_ (_to be made_, _to get_), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = _The weather is getting_ (_becoming_) _warmer_. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = _He will soon become an old man._

(_b_). Used as suffixes:--

(1). _-IG-_ denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause (to get), to render, as ruĝa = _red_, ruĝigi = _to make red_, _to redden_, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = _the action of reddening_, ruĝiga = _reddening_ (adj.).

(2). _-IĜ-_ denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become). Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix and with _-IG-_ in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = _to become or get red_, _to blush_; ruĝiĝo = _the action of getting red_, _a blush_; ruĝiĝa = _blushing_ (adj.).

(_c_). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the following examples will show:--

(_d_). From adjectives.

Examples.--_Bona_ = good, _bonigi_ = to make or render good, _boniĝi_ = to become good. _Plibonigi_ = to make better, to improve, _pliboniĝi_ = to become better, to improve, _plibonigo_ = the act of making better, improvement (made), _pliboniĝo_ = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). _Laca_ = tired, fatigued, _lacigi_ = to tire (active), _laciĝi_ = to get tired, _lacigo_ = the act of tiring others, _laciĝo_ = the state of growing tired. _Preta_ = ready, _pretigi_ = to make ready, _pretiĝi_ = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed.

(_e_). From nouns.

Examples.--_Fianĉo_ = a fiancé (man), _fianĉigi_ = to betroth, to affiance, _fianĉiĝi_ = to become betrothed, to be engaged, _fianĉiĝo_ = betrothal, engagement, _fianĉiĝa_ = betrothing, _fianĉiĝe_ = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix, as:--_fianĉino_, _fianĉinigi_, _fianĉiniĝi_, _fianĉinigo_, etc., etc.

(_f_). From verbs.

Examples.--_Morti_ = to die, _mortigi_ = to cause to die, to kill, _mortiĝi_ = to die out, to expire (become dead), _mortigo_ = killing (murder), _mortiga_ = deadly, _mortiganto_ = a murderer, _mortige_ = mortally. _Sinmortigo_ = suicide, _sinmortigi_ = to commit suicide. _Sidi_ = to be sitting, to sit, _sidigi_ = to cause to sit, _sidiĝi_ = to sit down, to seat oneself, _sidigo_ = the act of causing to sit, seating, _sidiĝo_ = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:--_Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi_ = He conducted the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round many times before seating itself. _Sciigi_ = to cause (_someone_) to know, _or_, to make (_something_) known. _Mi sciigis la homon pri la novaĵo_, or, _Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo_ = I caused the man to know (_or_, I informed the man, _or_, I made the news known to the man). _Sciiĝi_ = to become informed, to learn. _Mi sciiĝis pri la novaĵo_ = I learnt the news.

(_g_). Verbs formed by _-IGI_ are transitive (par. 161), but those by _-IĜI_ are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par. 162); with verbs in _-IĜI_, therefore, we cannot use the passive participles, _-ATA_, etc., but only the active forms _-ANTA_, etc., as:--Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol mi lin konis = _He had become an old man before I knew him._

(_h_). Intransitive verbs.--Some verbs, such as ĉesi = _to cease_, daŭri = _to continue_, pasi = _to pass_, are neuter or intransitive.

Examples.--_La pluvo ĉesas fali_ (or, _ĉesiĝas_) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). _La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon_ = The shooting continued some time. _La tempo pasas_ = Time passes.

In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto we must add the suffix _-IGI_.

Examples.--_Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo!_ = Cease that, you deafen me with your noise! _Daŭrigu vian rakonton_ = Continue your narrative. _Pasigu al mi la karafon_ = Pass me the decanter (see par. 237 (_i_)).

(_i_). Transitive verbs.--On the contrary, fini = _to finish_, and komenci = _to commence_, are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -_IG_ to make them transitive.

Examples.--_Finu vian laboron_ = Finish your work. _Ni komencis nian vojaĝon je la dua horo_ = We commenced our journey at 2 o'clock.

But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may use the suffix -_IĜI_.

