PART I

ALPHABET (Alfabeto).

1. The Alphabet (la alfabeto) consists of 28 letters, viz.:--5 vowels (vokaloj) and 23 consonants (konsonantoj).

Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii, Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt, Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.

2. The Characters are written as in English, the marks over the letters requiring them being added as printed. In telegrams ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, may be written ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

3. Typewriting.--If the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, are not on the machine, type the plain letters and add the supersigns afterwards with the pen; most makers, however, supply a machine with the necessary characters, or they can be added to any machine on a "dead key" at the cost of a few shillings.

4. The Names given to the letters are different from those of other languages. For instance, in English we add E to _some_ of the consonants to name the letter, but in Esperanto O is added to _all_ the 23 consonants, and the alphabet runs thus:--A, Bo, Co, Ĉo, Do, E, Fo, Go, Ĝo, Ho, Ĥo, I, Jo, Ĵo, Ko, Lo, Mo, No, O, Po, Ro, So, Ŝo, To, U, Ŭo, Vo, Zo. Note particularly the pronunciation of the 12 consonants, given in the next paragraph.

See "Hints to Learners," page 363.

PRONUNCIATION (Prononco).

5. The Consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:--

C pronounced _tso_ like _ts_ in _pits_, _Tsar_. Ĉ pronounced _cho_ like _ch_ in _choke_ or _church_. G pronounced _go_ like _g_ in _get_ or _go_, always hard. Ĝ pronounced _djo_ like _j_ in _Joe_, or _G_ in _George_. Ĥ pronounced _hHo_ like _ch_ in _loch_ (is a very strong guttural aspirate). J pronounced _yo_ like _y_ in _yoke_. Ĵ pronounced _zho_ like _s_ in _pleasure_, _leisure_. R pronounced _ro_ like _rr_ in _terror_. S pronounced _so_ like _s_ in _so_ (never has the sound of _z_). Ŝ pronounced _sho_ like _sh_ in _show_. Ŭ pronounced _oo-o_ or _wo_ like _w_ in _cow_. Z pronounced _zo_ like _z_ in _zone_.

For the pronunciation of the vowels, see pars. 8 and 9.

6. In spelling a word use the Esperanto name, thus:--A, No, To, A, Wo, spells _antaŭ_ (before). E, Wo, Ro, O, Po, O, spells _Eŭropo_ (Europe). U, No, U, spells _unu_ (one).

7. Consonants. Note the following:--

(_a_). C and J are the only consonants which have a different sound than in English.

(_b_). C, Ĉ and Ŝ are the equivalents of the English combinations _ts_, _ch_ (soft) and _sh_.

(_c_). G has always the English _hard_ sound.

(_d_). Ĝ is like the English J.

(_e_). J is like the English Y.

(_f_). H is always aspirated.

(_g_). Ĥ is a guttural aspirate similar to the Spanish J as heard in _mujer_ (a woman), or like the Scotch _ch_ in "loch," or the Irish _gh_ in "lough." If the learner cannot catch this sound it will be sufficient to aspirate the character strongly, as if it were a double letter _hH_, laying stress on the last H.

(_h_). S _never_ has the sound of Z, as it has in the English words "rose, has, was," etc.

(_i_). ĵ, the small letter, does not require the dot in addition to the circumflex.

(_j_). Ŭ is a consonant, and is used in the combinations AŬ and EŬ (see par. 10).

8. Vowels.--There are no _short_ vowels in Esperanto, as heard in the words bat, bet, bit, pot, but. All vowels should be of _medium_ length, but it is well to begin by sounding them _long_ (see note, page 12).

9. The vowel A is sounded like "ah!" or the _a_ in "father"; I like _ee_ in "seen"; U like _oo_ in "fool."

As regards the vowels E and O, we have no words in English exactly expressing their true sounds. The correct sound of E is something midway between the vowels heard in "bale" and "bell," and that of O something midway between those heard in "dole" and "doll," viz., "eh!" (cut short) and "oh!" (cut short), but without the _prolonged_ sound heard in these words. In the vowel E there should be no trace of the _ee_ sound heard in "cake"; its true sound is much nearer to the _e_ in "bell." The vowel O approaches to the sound of _o_ in "for," or of _aw_ in "law."

In the scheme of pronunciation (par. 19) we have therefore used _ah_ for A; _eh_ for E; _ee_ for I; _o_ for O; _oo_ for U.

N.B.--Do not clip or drag the vowels.

10. Combinations, Vowel and Consonant.--The following 6 combinations resemble diphthongs, but are not so, since a diphthong consists of 2 _vowels_ and _j_ and _ŭ_ are both consonants:--

AJ pronounced _ahye_ or _i_ something like _ai_ in aisle. AŬ pronounced _ahoo_ or _ow_ something like _ow_ in cow. EJ pronounced _ehye_ or _ae_ something like _aye_ in c_aye_nne. EŬ pronounced _ehoo_ or _ew_ something like _ayw_ in w_ayw_ard. OJ pronounced _oye_ or _oi_ something like _oy_ in joy. UJ pronounced _ooye_ or _ooe_ something like _uj_ in Hallel_uj_ah.

It will be observed that if these double sounds be rapidly made the pronunciation will resemble the English words given, but remember they are each pronounced as one syllable, so the examples "cayenne," "wayward," "Hallelujah," are not strictly correct. AJ, EJ, OJ, UJ, resemble the sound heard in the French words "paille," "oseille," "boyard," "fouille," and AŬ is heard in the German word "Haus."

N.B.--It is difficult to explain the exact sound of EŬ. Pronounce our word "_ewe_," and then give the sound of _eh_ (cut short) to the first letter, thus _ehwe_, pronouncing the word as _one_ syllable. In the scheme of pronunciation at page 10 we have given it as _ehw_. It occurs very rarely.

11. Combinations of Consonants.--There are a few which do not occur in English, and the attention of the student is therefore called to the following:--

12. GV, KN KV, SV. When these letters commence a word, both must be clearly pronounced.

13. Ŝ, being the same as our Sh, must be distinctly pronounced, when followed by one or two consonants. Ŝm = shm, Ŝn = shn, Ŝp = shp, Ŝt = sht, Ŝtr = shtr, Ŝv = shv. If the _sh_ sound be not clearly given, mistakes might occur in a few words, as, for instance, Ŝtupo is a _step_ (of a ladder), but Stupo is _tow_; Ŝtalo is _steel_, but Stalo a _stall_.

14. SC. This combination may at first be found difficult, especially when it commences a word, since it represents STS, which, with a following vowel, form but one syllable. There are very few words commencing with SC, viz.:--The five given in the list of words (par. 19) and their derivatives, the word scii (_to know_) being the only one in common use. First the sound of S has to be given, then T, and lastly S. Since every letter has to be sounded, it is not sufficient to pronounce scii as _tsee-e_, for then the initial S is omitted; we must therefore mentally pronounce it _estsee-e_, the "_es_" being uttered very rapidly (as if it were merely a short sibilant) before the voice reaches the TS, on which the stress is made. When SC is not preceded by a comma or other stop, or is in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be easily effected by joining the sound of the preceding letter to the S. Thus mi scias = _I know_ can be pronounced _meest-see-ahs_. Mi vidis brunan sciuron = _I saw a brown squirrel_--_mee-vee-dees broo-nahnst-see-oo-ron_. But when the preceding word ends in S, the full sound of both of the letters S must be given, as mi havas sciuron = _I have a squirrel_--_mee hahvahs (e)stsee-oo-ron_ (the initial _e_ very short to help to give the sound of the first _s_) . [By repeating the sentence: "You at least see as well as I do," and then detaching the words "least see," the student will readily arrive at the proper pronunciation of "sc" in "Li scias."]

15. KZ. In pronouncing this combination, do not follow the English pronunciation of words like "exempt," etc., which our dictionaries give as "egzempt." Be careful not to turn the K into G in such words as ekzemplo = _example_, ekzameni = _to examine_. The full sound should be given to every letter in the three syllables, ek-zem-plo.

16. Pronunciation of Words.--Every vowel and consonant in a word is pronounced distinctly, and the sound never varies, whether the letters are initial, medial, or final; _there is no mute letter in Esperanto_. Each syllable must be distinct, and it must be remembered that when two vowels come together, such as ai, ae, ee, ii, oi, etc., or two similar consonants, as kk, ll, mm, etc., each letter always belongs to a different syllable, and must be given its full sound.

17. Tonic Accent.--The stress of the voice, or the tonic accent, is always on the _penultimate_ (last syllable but one). Even in words of two syllables the tonic accent must be strongly perceived in the first syllable. The euphony and beauty of the language would in a great measure be destroyed by non-observance of this rule.

(_a_). In compound words, as in others, the accent must very distinctly fall on the penultimate of the _whole_ word; but when a compound word consists of four syllables, or more, the _meaning_ of the prefixed word, or words, may be shown by laying a certain stress on those syllables which would be accented if they were complete independent words. It will be noticed how much easier it is to grasp the meaning of a prefixed word if a slight stress of the voice be given to that syllable on which we are accustomed to hear the accent fall when the word stands alone, as:--_Du_-be-_ni_-gra = Blackish. _An_-taŭ-_vi_-di = To foresee. _Gas_-o-_me_-tro = Gasometer. Arm-_il_-far-_ist_-o = Gunsmith. Ĝar-_den_-la-bor-_ad_-o = Gardening. _In_-ter-ri-_lat_-o = Intercourse. _Sen_-la-_bor_-of-_ic_-o = Sinecure. Le-_ter_-pa-_per_-o = Note-paper.

18. Beginners should read aloud daily; at first slowly and slightly exaggerating the sounds, making free use of the organs of speech. It will then be found that in more rapid utterance the exaggeration will gradually disappear, and a good, bold, free pronunciation be attained. (See "Hints to Learners," page 363.)

19. It is advisable that the student, before proceeding to the grammar, should get a thorough knowledge of the sounds of letters, syllables, and words; he should, therefore, read over the following list of words, which gives most of the combinations of sounds in the language. The italics denote where the tonic accent falls.

SCHEME OF PRONUNCIATION.

Esperanto Letter. A = _ah_ is used to represent the _a_ in _father_. E = _eh_ (see par. 9). I = _ee_ is used to represent the _ee_ in _seen_. O = _o_ (see par. 9). U = _oo_ is used to represent the _oo_ in _fool_. Ŭ = _w_ is used to represent the _w_ in _wet_. G = _g_ is used to represent the _g_ in _go_. Ĝ = _dj_ is used to represent the _g_ in _George_. Ĥ = _hH_ is used to represent a very strong guttural aspirate J = _y_ is used to represent the _y_ in _yes_. Ĵ = _zh_ is used to represent the _s_ in _pleasure_.

Esperanto. Pronunciation. English.

