CHAPTER II.

EASTERN BRANCH.

The _Eastern Blacks_, who have also been called _Melanesians_ and _Oceanian Negroes_, inhabit the western part of Oceania and the south-east of Asia. Their complexion is very brown, sometimes increasing in darkness until it reaches intense black. Their hair is frizzled, crisp, flaky, and occasionally woolly. Their features are disagreeable, their figures of little regularity, and their extremities often lank. They live in tribes or small divisions, without forming themselves into nationalities.

We shall divide them into two groups, one, the _Papuan Family_, composed of peoples among whom the characteristics indicated above, are the most developed; the other, the _Andaman Family_, made up of tribes which more resemble the Brown Race, and probably result from a mixture of it with the Black one.

PAPUAN FAMILY.

The _Papuan Family_ seems to dwell only in small islands or on the coasts of larger ones. Two groups of peoples are observable in it, one, resembling the Malays, consists of the _Papuans_, who inhabit the New Guinea Archipelago, and the other, resembling the Tabuans, occupies the Fiji Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and the Solomon range. We proceed to say a few words as to the manners and customs of these different sections of the Black Race.

* * * * *

_Papuans._--A remarkable feature presented by the Papuans, is the enormous bulk of their half-woolly hair. Their skin is dark brown, their hair black, and their beard, which is scanty, is, as well as their eyebrows and eyes, of the same colour. Though they have rather flat noses, thick lips and broad cheekbones, their countenance is by no means unpleasant. The women are more ugly than the men, their withered figures, hanging breasts, and masculine features render them disagreeable to the sight, and even the young girls have a far from attractive look.

Lesson considered the Papuans fierce, inhospitable, crafty men, but the inhabitants of Havre de Doresy and generally of the northern part of this Oceanic region, as far as the Cape of Good Hope, seemed to him of great mildness and more disposed to fly from Europeans than to hurt them. He thinks, nevertheless, that the Negroes in the south of New Guinea, pushed back into that part of the island, and whom no intermixture has altered, have preserved their savage habits and rude independence. The state of perpetual hostility in which they live renders their character distrustful and suspicious. Never did Lesson visit a village, in a small boat manned by a fair number of men, that women, children, old men, and warriors did not take to flight in their large canoes, carrying off with them their movables and most precious effects. He adds, that by good treatment and plenty of presents, people may succeed in making way with them, may be able to lull their uneasiness and establish friendly relations. The coloured Plate accompanying this part of the work represents a native of the Papuan Islands.

* * * * *

_Vitians._--The first accurate information about the Viti or Fiji Islands is due to Dumont d’Urville. Mr. Macdonald, an assistant-surgeon on board the English ship Herald, has published an account of his visit to Fiji, and from it we extract the following particulars.

Thakombau (fig. 234), the king, was a man of powerful and almost gigantic stature, with well-formed limbs of fine proportions. His appearance, which was further removed from the Negro type than that of other individuals of lower rank, sprung from the same stock, was agreeable and intelligent. His hair was carefully turned up, dressed in accordance with the stylish fashion of the country, and covered with a sort of brown gauze. His neck and broad chest were both uncovered, and his naked skin might be seen, of a clear black colour. Near him was his favourite wife, a rather large woman with smiling features, as well as his son and heir, a fine child of from eight to nine years old. His majesty was also surrounded at respectful distance by a crowd of courtiers, humbly cringing on their knees.

In the course of his peregrinations, Mr. Macdonald was present at a repast, consisting of pork, ignames, and taro,[11] served in wooden dishes by women. Freshwater shell-fish of the cyprine kind completed the banquet. The broth was very savoury, but the meat insipid. During the conversation which followed, the traveller became convinced that gossip is a natural gift of the Fijians. Figs. 235 and 236 represent types of these people.

[11] The native substitute for bread.

The Fijians are fond of assembling to hear the local news, or to narrate old legends. Respect for their chiefs is always preserved unalterable among this people, turbulent in their behaviour, depraved in their instincts, and familiar with murder, robbery, and lying. The homage paid to their chiefs makes itself manifest both by word and action; men lower their weapons, take the worst sides of the paths, and bow humbly as one of the privileged order passes by. One of the oddest forms taken by this obsequiousness is a custom in accordance with which every inferior who sees his chief trip and fall, allows himself to stumble in his turn, in order to attract towards himself the ridicule which such an accident might have the effect of drawing upon his superior.

The different classes or castes into which the Fijian population is divided, are as follows: 1, sovereigns of several islands; 2, chiefs of single islands, or of districts; 3, village chiefs, and those of fisheries; 4, eminent warriors, but born in an inferior station, master carpenters, and heads of turtle-fisheries; 5, the common people; and 6, slaves taken in war.