Examples.--_Lia laboro finiĝas_ = His work finishes. _La jaro finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj_ = The year will end in a few days. _La vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo_ = The journey commenced at 3 o'clock (see par. 237 (_i_)).

(_j_). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.--Joined to these, -_IG_- and -_IĜ_- serve to form numerous words.

Examples.--_Unuigi_ = to unify, _unuigo_ = union, _unuiĝi_ = to unite together, to be combined, _unuiĝo_ = union (undergone). _Duobligi_ = to double, _duobliĝi_ = to become double. _Aligi al_ = to attribute to, _aliĝi_ = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, _aliĝo_ = adhesion. _Eksigi_ = to dismiss, _eksiĝi_ = to become ex-, to resign (a position). _Disigi_ = to separate, _disiĝi_ = to separate mutually, _disigo_ = act of separating, disjunction, _disiĝo_ = disunion, schism. _Kunigi_ = to connect, _kuniĝi_ = to join together, to coalesce, _kunigo_ = connection, _kuniĝo_ = junction. _Forigi_ = to do away with, _foriĝi_ = to withdraw.

281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.)

-_IL_- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is done. As a root, ilo = _a tool, an instrument, an implement, a means of_.

Examples.--_Kombi_ = to comb, _kombilo_ = a comb. _Razi_ = to shave, _razilo_ = a razor. _Tranĉi_ = to cut, _tranĉilo_ = a knive. _Haki_ = to hack, to chop, _hakilo_ = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. _Kudri_ = to sew, _kudrilo_ = a needle. _Tondi_ = to shear, to clip, _tondilo_ = shears, scissors. _Presi_ = to print, _presilo_ = a printing press. _Fermenti_ = to ferment, _fermentilo_ = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). _Batali_ = to fight, _batalilo_ = a weapon. _Armi_ = to arm, _armiloj_ = arms, _armilejo_ = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -_EJ_-, 278).

282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. 25.)

-_IN_- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = _a female_, ina = _female_.

Examples.--_Frato_ = a brother, _fratino_ = a sister. _Patro_ = a father, _patrino_ = a mother. _Kuzo_ = a male cousin, _kuzino_ = a female cousin. _Avo_ = grandfather, _avino_ = grandmother. _Nepo_ = a grandson, _nepino_ = a granddaughter. _Onklo_ = an uncle, _onklino_ = an aunt. _Nevo_ = a nephew, _nevino_ = a niece. _Patra_ = paternal, _patrina_ = maternal, _patrineco_ = maternity. _Frata_ = brotherly, fraternal, _fratina_ = sisterly. _Ĉevalo_ = a horse, _ĉevalino_ = a mare, _ĉevalido_ = a colt, _ĉevalidino_ = a filly. _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafino_ = a ewe. _Hundo_ = a dog, _hundino_ = a bitch. _Bovo_ = an ox, _bovino_ = a cow.

283. MOŜTO. (Ex. 23.)

(_a_). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word. It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect. Via moŝto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro = _sir_.

(_b_). No special rule has been laid down for the use of moŝto, but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add moŝto.

(_c_). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown below, and afterwards use the expression via moŝto to represent "Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship," "Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency," "Your Eminence," "Your Highness," etc. The suffix -_IN_ is hardly ever added.

Examples:--

Emperor = Via imperiestra moŝto = _Your Imperial Majesty_. King = Via reĝa moŝto = _Your Majesty_. Queen = Via reĝina moŝto = _Your Majesty_. Royal Family = Via reĝida moŝto = _Your Royal Highness_. Prince = Via princa moŝto = _Your Highness_, or, _Serene Highness_. Duke = Via duka moŝto = _Your Grace_. Duchess = Via dukina moŝto = _Your Grace_. Archbishop = Via ĉefepiskopa moŝto = _Your Grace_. Marquis = Via markiza moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_. Earl, Count = Via grafa moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_. Viscount = Via vicgrafa moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_. Lord, Baron (Judge) = Via barona moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_. Viceroy = Via vicreĝa moŝto = _Your Excellency_. Governor = Via rega moŝto = _Your Excellency_. Judge (not a Baron) = Via juĝista moŝto = _Your Honour_. Mayor = Via urbestra moŝto = _Your Worship_. General (Officer) = Via generala moŝto = _General_.