A abato ah-_bah_-to abbot. a-a la afero lah ah-_feh_-ro the affair. a-e aero ah-_eh_-ro air. a-i trairi trah-_ee_-ree to traverse. balai bah-_lah_-ee to sweep. aj ajlo _ahy_-lo (sound "y" short, as ye) (dissyllable) garlic. krajono krah-_yo_-no pencil. majesta mah-_yehs_-tah majestic. ajn _ahyn_ (sound "y" short, as ye) (monosyllable) ever. palaj _pah_-lahy (sound "y" short, as ye) (dissyllable) pale (adj., pl.) a-o la ondo lah _on_-do the wave. a-u la ungo lah _oon_-go the nail. aŭ laŭdo _lahw_-do praise. antaŭ _ahn_-tahw before. hodiaŭ ho-_dee_-ahw to-day. B Biblio Bee-_blee_-o Bible. C cent _tsehnt_ hundred. citi _tsee_-tee to cite, quote. colo _tso_-lo inch. paco _pah_-tso peace. pacienco pah-tsee-_ehn_-tso patience. oficiro o-fee-_tsee_-ro officer. proceso pro-_tseh_-so lawsuit. Ĉ ĉar _chahr_ because, for. ĉielo chee-_eh_-lo heaven, sky. senĉesa sehn-_cheh_-sah incessant, ceaseless. eĉ _ehch_ even. E elemento eh-leh-_mehn_-to element. e-a oceano o-tseh-_ah_-no ocean. e-e treege treh-_eh_-geh exceedingly. e-i feino feh-_ee_-no fairy. perei peh-_reh_-ee to perish. ej plej _plehy_ (sound "y" short, as ye) (monosyllable) most. malplej _mahl_-plehy (sound "y" short, as ye) (dissyllable) least. hejmo _hehy_-mo (sound "y" short, as ye) (dissyllable) home. e-o neo _neh_-o negative. teorio teh-o-_ree_-o theory. e-u pereu peh-_reh_-oo perish (imperative). eŭ Eŭropo ehw-_ro_-po Europe. G gento _gehn_-to tribe. gv gvidi _gvee_-dee to guide. lingvo _leen_-gvo language. g-u guano goo-_ah_-no guano. Ĝ ĝui _djoo_-ee to enjoy. ĝojo _djo_-yo joy. paĝo _pah_-djo page. H haro _hah_-ro hair. senhara sehn-_hah_-rah bald. Ĥ ĥemio hHeh-_mee_-o (guttural aspirate) chemistry. eĥo _eh_-hHo (do.) echo. I idilio ee-dee-_lee_-o idyll. i-a ial _ee_-ahl for any cause. i-e tiel _tee_-ehl thus. i-i diigi dee-_ee_-gee to deify. i-o tiom _tee_-om as much. i-u ĉiu _chee_-oo each. i-uj tiuj _tee-ooy_ (dissyllable) those. J justa _yoos_-tah just. ĉiujara chee-oo-_yah_-rah yearly. Ĵ ĵus _zhoos_ just (adv.). ĵaŭdo _zhahw_-do Thursday. bovaĵo bo-_vah_-zho beef. K konkuri kon-_koo_-ree to compete. kn knedi _kneh_-dee to knead. kv kvankam _kvahn_-kahm although. kvitanco kvee-_tahn_-tso receipt. malkvieteco mahl-kvee-eh-_teh_-tso restlessness. k-z ekzemplo ehk-_zehm_-plo example. L mallumiĝo mahl-loo-_mee_-djo eclipse. ellabori ehl-lah-_bo_-ree to achieve. O ondo _on_-do a wave. o-a boato bo-_ah_-to boat. o-e troe _tro_-eh excessively. o-i foiro fo-_ee_-ro a fair. oj vojoj _vo_-yoy roads (plur.). o-o zoologio zo-o-lo-_gee_-o zoology. o-u trouzi tro-_oo_-zee to abuse. R rimarki ree-_mahr_-kee to remark. rr forrampi for-_rahm_-pee to creep away S sekci _sehk_-tsee to dissect. sc sceno _(e)stseh_-no (imagine a very short _e_ to help to give the sound of the first _s_) scene. sceptro _(e)stsehp_-tro sceptre. scienco (e)stsee-_ehn_-tso science. scii _(e)stsee_-ee to know. sciuro (e)stsee-_oo_-ro squirrel. konscienco kons-tsee-_ehn_-tso conscience. nescio nehs-_tsee_-o ignorance. sf sfero _sfeh_-ro sphere. sv sveni _sveh_-nee to swoon. skl sklavo _sklah_-vo slave. skv skvamo _skvah_-mo scale (of fish). Ŝ ŝaŭmo _shahw_-mo froth. malŝarĝi mahl-_shahr_-djee to unload (a cart). ŝl ŝlosi _shlo_-see to lock. ŝm ŝmiri _shmee_-ree to smear. ŝpr ŝpruci _shproo_-tsee to spurt (intrans.). ŝtr ŝtrumpo _shtroom_-po stocking. ŝv ŝveli _shveh_-lee to swell (intrans.). ŝt poŝtmarko posht-_mahr_-ko postage stamp T trajto _trahy_-to (dissyllable) trait, feature. U unu _oo_-noo one. u-a unua oo-_noo_-ah first. u-e duelo doo-_eh_-lo duel. u-i kuirejo koo-ee-_reh_-yo kitchen. detrui deh-_troo_-ee to destroy. uj monujo mo-_noo_-yo purse. tuj _tooy_ (monosyllable) immediately. prujno _prooy_-no (dissyllable) white frost. unuj _oo_-nooy (dissyllable) some (plural of _unu_). u-o duobla doo-_o_-blah double. paruo pah-_roo_-o tomtit. u-u detruu deh-_troo_-oo destroy (imperative). V envolvi ehn-_vol_-vee to envelop, wrap. Z edzino ehd-_zee_-no wife. noktomezo nok-to-_meh_-zo midnight.

Note.--Esperanto vowels are very similar in sound to those in German and Spanish, and in the Italian _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_.

SYNTAX (Sintakso).

20. Syntax (sintakso) treats of the connection, dependence, and arrangement of words to form intelligible speech.

21. Speech (parolo) consists of propositions.

22. A Proposition (propozicio) is a collection of words by which we assert, or question, the act, state, or quality of some person or thing. A complete proposition consists of two chief parts, viz., the Subject and Predicate.

23. The Subject (subjekto) is the name of the person or thing spoken of.

24. The Predicate (predikato) is what is said about the subject.

25. The Subject of a proposition is always:--

(_a_). One or more nouns.

(_b_). Some word used as a noun, e.g., (1), a pronoun, mi = _I_; (2), an adjective, mia kara estas bona filino = _my dear (one) is a good daughter_; (3), an infinitive, mensogi estas honte = _to lie_ (or, _lying_) _is shameful_; (4), a phrase. Estas agrable por (or, al) mi, ke vi aĉetis tiun domon (here "ke vi aĉetis" is the subject) = _I am glad (it is agreeable to me) that you bought that house._

26. The subject is always in the nominative case. When the subject is a noun, it must, therefore, always end in -O, if the noun is singular, or in -OJ, if the noun is in the plural. The subject of any verb can always be determined by putting the word "who?" or "what?" before the verb, and the word giving the reply is the subject, as:--La riĉulo havas multe da mono = _The rich man has much (of) money_. (Who has much money? _The rich man_ = la riĉulo is the subject.) La papero estas blanka = _The paper is white._ (What is white? _The paper_ = la papero is the subject.) De timo paliĝis Antono = _Antony grew pale from fear._ (Who grew pale? _Antony_ = Antono is the subject.) Miaj fratoj batis min = _My brothers beat me._ (Who beat me? _My brothers_ = miaj fratoj is the subject.)

27. Subject omitted.--Sometimes the subject is omitted, as:--Pluvas = _it rains_. Fulmis = _It lightened_. (See remarks on impersonal verbs, par. 164.)

28. The Object is the person or thing acted upon by the subject, hence the term objective (or accusative) case, as:--Johano batas la knabon = _John beats the boy._ Knabon = _the boy_ is acted upon by Johano, the subject, therefore knabon is the object, and has the accusative termination N.

29. The Direct Complement (rekta komplemento).--The noun or pronoun (not governed by a preposition), which is the direct complement of a transitive verb, must have the accusative form -N in the singular, or -JN in the plural. The direct complement of a verb can be determined by asking the question "whom?" or "what?" after such verb, and the word giving the reply is the direct complement, as:--Diru al mi vian nomon = _Tell me your name_. (Tell what? _Your name_ = vian nomon is the direct complement.) Johano min amas = _John loves me_. (Loves whom? _Me_ = min is the direct complement.)

30. The direct complement of an active verb becomes the subject if the verb is put in the passive voice, as:--Mia patro amas min = _My father loves me_. Here min = _me_ is the direct complement; but Mi estas amata de mia patro = _I am loved by my father_. Here mi = _I_ is the subject of the verb. Note, that intransitive verbs cannot have a direct complement, for they have no passive voice (par. 162).

31. The Indirect Complement (nerekta komplemento) is formed with a preposition and a noun or pronoun in the nominative, as:--Donu al la birdoj akvon = _Give (to) the birds water_, or _Give water to the birds_. (Here "akvon" is the direct, and la birdoj the indirect, complement.) Venu kune kun la patro = _Come together with (the) father_. But if direction towards something be implied, and the preposition of itself does not denote movement, the noun, or pronoun, will then be in the accusative case (see pars. 67, 256), as:--Li eniris en la domon = _He went into the house_.

32. The Circumstantial Complement.--A word or phrase is termed a circumstantial complement (_cirkonstanca komplemento_) when it marks the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, as:--En printempo floroj aperas, or Printempe floroj aperas = _In Spring flowers appear_. Li agas pro ĵaluzo = _He acts from (owing to) jealousy_.

The Predicate (Predikato).

33. The Predicate is what is said about the subject.

(_a_). A predicative verb is one which, of itself, shows in a definite manner some act, state, or quality, as:--Arbo kreskas = _A tree grows_. La arbo verdiĝis = _The tree became green_.

(_b_) A non-predicative verb is one which does not, of itself, show an act, but is accompanied by some adjective, participle or predicative noun, defining and describing the subject, as:--La urbo estas belega = _The city is magnificent_. Kolombo estas birdo = _A pigeon is a bird_. This is called a "Disjoined predicate" (disigita predikato).

34. The Predicate can furthermore be precisely defined by an adverb or a noun (or a word used as a noun) governed by a preposition. This serves to show the object of the act and circumstances surrounding it, as:--Arturo batis Georgon per sia pugno = _Arthur struck George with his fist_.

35. A noun can be more precisely defined by the addition of another noun or word used as a noun, as:--Eduardo, reĝo de Anglujo = _Edward, King of England_. This is called "apposition" (_apozicio_).

36. To every noun can be added adjectives or participles, which also can be defined by other nouns, as:--Homo mortiginta sian patrinon estas granda krimulo = _A man who has murdered (having murdered) his mother is a great criminal_. An adjective added, without any intervening word, to a noun is termed "qualifying," in order to distinguish it from an adjective (called a "predicative" adjective) having the verb esti (expressed or understood) between it and the noun, as:--Homo bona = _A good man_ (qualifying). La homo estas bona = _The man is good_ (predicative). (See remarks on adjectives, par. 108.)

DEFINITIONS (Difinoj).

37. A word consists of one or more syllables or distinct sounds, and has a definite meaning.

38. A root is an incomplete word conveying only an idea. It may consist of one or more syllables, but requires one or more letters to form it into a word.

39. Words in Esperanto may be divided into four classes: Primary, Simple, Compound, and Foreign.

(_a_). A Primary word is one which requires no additional letters to give it a distinct meaning (see list of Primary Words, Part V).

(_b_). A Simple word is one formed by adding a grammatical termination to a single root, or to a primary word (which then becomes a root), with or without suffixes or prefixes.

Examples.--_Bon-a_ = Good. _Ĉirkaŭ-i_ = To surround. _Antaŭ-ul-o_ = A predecessor. _Dis-sem-i_ = To scatter. _Mal-san-ul-ejo_ = An infirmary.

(_c_). A Compound word is one formed by adding a grammatical termination to two or more roots, or to a primary word and a root, with or without suffixes or prefixes. Any of the component parts may be complete words, if euphony requires it.

Examples.--_Bon-intenc-a_ = Well-meaning. _Super-natur-a_ = Supernatural. _Antaŭ-vid-i_ = To foresee. _Ĉas-o-ŝtel-ist-o_ = A poacher. _Ĉas-gard-ist-o_ = A gamekeeper. _Vapor-ŝipo_ = A steamship. _Griz-har-a_ = Grey-haired. _Super-akv-eg-o_ = A deluge.

(_d_). A Foreign word is one common to most languages, being derived from the same root.

Examples.--_Teatr-o_ = Theatre. _Teatr-a_ = Theatrical. _Geologi-o_ = Geology. _Geologi-a_ = Geological.