N.B.--No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like "Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General," or "Sir," but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.

(_d_). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:--

_Al Lia Duka Moŝto de ..._ or, _Al Lia Duka Moŝto, la Duko de ..._ = To His Grace the Duke of ...

_Al Ŝia Grafina Moŝto de ..._ = To the Countess of ...

_Al Lia Rega Moŝto de ..._ = To His Excellency the Governor of ...; or if we mention him by name:--

_Al Lia Moŝto, Sir Henry Smith La Reganto de ..._ = To His Excellency, Sir Henry Smith, The Governor of ...

284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives (see pars. 119, 120, 121).

(_a_). -_OBL_- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or "-uple."

Examples.--_Multoblo_ = a multiple, _multobla_ = manifold. _Unu_ = one, _unuobla_ = single, _unuoble_ = singly. _Du_ = two, _duobla_ = double, _la duoblo_ = the double. _Kvar_ = four, _kvarobla_ = fourfold, quadruple, _la kvaroblo_ = the quadruple. _Cent_ = hundred, _centoblo_ = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:--

_kvaroble tri estas_ (or, _faras_) _dek du_ 4 times 3 = 12 _kvinoble kvar estas dudek_ 5 times 4 = 20 _sesoble kvin estas tridek_ 6 times 5 = 30 _sepoble ses estas kvardek du_ 7 times 6 = 42 _okoble sep estas kvindek ses_ 8 times 7 = 56 _naŭoble ok estas sepdek du_ 9 times 8 = 72 _dekoble naŭ estas naŭdek_ 10 times 9 = 90 _dek-unuoble dek estas cent dek_ 11 times 10 = 110 _dek-duoble dek unu estas cent tridek du_ 12 times 11 = 132

(_b_). -_ON_- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a root, ona = _fractional_.

Examples.--_Du_ = two, _duona_ = half, _duone_ = by halves, _duono_ = a half (1/2). _Tri_ = three, _triona_ = third, _triono_ = a third (1/3). _Kvar_ = four, _kvarona_ = quarter, _kvarono_ = a fourth (1/4). _Dek_ = ten, _dekona_ = tenth, _dekono_ = a tenth (1/10), _tri dekonoj_ = 3/10ths. _Dek du_ = twelve, _dek-duona_ = twelfth, _dek-duono_ = a twelfth (1/12), _kvin dek-duonoj_ = 5/12ths. _Sesdek kvin centonoj_ = sixty-five hundredths (65/100). _La kvinona parto (la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio estas dudek_ = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20.

(_c_). -_OP_- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = _collective_.

Examples.--_Du_ = two, _duope_ = two together, in twos. _Tri_ = three, _triope_ = in threes, in triplets. _Dek_ = ten, _dekope_ = in tens. _Dudek_ = twenty, _dudekope_ = in twenties, by scores. _Cent_ = hundred, _centope_ = in hundreds. _Mil_ = thousand, _milope_ = in thousands. _Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min_ = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. _La soldatoj marŝis kvarope_ = The soldiers were marching in fours.

285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.)

-_UM_- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should be learnt as simple words.

The following embrace nearly all:--

*_Aerumi_ = to air, aerate. _Aero_ = air. *_Amindumi_ = to court, woo. _Amo_ = love. _Brulumo_ = a swelling, inflammation. _Bruli_ = to burn. *_Buŝumo_ = a muzzle (for a dog), a nose-band. _Buŝumi_ = to muzzle, to gag. _Buŝo_ = mouth. *_Butonumi_ = to button. _Butonumilo_ = a buttonhook. _Butono_ = a button. _Cerbumi_ = to rack one's brains. _Cerbo_ = a brain. *_Gustumi_ = to taste (something). _Gustumado_ = tasting, the sense of tasting. _Gusto_ = taste. _Kalkanumo_ = a heel of a boot, etc. _Kalkano_ = heel (of the foot). *_Kolumo_ = a shirt collar. _Kolo_ = neck. _Kolombumi_ = to spoon, bill and coo. _Kolombo_ = a dove. *_Komunumo_ = a commune, a community. _Komuna_ = common. *_Krucumi_ = to crucify. _Kruco_ = a cross. *Laktumo = milt, melt, soft roe. _Lakto_ = milk. _Lekumi_ = to lap. _Leki_ = lick. *_Lotumi_ = to allot. _Loti_ = to draw lots. *_Malvarmumo_ = a cold, chill. _Malvarmumi_ = to catch cold. _Malvarma_ = cold. *_Manumo_ = a cuff, a wristband. _Mano_ = hand. *_Mastrumi_ = to manage (the household), keep house. _Mastrumado_ = household management. _Mastro_ = master. *_Nazumo_ = a pince-nez. _Nazo_ = nose. _Okulumi_ = to make eyes at. _Okulo_ = an eye. *_Palpebrumi_ = to wink, blink. _Palpebro_ = an eyelid. _Partumo_ = a fraction (mathematics). _Parto_ = a part, a share. *_Plenumi_ = to fulfil, accomplish. _Plenumiĝi_ = to be accomplished, fulfilled. _Plena_ = full, complete. _Proksimuma_, _proksimume_ = approximately. _Proksima_ near. _Sapumi_ = to soap, lather. _Sapo_ = soap. *_Ventumi_ = to ventilate, to use a fan. _Ventumilo_ = a fan. _Vento_ = wind.

N.B.--The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof's "Fundamento de Esperanto."

286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. 25.)

These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less degree.

(_a_). _BO_- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to the English suffix -_in-law_, as patro = _father_, bopatro = _father-in-law_.

(_b_). _DUON_- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a prefix in such words as duonpago = _half-pay_, duonjara = _half-yearly_, etc. As a root, duono = _a half_, so properly it should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step relationship, as:--Duonfrato = _stepbrother_ or _half-brother_.

(_c_). _GE_- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.

Examples.--_Edzo_ = a husband, _geedzoj_ = husband and wife, a married couple. _Sinjoro_ = Sir, Mr., _gesinjoroj_ = Mr. and Mrs., _or_, ladies and gentlemen. _Patro_ = father, _gepatroj_ = father and mother, parents. _Mastro_ = a master (of a household), _gemastroj_ = master and mistress. _Frato_ = brother, _gefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s).

(_d_). _PRA_- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes "fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = _primeval_.

Examples.--_Pratempo_ = primitive time. _Praarbarego_ = primeval forest. _Prapatroj_ = forefathers, ancestors. _Praonklo_ = grand, or great, uncle. _Praavino_ = great-grandmother.

(_e_). The following are examples of these four prefixes:--

_Patro_ = father, _bopatro_ = father-in-law, _duonpatro_ = stepfather, _gepatroj_ = father and mother, parents.

_Patrino_ = mother, _bopatrino_ = mother-in-law, _duonpatrino_ = stepmother.

_Avo_ = grandfather, _boavo_ = grandfather-in-law, _duonavo_ = stepgrandfather, _geavoj_ = grandparents, _prageavoj_ = great-grandparents.

_Filo_ = son, _bofilo_ = son-in-law, _duonfilo_ = stepson.

_Filino_ = daughter, _bofilino_ = daughter-in-law, _duonfilino_ = stepdaughter.

_Nepo_ = grandson, _pranepo_ = great-grandson, _genepoj_ = grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.

_Nepino_ = granddaughter, _pranepino_ = great-granddaughter.

_Frato_ = brother, _bofrato_ = brother-in-law, _duonfrato_ = step, or half, brother, _gefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s), _bogefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.

_Fratino_ = sister, _bofratino_ = sister in law, _duonfratino_ = step, or half, sister.

_Onklo_ = uncle, _praonklo_ = grand, or great, uncle, _geonkloj_ = uncle(s) and aunt(s).