FORMATION OF WORDS (Vortfarado).

40. To show the manner in which words are formed in Esperanto, it will perhaps be better first to do so in Dr. Zamenhof's own words, as given on page 248 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio." He says:--

"I arranged a complete dismemberment of ideas into independent words, so that the whole language, _instead of_ being words in various grammatical forms, consists solely of _unchangeable_ words. If you will take a work written in my language, you will find that each word is always in one constant form, namely, in that form in which it is printed in the dictionary, and that the various grammatical forms, reciprocal relation between words, etc., etc., are expressed by the union of unchanging words. But, because such a construction of language is quite strange to Europeans, I adapted this dismemberment of the language to the spirit of the European languages, so that anyone learning mine from a manual would not suppose that it differed in construction from his own. Take, for example, the word fratino, which in reality consists of three words, frat, in, o. Frat gives the idea of the offspring[9] of one's parents, in the idea of the female sex, and o the idea of existence (person or thing), hence a noun. These three ideas combined, in Esperanto, make fratino = _a sister_. The first and last make frato = _a brother_. The instruction book shows this in the following manner:--Brother = frat-, but because every substantive in the nominative ends in o, therefore frato = _brother_. For the formation of the feminine, the little word -in- is inserted, therefore fratino = _sister_. In this way, the dismemberment of the language in no way embarrasses the learner; he does not even suspect that that which he calls a prefix, or suffix, or termination, is really an _independent word_, which always preserves its meaning, no matter whether it be used at the beginning, middle, or end of a word, or independently, and that every word, with equal right, can be used as a root word or grammatical particle."

Footnote:

[9] It must be remembered that all roots or root-words in Esperanto are either sexless, or have only the sex _naturally_ belonging to the root, unless the feminine suffix--IN--be added. For instance, vir- gives the idea of "man" (male), therefore viro = a man; and we always speak of viro as li = _he_, because we are sure the noun refers to the male sex. But the root infan- gives only the idea of a "child" (neuter), so, unless we actually know the child is a male, we speak of infano = _child_ as ĝi = _it_, just as we do in English. When a suffix denoting a person, such as -estr-, -ist-, -ul-, is added to a root, the noun is sexless, or may be presumed to be masculine, unless the feminine -in- be also added.

41. With reference to the above, it will be observed that Dr. Zamenhof calls all combinations of letters,[10] which convey an idea, a "word," as for instance frat, in, o, but in practice the student may find it helpful to use the terms which are defined in pars. 37-39, and (with the exception of the primary words in the list, Part V.) to call no combination a "word" until it receives a grammatical termination.

Footnote:

[10] Not only combinations of letters, but each vowel (as already shown in the case of O), conveys an idea, and is therefore, technically speaking, a word; for instance--

A conveys the idea of _quality_ and marks the _Adjective_. E conveys the idea of _modification_ and marks the _Adverb_. I conveys the idea of _indefiniteness_ and marks the _Infinitive mood_. O conveys the idea of _existence_, _entity_ and marks the _Noun_. U conveys the idea of _order_ and marks the _Imperative mood_.

In the table of Correlative Words, Dr. Zamenhof carries out the idea of indefiniteness in the _I_ series, ia, ial, iam, etc.; all, however, be it noted, independent indivisible _roots_ (see par. 147). In fact ia, ie, io, might be considered as adjective, adverb, and noun, regularly formed from the indefinite word (or grammatical termination as we call it) "i."

42. Grammatical Terminations (_gramatikaj finiĝoj_).--Every word in Esperanto, except the primary words, has a grammatical termination which shows:--

(_a_). The part of speech.

(_b_). Whether the word is singular or plural.

(_c_). Whether in the nominative or accusative case.

(_d_). The mood, tense, and participles of a verb.

A list of the grammatical terminations will be found in par. 53.

43. Suffixes.--Suffixes are syllables placed between the root and grammatical termination, adding to the word the idea contained in the suffix as well as that in the root.

A list of suffixes will be found in par. 54.

44. Prefixes.--A prefix is a syllable placed before the root, adding to the root the idea contained in the prefix.

A list of prefixes will be found in par. 55.

45. From the foregoing definitions we see that words in Esperanto are either primary words, or words composed of:--

(_a_). Roots and grammatical terminations.

(_b_). Roots, suffixes, and grammatical terminations.

(_c_). Prefixes, roots, and grammatical terminations.

(_d_). Prefixes, roots, suffixes, and grammatical terminations.

46. Order of Suffixes.--The grammatical terminations, _A_, _E_, _I_, _O_, _U_, _AS_, _IS_, _OS_, _US_, showing the part of speech and mood and tense of verbs, must end all words (except some of the primary words), the accusative _N_ or plural _J_ being added if required. Suffixes precede this termination in their natural order. For instance, if we want to say "a tiny female kitten," we commence with the root kat-, giving the idea only of "cat" ; then add -id- (suffix for "offspring of") kat-id- = _kitten_; then -in- (female suffix) kat-id-in- = _kitten female_; then -et- (diminutive suffix) kat-id-in-et- = _kitten female tiny_; we have now got the root and all the suffixes, and we might make the word an adjective by adding _A_, but we want a noun, so add _O_; kat-id-in-et-o = _a tiny female kitten_. If we place -et- after kat-, we commence by speaking of a "tiny cat," for kateto has that meaning, so katetidino would be the "female offspring of a tiny cat." If we reversed the three suffixes, we should get kat-in-et-id-o = _offspring of a tiny female cat_. This exaggerated example of building up suffixes will show the importance of placing them in their natural order. The student cannot make a mistake if he commences with the root and forms a word of each suffix in succession; for instance, hund-o = _a dog_, hund-id-o = _a puppy_, hundid-in-o = _a female puppy_, hundidin-eg-o = _a huge female puppy_.

47. Order of Prefixes.--In like manner prefixes must come in their natural order, as:--Sano = _health_, mal-sano = _illness_, re-mal-sano = _a return of illness_, _a relapse_.

48. Order of roots in compound words.--The principal root is always placed last, and receives the grammatical termination, with or without a suffix. The root of a subordinate word is sufficient without any suffix.

Examples.--_Ĉas-gard-ist-o_ = A gamekeeper, (_ĉasi_ = to hunt, _ĉas-aĵo_ = a thing hunted, game; but it is unnecessary to add the suffix _-aĵ-_ to the subordinate root). _Roz-kolora_ = Rose coloured. _Skrib-tablo_ = Writing table. _Lerno-libro_ = Instruction book, manual (_lern-o_, the root, made a full word for euphony). Compare: _librolerno_, book-learning. _Tir-kesto_ = A drawer (_tir-i_ = to draw, _kesto_ = a chest). _Lum-turo_ = Lighthouse (_lum-i_ = to shine, _turo_ = a tower). _Lip-haroj_ = Moustache (_lip-o_ = a lip, _haroj_ = hairs). _Vang-haroj_ = Whiskers (_vang-o_ = a cheek).

49. When the root should be a noun, adjective, or adverb.--When the joining of the root alone makes the compound word difficult to pronounce, the root is generally made a noun by adding _O_ for the sake of euphony, as:--Lerno-libro = _manual_, _instruction book_. If the prefixed root alone would not give the required meaning, the suitable grammatical ending must be added. Estis unu-taga laboro = _it was one day's work_. Estis la unua-taga laboro = _it was the first day's work_. La supre-citita paragrafo = _the above-quoted paragraph_. In case of adverbs, _N_ to form the accusative is also added, if direction is implied, as:--Li supren-iris la monton = _he ascended the mountain_ (see 67 (_b_)).

N.B.--The hyphens are not necessary.

50. The idea conveyed by the root.--In forming a word, the first thing is to find out the exact primary idea contained in the root. Do not think, for instance, that because you happen to know that one of the meanings of cel-o is _end_, that cel-i will mean to _finish_ or _end_. The primary idea of cel- is _aim_, or _purpose_, therefore cel-i is _to aim_, _to purpose_. Do not, in the case of a word with one or more suffixes, think that because you know one of its meanings, you know also the idea conveyed in its root. For instance, kresk-aĵ-o is _a plant_, but do not at once say that kresk-i is _to plant_; kreskaĵo comes quite logically from kreski = _to grow_, therefore kreskaĵo is a thing grown, _a growth_, _a plant_. In other words, make certain that you understand the exact meaning of the Esperanto root; and be careful not to be misled by the fact that many English words have a number of different meanings.

PRIMARY WORDS (Vortoj fundamentaj).

51. The Primary words are 158 in number, and must be carefully learnt (see list, page 334). They are not only complete words in themselves with a definite meaning, but they can be treated as root-words and receive prefixes, suffixes, and grammatical terminations. There is no rule to prevent any of these words, ending in a vowel, from receiving, if logically allowable, the accusative _N_ or the plural _J_ (see par. 142).

Examples.--_Jen_ (behold), _jene_ = As follows. _Ne_ (no, not), _nei_ = To deny. _Tie_ (there), _tieulo_ = A man from there (that place). _Ĉirkaŭ_ (around, round), _ĉirkaŭi_ = To surround. _Jes_ (yes), _jeso_ = An affirmation. _Tiaj esprimoj_ = Such expressions. _Tiuj ĉevaloj_ = Those horses. _Li aĉetis ĉiujn ĉevalojn_ = He bought all the horses. _Faru al mi ian respondon_ = Make me some (kind of) reply. _Venu tien ĉi_ = Come hither. _Diru al mi tion, kion vi faris_ = Tell me what (that which) you did (have done). _Unuj faris tion ĉi, aliaj tion_ = Some did this, others that.

Among the Primary Words are found all the personal and demonstrative pronouns, all the cardinal numbers and prepositions, and also many common adverbs and conjunctions. It is important, therefore, that the student should thoroughly master their meaning.

FOREIGN WORDS (Vortoj fremdaj).

52. Foreign words are those which in most languages are derived from the same source, and, being consequently much alike in formation, are easily understood by most nations, there being only a slight difference in spelling and that difference of termination which occurs in all languages. Dr. Zamenhof wisely lays down that they should undergo no change, beyond conforming to Esperanto orthography and its grammatical terminations.

In order to show their change from English spelling, the following examples are given, not only of words which may be called "foreign," but of others that are a near approach to English in formation. It must be borne in mind that these changes of letters by no means invariably take place; they are only _general_.

52 (_a_).--Initial and Medial Letters.

C (hard) = _K_ generally, as:--_Declare_ = deklari, _economy_ = ekonomio, _decameter_ = dekametro, _hectogram_ = hektogramo. In a few cases _C_ becomes _Ĉ_, as:--_Dedicate_ = dediĉi, _carpenter_ = ĉarpentisto (probably from the French _charpentier_).

C (soft) generally undergoes no change, so remains _C_ with its sound of _TS_, as:--_Cipher_ = cifero, _cigar_ = cigaro, _glycerine_ = glicerino, _grimace_ = grimaco, _spice_ = spico. Some few words change to _Z_, as:--_Price_ = prezo.

Ch (soft) = _Ĉ_ generally, as:--_Chamber_ = ĉambro, _charming_ = ĉarma, _chaste_ = ĉasta, _chief_ = ĉefo.

Ch (hard) = _Ĥ_ generally, as:--_Chameleon_ = ĥameleono, _chaos_ = ĥaoso, _chemistry_ = ĥemio, _cholera_ = ĥolero, _hypochondria_ = hipoĥondrio, _chorister_ = ĥoristo. It will be seen that these words are mostly derived from the Greek.

G (soft or hard) = _G_ generally, as:--_Geology_ = geologio, _elegant_ = eleganta, _general_ (officer) = generalo. The exceptions in which Ĝ is used are mostly words following the French pronunciation, as:--_Danger_ = danĝero, _garden_ = ĝardeno, _general_ (adjective) = ĝenerala, _germ_ = ĝermo, _giraffe_ = ĝirafo, etc.