_Onklino_ = aunt, _praonklino_ = grand, or great, aunt.

_Nevo_ = nephew, _pranevo_ = grandnephew, _genevoj_ = nephew(s) and niece(s).

_Nevino_ = niece, _pranevino_ = grandniece.

_Infano_ = child, _duoninfano_ = stepchild.

287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.)

These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of position.

(_a_). _DE_- as a preposition = _from, of_. As a prefix it marks the point of departure, or movement from one place or position to another.

(_b_). _DIS_- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.

(_c_). _FOR_- as an adverb = _away_. As a prefix it denotes distance from something.

(_d_). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., _disperse_ = disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.

(_e_) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of these prefixes:--

_Ŝiri_ = to tear, _deŝiri_ = to tear from, to pluck. _disŝiri_ = to tear to pieces, to lacerate. _forŝiri_ = to tear away from.

_Iri_ = to go, _deiri_ = to go from (a place). _disiri_ = to go in different directions, to separate. _foriri_ = to go away, to depart.

_Ĵeti_ =to throw, _deĵeti_ = to throw down, to overthrow. _disĵeti_ = to throw about, to demolish, scatter. _forĵeti_ = to throw away, to discard.

_Meti_ = to put, _demeti_ = to put down, take off, doff. _dismeti_ = to disperse, to distribute. _formeti_ = to put away, to omit.

_Porti_ = to carry, _deporti_ = to carry from, to deport. _disporti_ = to carry here and there. _forporti_ = to carry away.

288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. 19, 32.)

_EK_- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden, momentary.

Examples.--_Kanti_ = to sing, _ekkanti_ = to begin to sing, or to start singing. _Ridi_ = to laugh, _ekridi_ = to burst out laughing. _Krii_ = to cry, _ekkrii_ = to exclaim, to cry out. _Lerni_ = to learn, _eklerni_ = to begin to learn. _Iri_ = to go, _ekiri_ = to start, to set out. _Plori_ = to shed tears, _ekplori_ = to burst out crying. _Kapti_ = to catch, _ekkapti_ = to seize. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _ekdormi_ = to fall asleep. _Vidi_ = to see, _ekvidi_ = to perceive. _Tremi_ = to tremble, _ektremi_ = to start (with fear, etc.).

_EK_- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to," frequently used in English before a verb, as:--Kiam mi ekpripensas = _When I begin to_ (or, _come to_) _reflect_. Kiam mi ekpensas pri ĝi = _When I come to think of it_.

289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.)

(_a_). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies with the prefix used.

(_b_). _MAL_- is used as a root in the adjective mala = _contrary_, and the adverb male = _on the contrary, conversely_. As a prefix it signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that which it had before _MAL_- was prefixed. It is never used to give the meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = _a coward_ has a bad signification, but its opposite maltimulo = _a bold man_ has no such meaning. Bona = _good_, malbona = _bad_, simply because "bad" is the opposite of "good."

(_c_). _NE_ is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word, as:--Plena = _complete, full_, neplena = _incomplete, not full_. Ne estas certe = _it is not certain_ has the same signification as estas necerte = _it is uncertain_. Used as a root, it forms nei = _to deny_, nea = _negative_, etc.

(_d_). _SEN_ is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it has the same signification; as ĉesi = _to cease_, senĉesa = _without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless_; senco = _meaning, sense_, sensenca = _without meaning, senseless_; senkapigi = _to decapitate_. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = _to deprive of_, seneco = _want_, etc.

(_e_). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that _MAL_- denotes the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger in signification than the mere negative ne = _not_, or the privative sen = _without_. For instance, plena = _complete, full_, but neplena = _incomplete, not full_. Now the opposite to "complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore malplena = _empty, void, vacuous_. Again, from riĉa = _rich_, we form the opposite, malriĉa = _poor_, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa = _not rich_, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means "without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = _shut_, closed; the opposite is malfermita = _opened, open_. Applied to a window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only ajar it would be better to say nefermita = _not closed_.