PH = _F_, as:--_Elephantiasis_ = elefantiazo, _sphere_ = sfero, etc.

QU = _KV_, as:--_Equivalent_ = ekvivalenta, _eloquent_ = elokventa, _inquisition_ = inkvizicio, _quantity_ = kvanto, _quadratic_ = kvadrata.

S = _S_, but in a few instances it becomes _Ŝ_ (probably following German pronunciation) as:--_Slime_ = ŝlimo, _smear_ = ŝmiri, _spare_ = ŝpari, _spin_ = ŝpini, etc.

S (sounded like Z) = _Z_ generally, as:--_Desert_ = dezerto, _rose_ = rozo, _present_ = prezenti, _preside_ = prezidi, etc.

Sh = _Ŝ_ generally, as:--_Shark_ = ŝarko, _ship_ = ŝipo, _shoe_ = ŝuo.

Th = _T_, as:--_Theatre_ = teatro, _mythology_ = mitologio.

X = _KS_ or _KZ_, generally, as:--_Example_ = ekzemplo, _exercise_ = ekzerco, _dispatch_ = ekspedi, _excite_ = eksciti, _exposition_ = ekspozicio, _exist_ = ekzisti. In a few instances _X_ becomes _S_, as:--_Extinguish_ = estingi, _explore_ = esplori, _express_ = esprimi. Occasionally _L_ is used for _X_, as:--_Expel_ = elpeli, _excrescence_ = elkreskaĵo, etc. When _L_ is substituted it will be observed that the English prefix _EX_ means "out of," and that, therefore, Esperanto logically uses the preposition _EL_, meaning "out of," as the prefix.

52 (_b_).--Terminal Letters.

Terminal Letters.--If the last syllable ends in the sound of a consonant, it is generally right to add _O_ to the last consonant of the English word, to form a noun, as:--_Diadem_ = diademo, _diagonal_ = diagonalo, _granite_ = granito, _dialogue_ = dialogo, _debate_ = debato. There are, of course, exceptions. Beginners should always consult an Esperanto Dictionary if they have any doubt as to internationality or spelling. Note the following terminations, which have a peculiarity of their own:--

-ER. = _RO_ generally, for a noun, as:--_December_ = Decembro, _diameter_ = diametro. Words like "centre," "theatre," etc., sometimes spelt "center," "theater," follow the rule, as:--Centro, teatro.

-IC and -ICAL. = _A_ or _IA_. These terminations are English suffixes for adjectives. Esperanto, however, discards them and gives its own adjectival suffix _A_, as _Galvanic_ = galvana, _hypnotic_ = hipnota, _theatrical_ = teatra, _identical_ = identa, _theoretic_ = teoria, _geographical_ = geografia. (See remarks on -OGY and -ISM).

-ICS. = _KO_. The English termination -ICS has a plural form, but in Esperanto -CS is generally represented by -KO, and not the plural -KOJ, as:--_Mathematics_ = matematiko, etc.

-INE. The I in this termination is occasionally turned into E, as:--_Gelatine_ = gelateno. More commonly it is retained, as:--_Glycerine_ = glicerino.

-ISH. = _DUBE_ (doubtful) may be prefixed to colours to form the adjective in _-ish_, as:--Dubenigra = _blackish_, dubeblanka = _whitish_, dubeverda = _greenish_. It is, however, better to use the suffix -et, thus: nigreta, verdeta.

-ISM. In many cases the ending -ISM forms part of an international root, and is thus used in Esperanto also; e.g., paroksismo = _paroxysm_, sofismo = _a sophism_, _fallacy_, aforismo = _an aphorism_, are simple words, for there are no roots paroks, sof (in this sense), afor. In the majority of cases the English suffix _-ism_ and the Esperanto suffix -ism coincide, thus: komunismo = _communism_, vegetarismo = _vegetarianism_. Sometimes the English _-ism_ has the meaning -ec, thus: heroeco = _heroism_, fanatikeco = _fanaticism_. _Catholicism_ may mean katolikismo or katolikeco.

-IST. Esperanto words ending in -ism often have companion forms in -ist, to which similar remarks apply, as:--sofisto = _a sophist_, komunisto = _a communist_.

-MENT. When this is the English termination of a noun derived from a root not ending in -MENT, it becomes O, as:--_Embarrass_ = embarasi, _embarrassment_ = embaraso, _rebate_ = rabati, _rebatement_ = rabato. But when -MENT is part of the English root it is retained, as:--_Element_ = elemento, _experiment_ = eksperimento, _fundament_ = fundamento.

-OGY. Words derived from the Greek change _Y_ into _IO_, as:--_Geology_ = geologio, _theology_ = teologio. The adjectives of these words end in -IC and -ICAL, and, as their Esperanto root ends in -I, A must be added to this to form the adjectives geologia, teologia.

-SIS. = _ZO_ generally, as:--_Apotheosis_ = apoteozo, _hypothesis_ = hipotezo, _oasis_ = oazo, _synthesis_ = sintezo.

-TH. = _T_, as:--_Hyacinth_ = hiacinto.

-TION. = _CIO_ occasionally, as:--_Declaration_ = deklaracio, _exposition_ = ekspozicio, _arbitration_ = arbitracio, _generation_ = generacio, _situation_ = situacio. Usually, however, English _-tion_ corresponds to Esperanto -o, -ado, or -aĵo, as:--_information_ = inform-o, -ado, -aĵo; and such forms are often used even when an alternative form in -cio exists, thus: deklar-o, -aĵo.

-UM. = _O_ generally, as:--_Epithalamium_ = epitalamio, _gymnasium_ (_college_) = gimnazio, _geranium_ = geranio.

-Y. = _IO_ generally in words derived from Latin or Greek, as:--_Philosophy_ = filozofio, _astronomy_ = astronomio, _sympathy_ (_liking_) = simpatio, _industry_ = industrio.

53. GRAMMATICAL TERMINATIONS

(Gramatikaj Finiĝoj).

A final denotes an Adjective. Patra, _paternal_. E final denotes an Adverb. Patre, _paternally_. I final denotes the Infinitive Mood. Fari, _to do_. O final denotes a Noun. Patro, _a father_. U final denotes the Imperative Mood. Faru, _do_. Li faru, _let him do_. Diru, ke li faru tion, _say he is to do that_. J final denotes the Plural. Patroj, _fathers_. N final denotes the Accusative Case. Patron. Mi vidis mian patron, _I saw my father_. AS final denotes the Present Tense. Mi faras, _I do_, or, _I am doing_. IS final denotes the Past Tense. Li faris, _he did_, or, _he has done_. OS final denotes the Future Tense. Ni faros, _we shall do_. US final denotes the Conditional Mood. Vi farus, _you should_, or _would_, _do_. ANTA final denotes Present Participle Active. Faranta, _doing_. INTA final denotes Past Participle Active. Farinta, _having done_. ONTA final denotes Future Participle Active. Faronta, _about to do_. ATA final denotes Present Participle Passive. Farata, _being done_. ITA final denotes Past Participle Passive. Farita, _having been done_. OTA final denotes Future Participle Passive. Farota, _about to be done_.

N.B.--There are three forms of participles, the adjectival, substantival, and adverbial. The one given above is the adjectival. In the adverbial form the final A is changed into E. Farante tion, li ... = _By_ (_in_, or _through_) _doing that, he_ ... To form the substantive, change A into O. La faranto = _The doer_ (_the person doing_). These three forms are applicable to all the three participles in both the active and passive voices (see pars. 208-210).

LIST OF SUFFIXES (Sufiksoj).

54. The following lists of suffixes (31) and prefixes (7 in number) should be carefully studied, since innumerable words of the finest shade of meaning can be formed by their aid, in fact, they are the ground-work of the language. In cases where a suffix can be used as a root, the word it helps to form is given. The hyphens are used only to show the root, suffix, and grammatical termination of the examples. The student should form other words himself, and study the works of the best authors. (For remarks on suffixes and prefixes, see pars. 270-290.)

-AĈ- Denotes badness of quality or condition (aĉ-a, _vile_, _bad_), (par. 271):

dom-o, _a house_, dom-aĉ-o, _a tumble-down house_.

ĉeval-o, _a horse_, ĉeval-aĉ-o, _a sorry nag_.

-AD- Denotes the continuation of an action (par. 270):

paf-o, _a shot_, or _discharge_, paf-ad-o, _a firing_, _fusillade_.

ir-i, _to go_, ir-ad-i, _to continue going_.

-AĴ- Denotes some real or concrete thing made from, or having the quality of, the root (aĵ-o, _a thing_), (par. 271):

mola, _soft_, mol-aĵ-o, _a soft thing_, or _substance_.

frukt-o, _fruit_, frukt-aĵ-o, _jam_.

-AN- Denotes a member, inhabitant, or partisan (an-o, _a member, etc._), (par. 272):

vilaĝ-o, _a village_, vilaĝ-an-o, _a villager_.

London-o, _London_, London-an-o, _a Londoner_.

-AR- Denotes a collection of the idea implied in the root (ar-o, _a collection_, _flock_), (par. 273):

arb-o, _a tree_, arb-ar-o, _a wood_.

hom-o, _a man_, hom-ar-o, _mankind_.

-ĈJ- These letters, substituted for one or more of the letters of a masculine name, make it an affectionate diminutive (par. 274):

Petr-o, _Peter_, Pe-ĉj-o, _Pete_.

Vilhelm-o, _William_, Vilhel-ĉj-o, _Willie_, Vilhe-ĉj-o, _Will_, Vil-ĉj-o, _Billy_, Vi-ĉj-o, _Bill_.

For feminine names insert _nj_ instead of _ĉj_ (par. 274):

Mari-o, _Mary_, Ma-nj-o, _Polly_.

Helen-o, _Helen_, Hele-nj-o, _Nelly_, He-nj-o, _Nell_.

-EBL- Denotes possibility, similar to the English terminations _-able_, _-ible_ (ebl-a, _possible_, ebl-e, _perhaps_), (par. 275):

leg-i, _to read_, leg-ebl-a, _legible_.

tra-vid-i, _to see through_, tra-vid-ebl-a, _transparent_.

-EC- Denotes an abstract quality of the idea conveyed in the root, like the English terminations _-ness_, _-tude_, _-ity_ (ec-o, _a distinctive mark_, or _quality_), (par. 271):

bon-a, _good_, bon-ec-o, _goodness_.

riĉ-a, _rich_, riĉ-ec-o, _wealth_.

-EDZ- Denotes a married person (edz-o, _a husband_), (par. 276):

doktor-o, _a doctor_, doktor-edz-in-o, _a doctor's wife_, lav-ist-in-o, _a washerwoman_, lav-ist-in-edz-o, _a washerwoman's husband_.

-EG- Denotes augmentation, intensity of degree (eg-a, _intense_, eg-ec-o, _intensity_), (par. 277):

grand-a, _great_, grand-eg-a, _enormous_.

pord-o, _a door_, pord-eg-o, _a portal_, _outer-door_.

-EJ- Denotes the place specially used for, or allotted to, the idea implied in the root (ej-o, _place_, _location_), (par. 278):

preĝ-i, _to pray_, preĝ-ej-o, _a church_.

tomb-o, _a grave_, _tomb_, tomb-ej-o, _a graveyard_, _cemetery_.

-EM- Denotes propensity, inclination, disposition (em-o, _a disposition_, _bias_, _tendency_), (par. 275):

babil-i, _to chatter_, babil-em-a, _chattering_.

pac-o, _peace_, pac-em-a, _inclined to peace_, _peaceful_.

-ER- Denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment (er-o, _an item_), (par. 273):

sabl-o, _sand_, sabl-er-o, _a grain of sand_.

mon-o, _money_, mon-er-o, _a coin_.

-ESTR- Denotes a chief, leader, ruler, or head of (estr-o, _a chief_), (par. 272):

ŝip-o, _a ship_, ŝip-estr-o, _a captain of a ship_.

imperi-o, _an empire_, imperi-estr-o, _an emperor_.