(_f_) In using _MAL_- we must consider the _strength_ of the word to which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like "destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," therefore malriĉega = _destitute_. So bela = _beautiful_, belega = _splendid, magnificent;_ therefore their opposites are malbela = _ugly_, malbelega = _hideous_.

(_g_). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use _MAL_- if we wish to give a stronger idea than _NE_ or _SEN_ would infer; (2), to use _NE_ in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3), to use _SEN_ if "without" is more applicable than "not," as:--Senmova = _without motion, stationary_, but nemovebla = _not movable, immovable_. It will generally be right to employ _SEN_ to represent the English suffix -_less_, as:--Sendanka = _thankless_, senmona = _penniless_, senhara = _hairless, bald_, senutila = _useless_. The opposite to "useful" is something stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = _detrimental, prejudicial_.

(_h_). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these three prefixes:--

_Venko_ = victory, _malvenko_ = defeat. _Videbla_ = visible, _nevidebla_ = invisible. _Ŝanĝebla_ = changeable (in the sense "able to be changed"), _neŝanĝebla_ = unchangeable. _Ofta_ = frequent, _neofta_ = infrequent, _malofta_ = scarce, rare. _Simple_ = simple, _malsimpla_ = intricate, complex. _Permesi_ = to permit, _malpermesi_ = to forbid. _Helpi_ = to help, _malhelpi_ = to hinder, _nehelpi_ = to give no assistance. _Sobreco_ = sobriety, _malsobreco_ = intemperance, drunkenness. _Saĝeco_ = wisdom, _malsaĝeco_ = foolishness. _Modesta_ = modest, _nemodesta_ = officious, _malmodesta_ = conceited. _Justa_ = just, _maljusta_ = unjust. _Pura_ = clean, _nepura_ = soiled, _malpura_ = dirty. _Pia_ = pious, _malpia_ = impious. _Agrabla_ = agreeable, _neagrabla_ = unpleasant, _malagrabla_ = disagreeable, nasty. _Glata_ = smooth, _malglata_ = rough. _Atento_ = attention, _malatento_ = negligence. _Respekto_ = respect, _nerespekto_ = non-respect, _malrespekto_ = violation. _Brua_ = noisy, _senbrua_ = noiseless.

290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.)

(_a_). _RE_-, like the English prefix _re_-, means "back" or "again." It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree = _again, in return_.

(_b_) (1). Repetition.

Examples.--_Refari_ = to make afresh, to remake; _rediri_ = to say again, to repeat (_ripeti_ is, however, more frequently used for "repeat"); _rekanti_ = to sing again; _rejuniĝi_ = to grow young again; _renaskiĝo_ = rebirth, regeneration; _repagi_ = to repay, to reimburse; _reenmeti_ = to put in again, to reinstate; _rekunigi_ = to reunite; _rebruligi_ = to rekindle; _reformi_ = to reform, to remodel; _reprodukti_ = to reproduce.

(2). Return, etc.

Examples.--_Redoni_ = to give back, to restore; _repreni_ = to take back; _reĵeti_ = to throw back; _resalti_ = to rebound; _rebrili_ = to shine back, to reflect; _reveni_ = to come back, to return; _reporti_ = to carry back, to carry to the original place.

N.B.--In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286-290, nearly all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).

291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.

_SIN-_ and _MEM-_ are used as prefixes to translate the English _-self_. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-, otherwise mem-. Singardo = _caution_; sinmortigo = _suicide_; sinteno = _attitude_; memstara = _independent_; memvola = _voluntary_.

292. Prefix VIC-.

The prefix _VIC-_ denotes the English _vice-_; vicprezidanto = _a vice-president_; vicadmiralo = _a vice-admiral_.

293. Suffix -ISM-.

The suffix _-ISM-_ was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide meaning given it by international usage in most European languages: _system_, _doctrine_, _school of thought_, _theory_, _party_.

Thus: absolutismo = _absolutism_. Similarly, we have agnostik-, alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetiĉ-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo.

It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root. Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (_b_).