-ET- Denotes diminution of degree (et-a, _little_, _small_), (par. 277):

mont-o, _a mountain_, mont-et-o, _a hill_.

rid-i, _to laugh_, rid-et-i, _to smile_.

-ID- Denotes the young of, offspring, descendant (id-o, _offspring_), (par. 279):

ŝaf-o, _a sheep_, ŝaf-id-o, _a lamb_.

Izrael-o, _Israel_, Izrael-id-o, _an Israelite_.

-IG- Denotes the causing, making, or rendering anything to be in the state implied by the root (ig-i, _to cause_, _to make_), (par. 280):

mort-i, _to die_, mort-ig-i, _to kill_.

pur-a, _clean_, pur-ig-i, _to clean_, _purify_.

-IĜ- Denotes the action of becoming, turning to, and has sometimes a reflexive force (iĝ-i, _to become_, _to be made_), (par. 280):

ruĝ-a, _red_, ruĝ-iĝ-i, _to become red_, _to blush_.

riĉ-a, _rich_, riĉ-iĝ-i, _to become_, or _grow rich_, or _to get rich_.

-IL- Denotes the tool or instrument or means by which something is done (il-o, _a tool_, _means_), (par. 281):

tranĉ-i, _to cut_, tranĉ-il-o, _a knife_.

pres-i, _to print_, pres-il-o, _a printing press_.

-IN- Denotes the feminine gender (in-o, _a female_), (par. 282):

frat-o, _a brother_, frat-in-o, _a sister_.

leon-o, _a lion_, leon-in-o, _a lioness_.

-IND- Denotes worthiness, deserving of something, worthy of (ind-o, _worth_, _merit_), (par. 275):

laŭd-i, _to praise_, laŭd-ind-a, _praiseworthy_.

estim-o, _esteem_, estim-ind-a, _estimable_, _worthy of esteem_.

-ING- Denotes a thing used for holding _only one_ object (ing-o, _a socket_, or _sheath_), (par. 278):

plum-o, _a pen_, plum-ing-o, _a penholder_.

kandel-o, _a candle_, kandel-ing-o, _a candlestick_.

-ISM- Denotes a theory, system, doctrine, school of thought (ism-o, _an "ism"_), (par. 293):

real-a, _real_, real-ism-o, _realism_.

protestant-o, _a protestant_, protestant-ism-o, _protestantism_.

-IST- Denotes a person occupied with the idea contained in the root (par. 272):

drog-o, _a drug_, drog-ist-o, _a druggist_.

ŝtel-i, _to steal_, ŝtel-ist-o, _a thief_.

-NJ- See ĈJ, page 29, and par. 274.

-OBL- Denotes a numeral multiple (par. 284):

du, _two_, du-obl-a, _double_.

tri, _three_, tri-obl-a, _triple_.

-ON- Denotes a numeral fraction (par. 284):

kvar, _four_, kvar-on-o, _a fourth_.

kvin, _five_, kvin-on-o, _a fifth_.

-OP- Denotes a numeral collective (op-a, _collective_), (par. 284):

du, _two_, du-op-e, _by twos_.

dek, _ten_, dek-op-e, _by tens_, _ten together_.

-UJ- Denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears, a quantity or more than one article (uj-o, _a receptacle_), (par. 278):

ink-o, _ink_, ink-uj-o, _an inkpot_.

plum-o, _a pen_, plum-uj-o, _a pen box_ (not a penholder).

turk-o, _a Turk_, Turk-uj-o, _Turkey_.

-UL- Denotes a person or being characterized by the idea implied in the root (par. 272):

riĉ-a, _rich_, riĉ-ul-o, _a rich man_.

avar-a, _avaricious_, avar-ul-o, _a miser_.

-UM- Has no defined meaning. The meaning of a word with um is suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. It is rarely used (par. 285):

kol-o, _a neck_, kol-um-o, _a collar_.

plen-a, _full_, plen-um-i, _to fulfil_.

man-o, _a hand_, man-um-o, _a cuff_.

55. LIST OF PREFIXES (Prefiksoj).

BO- Denotes any relationship resulting from marriage (par. 286):

patro, _a father_, bo-patro, _a father-in-law_.

filino, _a daughter_, bo-filino, _a daughter-in-law_.

DIS- Denotes division, dissemination, separation, etc., (dis-e, _separately_), (par. 287):

ĵeti, _to throw_, dis-ĵeti, _to throw about_, _to scatter_.

ŝiri, _to tear_, dis-ŝiri, _to tear in pieces_.

EK- Denotes the beginning of an action, or its short duration (par. 288):

kanti, _to sing_, ek-kanti, _to begin to sing_.

brili, _to shine_, ek-brili, _to flash_.

EKS- Denotes late, formerly, like the English _ex-_.

kolonelo, _colonel_, eks-kolonelo, _ex-colonel_.

edziĝo, _a wedding_, eks-edziĝo, _a divorce_.

GE- Denotes persons of both sexes taken together (par. 286):

patro, _a father_, ge-patroj, _parents_, or _father and mother_.

mastro, _a master_, ge-mastroj, _master and mistress_.

MAL- Denotes the direct opposite of any idea (mal-e, _on the contrary_), (par. 289):

forta, _strong_, mal-forta, _weak_.

estimi, _to esteem_, mal-estimi, _to despise_.

MIS- Denotes mis-, amiss, wrongly, erroneously.

RE- Denotes, as in English, repetition, again, back (re-e, _again_), (par. 290):

iri, _to go_, re-iri, _to go again_.

diri, _to say_, re-diri, _to repeat_.

55 (_a_). PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER ROOTS USED AS PREFIXES.

On reference to par. 254, it will be seen that prepositions are frequently used as prefixes. A good many other particles also are used in the same way, e.g.:--

ĈEF par. 272 (_g_) DUON par. 286 FI par. 270 FOR par. 287 FUŜ par. 270 MEM par. 291 SIN par. 291 PRA par. 286 VIC par. 292

ELISION (Elizio).

56. Elision is not common in Esperanto, except in poetry, where it is used, when required, for the purpose of rhythm. Some prose writers use it, but it is better to avoid its use.

57. The letter _A_ in the article la may be elided when the article is preceded by a preposition ending in a vowel, for then the _L_ of the article can be sounded with the preposition and the full pronunciation given to the first letter of the following word, e.g., de l' kreo de l' mondo (for de la) = _since the creation of the world_. (Pronounce de l' as del).

In poetry the letter _A_ of the article is occasionally elided before a word beginning with a vowel.

The final _O_ of the substantive may also be elided, e.g., kant' (for kanto) = _a song_. The tonic accent (par. 17) remains on the same syllable on which it would fall if no elision had taken place.

Note that kant' may not be used as an abbreviation of anything else but kanto. Thus, it cannot represent kanton, kantoj, kante, kantas, etc.

The dropped letter is in all cases noted by an apostrophe.

_Ĝis la bela sonĝo de l' homaro_ (_de l'_ for _de la_) _Por eterna ben' efektiviĝos_ (_ben'_ for _beno_). Till the beautiful dream of humanity Shall be realized for an eternal blessing.

_Pri l' tempoj estontaj pensante_ (_pri l'_ for _pri la_) Thinking of times to be. _L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco._ Hope, tenacity, and patience.

INTERROGATION (Demandado).

58. Questions are asked in two ways, viz.--either by the interrogative adverb ĉu = _whether_, or by one of the interrogative words kia = _what kind of_, kial = _why_, kiam = _when_, kie = _where_, kiel = _how_, kies = _whose_, kio = _what_, kiom = _how much_, or _how many_, kiu = _who, which_.

(_a_). Ĉu is used when none of the other words in a sentence are used in an interrogative sense. It is, in fact, the general word for interrogations answerable by "yes" or "no."

Examples.--_Ĉu vi komprenas?_ = Do you understand? _Ĉu li legas?_ = Does he read? _Ĉu vi havas mian libron?_ = Have you my book? _Ĉu vi havas tion, kion mi bezonas?_ = Have you what (that which) I want? _Ĉu Johano iris lernejon?_ (or, _al lernejo?_) = Did John go (_or_, has John gone) to school? _Ĉu vi pruntos al mi krajonon?_ = Will you lend me a pencil? _Ĉu li estos foririnta, antaŭ ol vi alvenos?_ = Will he have gone away before you (will) arrive? _Ĉu vi estus tion farinta, se mi estus tie?_ = Would you have done that if I had been there?

When the verb following ĉu is in the Imperative mood, it shows the ellipsis of some other verb expressing "wish, desire, etc." (see pars. 200, 237 (_m_)).

Examples.--_Ĉu mi iru kaj kunpremu la gorĝon de tiu ĉi hundo...?_ (Zamenhof, "La Rabistoj") = Shall I go and squeeze the throat of this dog...? Here the full phrase would be, _Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru...?_ = Do you wish me to go...? _Ĉu mi aĉetu por vi libron?_ = Shall I buy you a book? _Ĉu ni luu fiakron?_ = Shall we take a cab?

The verb is sometimes omitted when a question is preceded by an assertion.

Examples.--_Hodiaŭ estas merkredo, ĉu ne?_ (or, _ĉu ne vere?_) = To-day is Wednesday, isn't it? _Ili diris al vi la veron, ĉu ne?_ = They told you the truth, didn't they? _Ili ne diris al vi la veron, ĉu?_ = They didn't tell you the truth, did they?

(_b_). The following examples show the use of the nine interrogatives kia, kial, kiam, etc.

Examples.--_Kian leteron vi skribis?_ = What kind of letter did you write? _Kial vi ne respondis?_ Why did you not answer? _Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he come? _Kie estas la poŝtoficejo?_ = Where is the post-office? _Kiel vi faris tion?_ = How did you do that? _Kies domo estas tiu?_ = Whose house is that? _Kion vi konsilas al mi fari?_ = What do you advise me to do? _Kiom da ĉevaloj estas tie?_ = How many horses are there? (at that place)? _Kiom kostas tio?_ = How much does that cost? _Kiu estas en la ĝardeno?_ = Who is in the garden? _Kiun vi vidis en la preĝejo?_ = Whom did you see in the church? _Kiu estas tie?_ = Who is there?

(_c_). Of the above, those ending in a consonant are invariable. Those ending in a vowel can take the accusative _N_, but kia and kiu are the only words which take the plural _J_ (par. 142).

Examples.--_Kien vi iras?_ = Whither are you going? _Kiajn tranĉilojn vi bezonas?_ = What kind of knives do you need? _Kiujn librojn vi aĉetis?_ = Which books did you buy? _Kiuj estas la tagoj de la semajno?_ = Which are the days of the week?

(_d_). From kiom the adjective kioma = _how much, how many'th_ is formed, and this also may be used as an interrogative.

Example.--_Je kioma horo vi venos?_ = At what o'clock (hour) will you come?

(See correlative words, pars. 147-157. For further examples see pars. 64, 170. For place of interrogative see par. 91.)

NEGATION (Neado).

59. Double negatives are hardly ever used in Esperanto, for, if employed, they would, as in English, have an affirmative meaning.

(_a_). Ne = _no_, _not_, is the word in general use to imply negation. It immediately precedes the word or words it modifies.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi ne vidis lin?_ = Did you not see him? _Mi devas ne iri_ = I must not go.f[11] _Mi ne devas iri_ = I am not obliged to go.[11] _Ne mi, sed li, havas katon_ = It is not I, but he, who has a cat. _Mi ne havas katon_ = I have not (got) a cat.

Footnote:

[11] This distinction, however, is not observed by all writers.

(_b_). The nine correlative words, nenia, nenial, neniam, nenie, neniel, nenies, nenio, neniom, neniu, also imply negation.

Examples.--_Li havas nenian sperton_ = He has no kind of experience. _Li ne havas ian sperton_ = He has not any kind of experience. _Nenial li subite foriris de Londono_ = For no reason he suddenly left London. _Mi nenion trovis_ = I found nothing. _Mi ne trovis ion_ (_ion_, not _nenion_, here) = I did not find anything. (See correlative words, pars. 147-157).

(_c_). Nek = _nor_ and nek ... nek = _neither ... nor_ have also a negative meaning.

Examples.--_Nek mi nek li estis tie_ = Neither I nor he was there. _Mi vidis nek Johanon nek Georgon_ = I saw neither John nor George.

Nek is generally used in the second clause of a sentence, although the first is negative.

Examples.--_Mi ne scias la francan lingvon, nek la anglan, nek la turkan_ = I do not know the French language, or (nor) English, or (nor) Turkish. _Nenio estas al mi pli kara, nek dolĉa, ol vi_ = Nothing is dearer to me or (nor) sweeter than you. _Mi ne renkontis lin, nek lian fraton_ = I did not meet him or (nor) his brother.

(_d_). Compound words with ne, sen, mal, have also a negative signification, and such words are often employed with a negative to express an affirmative assertion. (See par. 289.)

Examples.--_La okazo ne estis neatendita_ = The event was not unexpected. _Lia riĉeco ne estis senlima_ = His fortune was not unlimited. _Li ne estis malhonesta_ = He was not dishonest.

60. Double Negative.--Occasionally a double negative is used to give strong force to a negation. Dr. Zamenhof, in his translation of Hamlet, Act I., Scene 5, renders "Lay your hands again upon my sword: swear by my sword, never to speak of this that you have heard" by Metu viajn manojn denove sur la glavon, kaj ripetu, ke vi neniam al neniu diros pri la apero de la nokto, lit. = _Lay your hands again upon the sword, and repeat, that you never, to no one, will speak of the apparition of the night_.

Some Esperantists do not consider this a double negative, but it undoubtedly is, according to the literal English translation. Another explanation of the passage is to supply mentally an omitted kaj after the word neniam.

61. Of course, when two negatives refer to different verbs, expressed or unexpressed, this is not a double negative.

Examples.--_Mi ne volis, ne skribi al vi_ = I did not wish, not to write to you. _Ne nur ne malamiko, sed kunbatalanto li estis_ = (He was) not only not an enemy, but he was a comrade in arms (fellow combatant).

62. Two negatives may be used in such an expression as "could not help," etc.

Example.--_Li ne povis ne kisi la malgrandulon_ = He could not help kissing the little one. Lit.:--He could not not kiss the little one.

QUESTIONS AND REPLIES (Demandoj kaj Respondoj).

63. Jes = _yes_ is the word used to answer a question affirmatively.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi vidis mian patron? Jes!_ = Did you see my father? Yes. _Jes_, with the conjunction _ke_, is also used for "it is so," as, _mi vin certigas, ke jes_ = I assure you that it is so.

Ne = _no_, _not_, is used in a similar way to answer a question negatively.

Example.--_Mi vin certigas, ke ne_ = I assure you that it is not so.

64. To give force to affirmative or negative replies one can add to ne or jes any suitable adverb, as certe = _certainly_, ja = _indeed_, kompreneble = _of course_, etc., etc., or repeat the verb of the interrogation without its complement, in the same way as in English we often repeat the auxiliary of the verb.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi faris tion?_ = Did you do that? _Jes! Jes! Mi faris_, or _Ne! Ne! Mi ne faris_ = Yes, yes, I did, _or_ No, no! I did not. _Ĉu vi finis vian laboron?_ = Have you finished your work? _Jes! mi finis_, or _Ne, mi ne (finis)_ = Yes, I have, _or_, No, I have not. _Ĉu vi mortigis tiun birdon?_ = Did you kill that bird? _Jes! Certe mi mortigis_, or, _Certe jes!_ or, _Ne, kompreneble, mi ne mortigis_, or, _Kompreneble ne!_ = Yes! Certainly I did, _or_, No! Of course, I didn't! _Ĉu vi deziras kafon?_ = Do you want coffee? _Jes, mi deziras_, or _Ne, mi ne deziras; mi jam havas_ = Yes, I do, _or_, No, I do not; I have (some) already.

64 (_a_). When the verb is omitted in the reply, the case must be used which would have been used had the verb been expressed.

Examples.--_Kiom kostis la ĉapelo? Naŭ ŝilingojn (aŭ, ĝi kostis naŭ ŝilingojn)_ = What did the hat cost? Nine shillings (_or_, it cost nine shillings). _Kien vi iras? En la ĝardenon (aŭ, mi iras en la ĝardenon)_ = Where (whither) are you going? Into the garden (_or_, I am going into the garden). _Kiom pezas la kesto? Dek naŭ funtojn_ = What does the chest weigh? Nineteen pounds; but, _Kiom estas la pezo de la kesto? Dek naŭ funtoj_ = what is the weight of the chest? Nineteen pounds.

THE ACCUSATIVE (La Akuzativo).

65. Accusative: when used.--The accusative is used in Esperanto:--

(1). To show the direct object of a verb.

(2). To show motion towards something (Rule 13, par. 94).

(3). To show a preposition has been omitted (Rules 8 and 14, par. 94).

The following are examples of these three uses:--

66 (1). To show the direct object of a verb.

(_a_). After transitive verbs the accusative is used to show the direct object.

Examples.--_Johano vidas la knabon_ = John sees the boy. _Georgo aĉetis bonan ĉevalon_ = George bought a good horse. Now in either of these sentences the order of the words can be changed without altering the meaning. _La knabon vidas Johano_ would still mean "John sees the boy," because _Johano_, being in the nominative, is clearly the subject, and _knabon_, being in the accusative, is clearly the object. But if we inverted the words in English, the sense would be entirely changed (see order of words, pars. 73-93).

(_b_). After participles.--The accusative is also used after active participles (adjectival or adverbial) to denote the object.

Examples.--_Johano estis rigardanta la knabon, kiam mi lin vidis_ = John was looking at the boy, when I saw him. _Johano, vidante la knabon, donas al li pomon_ = John, seeing the boy, gives him an apple. _Georgo estis aĉetinta ĉevalon_ = George had bought a horse. _Georgo, aĉetinte ĉevalon, donis ĝin al sia frato_ = George, having bought (_or_, after buying) a horse, gave it to his brother (par. 212 (_d_)).

(_c_). When a verb is omitted.--The accusative is also used in exclamations and in expressions in which some verb expressing "wish" or "desire" is understood (see par. 64 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Peston al la tranĉilo: Mi tranĉis al mi la fingron!_ = Plague on the knife! I have cut my finger! _Bonan tagon, Sinjoro_ = Good day, sir. _Saluton al vi, sinjorino_ = (lit.) Salutation to you, madam. In reply to a question the accusative is used whenever the verb in the reply, which is omitted, governs the accusative, as:--_Kiom kostas tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi kostas) du pencojn_ = How much does this pencil cost? (It costs) twopence. _Kiom estas la kosto de tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi estas) du pencoj_ = What is the price of this pencil? (It is) twopence.

67 (2). To show motion towards something.

(_a_). Accusative of direction.--To show direction towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made the accusative is used, and this is generally called "the accusative of direction." It will be observed, however, that we can also use a preposition to show the motion, and, if such preposition in itself shows movement, its complement must be in the nominative, since all prepositions govern that case; but if the preposition does not in itself denote movement, then its complement must be in the accusative.

Examples.--_Mi iras Romon (aŭ, al Romo)_ = I am going to Rome. _Li kuris en la ĝardenon_ = He ran _into_ the garden. The preposition _en_ does not show movement, therefore _ĝardenon_ is in the accusative, but _Li kuris en la ĝardeno_ = He ran _in_ the garden. This means he was already in the garden, and was running in it. _Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn_ = On the Danish throne I have rights.

(_b_). Adverbs also take the accusative of direction.

Examples.--_Kien vi iras? Mi iras nenien hodiaŭ_ = Where (whither) are you going? I am going nowhere to-day. _Ĝi falis teren_ (or, _sur la teron_) = It fell to the ground (_or_, on to the ground; lit., earthwards). _Li iris hejmen kaj restis hejme_ = He went home and remained at home.

68. (3). To show that a preposition has been omitted.

As stated in Rule 8, par. 94, every preposition in Esperanto governs the nominative case.

By Rule 14 we are told that every preposition has a defined and constant meaning, but that if we _must use some preposition_, and the direct sense does not show what special preposition we are to take, we can then either use the indefinite preposition _je_, or the accusative without a preposition. The following are examples under this head in which the accusative may be used:--

(_a_). After doubtful verbs.--From the foregoing remarks it follows that if we do not know whether a verb governs the accusative or not, we can always use the accusative, if no ambiguity is occasioned thereby. Otherwise some preposition should be employed instead.

For instance, we can say:--_Obeu vian patron_, or, _Obeu je via patro_, or, _Obeu al via patro_ = Obey your father. _Ŝi helpis al sia frato_, or, _Ŝi helpis sian fraton_ = She helped her brother. _Li pardonis sian filon_, or, _Li pardonis al sia filo_ = He forgave his son. But in phrases where doubt as to meaning may arise we must always use a preposition, as:--_Li pardonis al sia filo lian kulpon_ = He forgave his son his fault. Not _Li pardonis sian filon lian kulpon_, for the _two_ accusatives here would create confusion. _Li legis tion en la dua de Marto_, or, _Li legis pri tio la duan de Marto_ = He read that on the 2nd of March.

(_b_). Duration or any point of time.

Examples.--_Mi restis tie kvar semajnojn_ (or, _dum_ or _tra_, _kvar semajnoj_) = I remained there (during) four weeks. _La proksiman lundon_ (or, _en la proksima lundo_) _mi veturos Londonon_ (or, _al Londono_) = Next Monday I shall go to London. _Printempon_ (or, _en printempo_) _floroj aperas_ = In spring flowers appear. _Li venos dimanĉon_ (or, _en dimanĉo_) = He will come on a Sunday. Similarly the accusative may be used for dates, as:--_Washington_ (pronounced _Ŭaŝington_) _estis naskita la dudek-duan_ (or, _en la dudek-dua_) _de Februaro_ = Washington was born on the 22nd of February. _La 23an Marton, 1906a_, or _Je la 23a de Marto, 1906_ = 23rd of March, 1906.

(_c_). Price, weight, measure.

Examples.--_La libroj kostis dek ŝilingojn_ (or, _po dek ŝilingoj_) _por dekduo_ = The books cost ten shillings (_or_, at the rate of ten shillings) a dozen. _La ĉambro estas alta dek du futojn_ (or, _je dek du futoj_) = The room is twelve feet high. _La kesto pezas tridek funtojn_ (or, _je tridek funtoj_) = The chest weighs thirty pounds.

69. General Remarks on the Accusative.

From the foregoing examples we see the important part the accusative _N_ plays in the construction of Esperanto, the clearness it gives to the meaning of a sentence, and the advantage it affords in permitting words to be placed in almost any order, The following examples will further illustrate this.

(_a_). Qualifying and Predicative Adjectives.--An adjective is termed "qualifying" when its noun or pronoun actually possesses the quality which the adjective denotes; and the adjective then agrees with the noun or pronoun both in case and number. But a "predicative" adjective, although it agrees in number, is always in the nominative (pars. 36, 108).

Examples.--_Mi trovis la belajn rozojn_ (_or, rozojn belajn_) = I found the beautiful roses. _Mi trovis la rozojn belaj_ = I found the roses beautiful. In the first example the assertion is that beautiful roses were found; but in the second you assert only that you found, or discovered, that they were beautiful; they might, in someone else's opinion, have been the contrary.

(_b_). Qualifying Adverbs are invariable.

Examples.--_Li skribis al mi tute malveran raporton pri la afero_ = He wrote me an entirely false statement of the matter. _Mi pensis, ke ŝi estas treege bela_ = I thought (that) she was (is) extremely beautiful.

(_c_). Nouns and Pronouns in apposition have like cases and numbers.

Examples.--_Vi serĉas la princon, Hamleton_ = You seek the Prince, Hamlet. _La diablo lin prenu, la sentaŭgulon_ = The devil take him, the wretch!

N.B.--Note the difference in case of two nouns in the following sentences:--_Kuracisto havis du infanojn, filon kaj filinon; li nomis sian filon Johano, kaj sian filinon Mario. Kiam li parolis pri ili kun mi, li ĉiam nomis sian filon Johanon kun voĉo de amo, sed sian filinon Marion antipatie_ = A doctor had two children, a son and a daughter; he named his son, John, and his daughter, Mary. When he spoke to me about them, he always named his son, John, in voice of affection, but his daughter, Mary, with antipathy.

N.B.--In this example, when the nouns (_Johano_ and _Mario_) are in the nominative, they express what is _predicated_ or said about the objects (_filon_ and _filinon_). But when they agree in case with the objects (_filon_ and _filinon_), this shows they are nouns in apposition (see pars. 108, 109).

(_d_). Proper names.--In the case of non-Esperanto names it is possible to indicate the accusative, where desired, by the addition of _N_ after a vowel, or _ON_ after a consonant. This is the plan adopted by Zamenhof in _La Malnova Testamento_. Or the name may be regarded as a foreign word and left unchanged for the accusative.

Examples.--_David_, _Davidon_. _Noa_, _Noan_. _Sara_, _Saran_. _Robinson_, _Robinsonon_. _Smith_, _Smithon_ (or simply _Smith_). Of course, proper names which have been converted by use into Esperanto are treated like other nouns in O, as, _Londono_, _Londonon_; _Berlino_, _Berlinon_. _Jones iris Berlinon, kaj renkontis Arturon Brown_ = Jones went to Berlin and met Arthur Brown.

CAPITAL LETTERS (Majuskloj).

70. Capital Letters (Majuskloj) may be used as they are in English, but as their use varies in different languages, it is as well to follow the majority of Esperanto writers. We, therefore, advise the student to--

Use capital letters, as in English, except:--

(_a_). For words derived from the names of places, as:--La angla nacio = _The English nation_. Li estas franco kaj loĝas en Francujo = _He is a Frenchman and lives in France_. Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = _On the Danish throne I have rights_.

(b). For the names of the days of the week, as:--Mi alvenos lundon = _I shall arrive on a Monday_.[12]

(_c_). For the pronoun "I" = _mi_.

In the _Fundamento_, Zamenhof used capital letters to begin the names of months. In his mature style he also used capitals for nouns and adjectives of nationality, e.g. _Angla_, _Anglo_, _Dana_, _Franco_.

Footnote:

[12] Note that _lundon_ means "on _a_ (or, _some_) Monday." If we wish to say "on Monday," meaning "_next_ Monday," the full translation would be _Mi alvenos la proksiman lundon_ = I shall arrive on (the next) Monday (see par. 68 (_b_)). _Mi venas lunde_ = I come on Mondays.

PUNCTUATION (Interpunkcio).

71. Punctuation is only necessary to make clear the sense we wish to convey in writing. Happily it is not so important in Esperanto as in English, where a simple comma may make a great difference in the meaning of a sentence. Hence the verbosity of law documents in which stops are not used.

Every writer is free to use in Esperanto his own national or individual method of punctuation. Nevertheless, Zamenhof and the best writers follow a definite international usage, and the student is strongly advised to study and imitate their writings in this respect.

It is the custom, for instance, to separate every clause in a sentence by a punctuation mark. Accordingly, words like ke, por ke, ĉu, kiu, when they introduce a secondary sentence within the main sentence, are usually preceded by a comma. This aids the reader, and helps in the formation of a uniform international style.

When two verbs joined by kaj have the same subject, no comma is needed; but a comma is used if the subjects are different. Li staras kaj parolas (one subject). Li staras, kaj mi parolas al li (two subjects).

Use a comma after ho when it is part of an exclamation, but not in naming the person spoken to. Ho Dio! Ho, tute ne!

With abbreviations like S-ro, S-ino, D-ro, it is usual to insert a hyphen, but no following stop, thus: F-ino Jones.

72. The following is what Dr. Zamenhof has written on the subject in the "Esperantisto." We give it in Esperanto, so that the student can see the punctuation for himself:--

La reguloj pri la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas en nia lingvo pli-malpli tiaj samaj, kiel en ĉiuj aliaj lingvoj; sekve ĉiu povas uzadi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo. Estas vere, ke en diversaj detaloj la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas malegala en diversaj lingvoj; sed ĉar la objekto ne estas tre grava, tial ni pensas, ke ne venis ankoraŭ la tempo por difini en nia lingvo severajn regulojn por tiuj ĉi detaloj. En tiuj ĉi dubaj detaloj ĉiu povas uzi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo, kaj nur la uzo iom post iom ellaboros por tiuj ĉi negravaj detaloj difinitajn regulojn.

_Translation._--The rules regarding the use of stops are in our language more or less the same as in all other languages, therefore everyone can continue using in Esperanto stops in such a manner as he uses them in his national language. It is true that in several details the use of stops is different in various languages, but since the matter is not very important, we think the time has not yet come to lay down in our language strict rules for these details. In these doubtful details everyone can use in Esperanto the stops he uses in his national language, and only custom, little by little, will work out for these unimportant details definite rules.

ORDER OF WORDS. (Ordigo de Vortoj).

The hints in this chapter should be considered not as hard and fast rules to be learned by heart, but simply as an endeavour to state the usual practice of good writers. The best guide for the student is the study of the best authors, coupled with obedience to his own common sense and feeling for beauty of style and clarity of expression. (See par. 93.)

73. Since Esperanto has eliminated the defects of other languages, and embraced only the good points of each, its flexibility as regards the order of words in a sentence is great. This is principally owing to the fact that the accusative _N_ clearly distinguishes the object from the subject, to the agreement in case and number of the adjective with the noun it qualifies, and to the fact that prepositions and conjunctions do not interfere with the proper functions of other words. In English the accusative case is distinguished only in the pronouns _he_ (_him_), _she_ (_her_), etc. It is true that English has a possessive case, which in Esperanto is applied only to the correlative group of words ending in _-ES_, viz., ies, kies, etc. (see pars. 106 (_b_), 154); but even this doubtful advantage is lessened by the fact that the apostrophe _S_ in English is useless _in speech_ in the plural when the word ends in _S_. For instance, when one says, "_That is my brothers' house_," does one mean it belongs to one brother or more? Certainly, as _written_, with the apostrophe _after_ the _S_, the meaning is two or more, but, as _spoken_, one would naturally suppose it belonged to one brother only. So, to be clear, we should have to fall back on the Esperanto mode of expression, and say, _That is the house of my brothers_ = Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj; even then Esperanto is clearer than English, for the pronoun (miaj) is a plural form, whereas in English _my_ is the same for both numbers.

74. Owing to the above advantages, words may be arranged in almost any order in Esperanto, and yet be intelligible; but of course it is advisable that they should follow one another in the natural sequence of our thoughts. The first point is, that the meaning of a sentence should be absolutely clear, and the second, that the sounds should be as harmonious as they can be, combined with clearness of expression. The student is advised to read the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," by Dr. Zamenhof, which will familiarize him with the construction of the language, and he will then rapidly acquire a knowledge as to the best order for words.

75. Place of the subject and object.--The subject is usually placed before and the object after the verb.

Examples.--_Mia fratino aĉetis libron_ = My sister bought a book. _Rikardo manĝas kukon_ = Richard is eating a cake. _Kukon manĝas Rikardo_ means exactly the same, and would he quite intelligible, but the mind would not grasp the meaning so rapidly, and it would be absurd, without a reason, to place words in such an unnatural order.

76. Position for emphasis.--Words are often placed out of the usual order, as they are in English, to give emphasis, or for the sake of contrast.

Examples.--_Lin mi renkontis, ne ŝin_ = Him I met, not her. _Belon mi trovis ĉie, bonon nenie_ = Beauty I found everywhere, good nowhere.

77. Place of the predicate.--The predicate, or what is said about the subject, is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.--_Li estos kontenta_ (or _Li kontentiĝos_) _se vi donos al li ŝilingon_ = He will be satisfied if you (will) give him a shilling. _Ŝi fariĝus pli sana, se la vetero estus pli varma_, or _Ŝi pli saniĝus, se la vetero pli varmiĝus_ = She would get better if the weather became warmer. But after the word _kiel_ it is preferable to put the predicate before the verb, as:--_Kiel malsana li ŝajnas!_ = How ill he seems! _Kiel li ŝajnas malsana_ would be quite possible and correct, but Esperanto inclines to follow the English order of words here, as also in many other cases where in other languages the construction is quite different.

78. Place of the direct complement.--We have stated that the object is placed usually after the verb, but it may equally correctly precede it.

Examples.--_Mi lin malamas_, or, _Mi malamas lin_ = I detest him. If, however, the object be followed by an explanatory phrase, it is better to place it after the verb, as:--_Mi vidis lin kuŝantan sur la lito_ = I saw him lying on the bed. _Mi renkontis ŝin, ĝuste kiam ŝi estis eliranta_ = I met her just as she was going out (see par. 29).

79. Place of the indirect complement.--The complement is said to be indirect when it is governed by a preposition (see Syntax, par. 31). It is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.--_Zorgu pri tio_ = Take care of (about) that. _Alkonduku lin al mi_ = Bring him to me. _La domo estas konstruata de mia patro_ = The house is being built by my father. _Mi ĝin donis_ (or, _donis ĝin_) _al li por lia nepino_ = I gave it to him for his granddaughter. Of course, we can place it before the verb if we wish, just as we can in English, and as we probably should in the following phrase:--_El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke...._ = From the said rule, it follows that....

80. Place of circumstantial complements (see Syntax, par. 32).--These complements, which mark the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, are usually placed first or last in a sentence.

Examples.--_En printempo floroj aperas_ = In spring flowers appear. _Nur kelke da knaboj ludadis sur la kampo_ = Only a few boys were playing in the field; or, _Sur la kampo ludadis nur kelke da knaboj_. In a sentence like the following the complement might be placed last, as:--_Mi kriegis pro la dolorego_ = I howled with the intense pain. But in one like the following, where there are two or more circumstantial complements, they naturally should come first in the sentence, as:--_Kun la haroj malordigitaj, kaj la okuloj eksaltantaj el la kapo de_ (or, _pro_) _teruro, ŝi kuregis laŭ la strato_ = With dishevelled hair, and eyes starting out of her (the) head with terror, she rushed down the street.

81. The complements of nouns, adjectives, or participial adjectives, usually follow them.

Examples.--_La amo al_ (or, _por_) _Dio_ = Love to (for) God. _Mirigita de liaj vortoj, mi eliris el la domo_ = Astonished at his words, I left (went out of) the house.

82. Place of the infinitive.--The infinitive being really a noun, takes its place, according as it is the subject, predicate, or complement. When it is the subject, it generally precedes the verb, unless one wishes to place it otherwise for the sake of emphasis.

Examples.--_Scii estas utile_ = Knowledge (to know) is useful. _Honte estas mensogi_ = It is shameful to lie. If the predicate, it usually follows the verb, as:--_Tion fari estas agi malsaĝe_ = To do that is to act foolishly. If the complement, it follows the word of which it is the complement, as:--_Mi tre deziras paroli kun vi_ = I want very much to speak with you. _Ni trinkas por sensoifiĝi, kaj ni manĝas por satigi nin_ (or, _por satiĝi_) = We drink to allay thirst (to become without thirst), and we eat to allay hunger (to be satiated). _Mi devas iri hejmen_ = I must go home. _La elekto tion fari restas ĉe vi_ = The option of doing that rests with you. _Li estos tre feliĉa vin vidi morgaŭ_ = He will be very glad to see you to-morrow. _La deziro kontraŭdiri_ = The desire of contradicting (to contradict).

83. Place of the noun.--The noun is placed according as it is the subject, predicate, complement (direct, indirect, or circumstantial), (see pars. 76-80).

84. Place of the adjective.--The position of the adjective varies in national languages. In English it is nearly always placed before the word it qualifies, and we may say that this is generally its place in Esperanto. The following remarks and examples of the four classes of adjectives, "qualifying," "predicative," "possessive," and "demonstrative," will give an idea of its position, in accordance with the sense or emphasis wished to be conveyed.

(_a_). A qualifying adjective may either precede or follow the word it qualifies.

(In either position the meaning is precisely the same grammatically. It is considered by some that it throws a shade of emphasis on the adjective to place it after the noun it qualifies, especially when the adjective is the last word in the sentence.)

Examples.--_La malfeliĉa knabo_ (or, _knabo malfeliĉa_) _perdis sian monujon_ = The unfortunate boy lost his purse. _Li renkontis maljunan virinon_ (or, _maljunulinon_), _tre grasan, kiu portis grandan korbon, plenan de maturaj pomoj_ = He met an old woman, very fat, who was carrying a large basket, full of ripe apples.

(_b_). A predicative adjective is usually placed after the verb, and noun or pronoun, to which it relates.

Examples.--_La papero estas blanka_ = The paper is white. _Ili trovis la manĝaĵojn bonaj_ = They found the eatables good. _Mi pensis, ke mi vidas ilin mortigantaj la homon_ = I thought (that) I saw (see) them killing (that they are killing) the man.

N.B.--A predicative adjective does not agree in case, when its noun or pronoun is in the accusative (pars. 69 (_a_), and 108 (_b_)).

(_c_). A possessive adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates. If we wish to speak in an affectionate strain, we can place it after the noun.

Examples.--_Mia patrino kaj miaj gefratoj donis al mi donacon en mia naskotago_ = My mother and my brothers and sisters gave me a present on my birthday. _Ne ploru, patrino mia!_ = Do not weep, mother dear! (_or_, mother mine!). _Johano mia, ne faru tion!_ = John dear, do not do that.

(_d_). A demonstrative adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates.

Examples.--_Tiu sinjorino estas mia fratino_ = That lady is my sister. _Du ŝilingoj ne sufiĉos por aĉeti tiun libron_ = Two shillings will not buy that book.

(_e_). To show emphasis, adjectives can, as in English, be placed first in phrases.

Examples.--_Bona, malavara kaj ĝentila, li estas estimata de ĉiuj_ = Kind, generous and courteous, he was esteemed by all. _Feliĉa estas la homo, kiu ne havas malamikojn_ = Happy is the man who has no enemies.

85. Place of the pronoun.--As in English, a personal pronoun may follow or precede the verb.

Examples.--_"Jes," diris li_ (or, _li diris_), "_vi estas prava_" = "Yes," said he, "you are right." _"Kial," ekkriis la homo, "vi faris tion?"_ = "Why," cried the man, "did you do that?"

86. Place of the verb.--The verb is, as a rule, placed after the subject, but this does not mean that it must follow it immediately, for it can be separated by predicates, complements, and adverbs.

Examples.--_La lingvo Esperanto, kreita de doktoro Zamenhof, estas jam uzata en la tuta mondo civilizita_ = The language Esperanto, created by Dr. Zamenhof, is already used in the whole civilized world. In sentences like the following it is, as in English, often placed before the subject. _"Kien ni iros," diris mi al li, "kiam via amiko alvenos?"_ = "Where shall we go," said I to him, "when your friend arrives (shall arrive)?" _Nun alvenas la horo de la sukceso por la lingvo internacia_ = Now comes the hour of (the) success for the international language. _Aperis sur la monteto la figuro de rajdanto_ = There appeared on the hill the figure of a horseman. (For the place of the Infinitive, see par. 82.)

87. Place of the participle varies as follows:--

(_a_). When forming the compound tenses of verbs, the participle usually follows the auxiliary verb esti, though not necessarily immediately after it (see (_d_)).

Examples.--_Mi estos fininta mian leteron, antaŭ ol li alvenos_ = I shall have finished my letter before he arrives (will arrive). _Ŝi estas tre amata de ĉiuj_ = She is very much loved by all.

(_b_). In a qualifying or predicative sense participles generally follow their noun or pronoun.

Examples.--_Mi vidis lin riproĉeganta kaj batanta la knabon_ = I saw him (that he is) rebuking and beating the boy. _Ĉu tio estas mia hundo ĉasanta ŝafon?_ = Is that my dog chasing a sheep? _La fraŭlino leganta la ĵurnalon estas tre bela_ = The young lady reading the newspaper is very beautiful. _La konstruata domo_ (or, _domo konstruata_) = The house under construction (being constructed). _Mi imagis, ke mi vidas la homon kisanta la virinon_ = I fancied (that) I saw the man kissing (that he is kissing) the woman.

(_c_). An adverbial participle generally precedes its noun or pronoun.

Examples.--_Vidante sian amikon, li haltis_ = (On) seeing his friend, he stopped. _Leginte la libron, ŝi ekdormis_ = After reading (_or_, having read) the book, she fell asleep (par. 212 (_d_)).

(_d_). For emphasis the participle may be put first in a sentence.

Examples.--_Tedita de vojaĝado, mi decidis reveni hejmen_ = Tired of travelling, I decided to return home. _Amataj kaj estimataj de ĉiuj, la fratoj havis multajn amikojn_ = Loved and esteemed by all, the brothers had many friends.

Note.--If qualifying and predicative participles are not placed in their natural position, viz., after their nouns or pronouns, the sense may be entirely changed. For instance, in the following two sentences the words are the same, but the sense varies with their positions:--Ŝi, kuranta en la ĉambron, vidis mian hundon = _She, (who is) running into the room, saw my dog_ (here kuranta is the qualifying participle of ŝi). Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron = _She saw my dog (that he is) running into the room_ (here kuranta is the predicative participle of hundon, and, being predicative, does not take the accusative (see pars. 69 (_a_) and 108 (_b_)). The above two sentences might be altered as follows, showing different meanings, by using in the first an adverbial participle, and in the second a qualifying participle, as:--Kurante en la ĉambron, ŝi vidis mian hundon = _(While) running into the room, she saw my dog_. Ŝi vidis mian hundon kurantan = _She saw my running dog_. A phrase is often clearer if the conjunction ke be used instead of a predicative participle. For instance, instead of Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron, we can say Ŝi vidis, ke mia hundo kuras en la ĉambron = _She saw that my dog was (is) running into the room_; or, Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuri en la ĉambron = _She saw my dog run into the room_.

88. Place of the adverb.--The adverb, as a rule, immediately precedes or follows the word to which it refers, or which it qualifies.

Examples.--_Li rapide kuras_, or, _Li kuras rapide_ = He runs rapidly. _La virino zorge legis_ (or, _legis zorge_) _la leteron_ = The woman read the letter carefully. _Li ĝentile demetis la ĉapelon_ = He politely took off his hat.

N.B.--In this last example it is more elegant to place the adverb, as in English, before the verb.

(_a_). To avoid ambiguity, care, however, must be taken not to place the adverb in a position where it might be taken to refer either to the word which precedes or the word which follows it. For instance, if an adverb be placed between two verbs, it sometimes happens that we cannot tell to which it refers, and the sense is thus materially altered.

Example.--_Li ekstreme deziris saĝiĝi_ = He desired extremely to become wise. _Li deziris saĝiĝi ekstreme_ = He desired to become extremely wise. In this example, if we place the adverb between the two verbs, and say _Li deziris ekstreme saĝiĝi_, the sentence might be translated in either of the above two ways. See also remarks on the use of _ne_ (par. 59 (_a_)). The word _nur_, also, similarly modifies the word it precedes.

(_b_). Adverbs of comparison, such as: iom, multe, kiel, plej, pli, sufiĉe, tiel, tiom, tre, tro, are usually placed before the words to which they refer.

Examples.--_Li iom laciĝis kaj multe senkuraĝiĝis_ = He became somewhat fatigued and much discouraged. _Kiel malavare li agis, donante al sia frato tiom da mono, kiom li bezonis!_ = How generously he acted in giving his brother as much money as he needed! _Li venos pli aŭ malpli frue_ = He will come sooner or later (lit., more or less early). _Vi agis plej saĝe, farante tion_ = You acted most wisely in doing that. _Kio ajn okazos, li estis sufiĉe saĝa por tion fari_ = At all events he was wise enough to do that. _Ŝi tre amis sian fraton_ = She loved her brother very much. _Li tro manĝadas_ = He eats too much.

(_c_). To give emphasis, adverbs and adverbial participles may commence a sentence.

Examples.--_Ĉarme, bele kaj kortuŝe estis vidi la birdon zorgi pri sia ido_ = Charming, beautiful and touching it was to see the bird take care of its offspring. _Starante kun la brakoj etenditaj, li paroladis al la popolamaso_ = Standing with arms outstretched, he harangued the populace (see par. 245 (_a_)).

89. Place of the preposition.--The preposition always immediately precedes its complement.

Examples.--_Skribu al mi_ = Write to me. _Li venis al mia domo kune kun la du hundoj je la tria (horo)_ = He came to my house (to me) along with the two dogs at 3 o'clock.

90. Place of the conjunction.--The conjunction always precedes the verb to which it refers, but separated from it by the words which logically intervene.

Example.--_Se iu hodiaŭ matene deziros min vidi, diru al ĝi, ke mi estas tre okupita_ = If anyone (someone), this morning, should desire to see me, tell him (or her) I am very busy.

N.B.--Note that _iu_ does not give the sex, therefore _ĝi_ is rightly used; but, as in English, the sense would be clear without the words _al ĝi_.

91. Place of the interrogative.--In direct questions the subject usually precedes the verb.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi havas mian libron?_ = Have you my book? In English, in many cases, we place the subject first; for instance, in the present tense we often commence a question with "Do"; in the past, with "Have" or "Did"; in the future, with "Shall" or "Will." If we substitute _Ĉu_ for any of these words, we have the Esperanto construction, as:--_Ĉu vi bezonas tiun plumon?_ = Do you want that pen? _Ĉu vi faris tion?_ = Did you do that? _Ĉu li venos tien ĉi?_ = Will he come here?

92. Place of the negative.--The negative ne = _not_, when it relates directly to a verb, is placed immediately before such verb, but otherwise in its natural position in the clause; i.e., it negatives the word or words it precedes. The negative correlatives nenia, nenial, etc., may be placed in almost any position, according to the emphasis we wish to give to the word.

Examples.--_Mi lin ne vidis_, or, _Mi ne vidis lin_ = I did not see him. _Ĉu vi ne vidis lin?_ or, _Ĉu vi lin ne vidis?_ = Did you not see him? _Mi neniam renkontis ŝin_, or, _Neniam mi renkontis ŝin_, or, _Mi ŝin renkontis neniam_ = I never met her. _Mi volas renkonti ne nur Johanon, sed ankaŭ Georgon_ = I want to meet not only John, but also George.

93. Order very similar to English.--The foregoing remarks show that the order of words in Esperanto is very similar to the English construction of sentences, and we can hardly do wrong if we follow it nearly word for word. A slightly different order in Esperanto sometimes makes an expression more elegant but this is generally owing to harmony of sound rather than grammatical construction.

[In writing _original_ work in Esperanto it is well to cultivate a style as international as possible, and use the normal, simple, and logical order of words. In _translation_ work, when it is desired to reproduce as far as possible the national or individual atmosphere of the original, it is legitimate intentionally to reproduce in the translation--so long as intelligibility is ensured, and as far as the structure of the language permits--the characteristic order of words in the original text. The wonderful flexibility of Esperanto is one of the reasons why Esperanto is such an admirable language for translation purposes.]