The horrible custom of eating human flesh still exists in Fiji; the missionaries have succeeded in bringing about its disappearance in some parts of the island, but it remains in the interior districts, concealing itself, however, and no longer glorying in the number of victims devoured! Cannibalism does not owe its existence among the Fijians, as in most savage tribes, to a feeling of revenge pushed to the utmost limits; it arises there from an especial craving for human flesh. But as this choice dish is not sufficiently abundant to satisfy all appetites, the chiefs reserve it exclusively to themselves, and only by extraordinary favour do they give up a morsel of the esteemed delicacy to their inferiors.

The engraving (fig. 237) is taken from a sketch made by the missionary Thomas Williams, of a sort of temple used on occasions of cannibalism in Fiji. The four persons squatted in front of the edifice are victims awaiting their doom, and whose bodies will afterwards serve for the feast of these man-eaters.

Mr. Macdonald discovered that the custom of immolating widows is still in full vigour in one of the districts of the island.

Dancing is the popular diversion of the Fiji Islands. The chant by which it is usually regulated is of monotonous rhythm, its words recalling either some actual circumstance or historical event. The dancers’ movements are slow at first, growing gradually animated, and being accompanied by gestures of the hands and inflections of the body. There is always a chief to direct the performers. A buffoon is sometimes brought into the ring whose grotesque contortions bring applause from the spectators.

Two bands, one of musicians, the other of dancers, take part in the regular dances of the solemnities at Fiji (fig. 238); the first usually numbers twenty, and the other from a hundred and fifty to two hundred, individuals. These latter are covered with their richest ornaments, carry clubs or spears, and execute a series of varied evolutions, marching, halting, and running. As the entertainment draws towards its close their motions increase in rapidity, their action acquires more liveliness and vehemence, while their feet are stamped heavily on the ground, until at last the dancers, quite out of breath, ejaculate a final “Wa-oo!” and the antics cease.

* * * * *

_New-Caledonians._--The inhabitants of New Caledonia belong to the branch of Oceanian Negroes. This island, hidden in the Equinoctial Ocean, is a French possession, and has been marked out for the reception of those Communist insurgents and incendiaries arrested in Paris in June 1871, after the “seven days’ battle” who were sentenced to transportation by the courts-martial. We are indebted to MM. Victor de Rochas and J. Garnier for some valuable details concerning the population of the colony.

The aborigines of New Caledonia have a sooty-black skin; woolly, crisp hair and abundant beard, both black; a broad, flat nose deeply sunk between the orbits; the white of the eye bloodshot; large, turned-out lips; prominent jaws; a wide mouth; very even and perfectly white teeth; slightly projecting cheekbones; a high, narrow, and convex forehead; and the head flattened between the temples. Their average stature is at least as tall as that of the French, their limbs are well-proportioned, and their development of both chest and muscles is generally considerable.

The men are not very ugly, many even showing a certain regularity of feature; and some tribes on the east coast are better favoured than the rest in this respect. Figs. 239 and 240 convey a fair idea of the male population.

The ugliness of the women is proverbial. With their shaven heads and the lobes of their ears horribly perforated or pinked, they present a revolting appearance, even when young in years. The rude toil and bad treatment to which they are subjected bring upon them premature old age. They suckle their children for a long period, for three years on the average, and sometimes for five or six.

Like all savages, the New-Caledonians possess an exquisitely keen sense of sight and hearing. They are active and capable of exerting considerable strength for a short effort, but have no lasting power. Their inability to support fatigue for any length of time doubtless arises from the nature of their nourishment. They swallow really nothing beyond sugary and feculent vegetable food, seldom eating meat, the true source of the sustainment and recuperation of strength. Their island supplies the New-Caledonians with no quadrupeds which they can capture for sustenance, and they possess no weapons suitable for killing birds.

The quantity of eatables these people can gorge at a single meal is wonderful, quite three times as much as an European would be equal to.

M. Garnier visited the village of Hienghène. Its chief came to meet the travellers and presented to them his eldest son, while numbers of naked warriors, with blackened chests, beards, and faces, stood round in a silent and motionless group. They might have been taken for bronze statues were it not for their dark and sparkling eyes which followed the smallest gesture of the visitors.

At a signal from the chief, several youths dashed forward and in a few seconds showered down from the cocoa-trees a hail of nuts, the pulp of which in the liquid state is the most agreeable drink imaginable for allaying thirst.

The village of Hienghène is one of the most considerable in the island. Its dwellings are shaped like beehives, and are crowned with a rude statue surmounted by a quantity of shell-fish or sometimes by skulls of enemies slain in war.

These cabins have a single opening, very low and narrow. In the evening they are filled with smoke in order to banish the mosquitoes; the narrow aperture is then shut and the occupants lay themselves down to sleep on mats, whilst the smoke, by reason of its lightness, remains floating over their heads; but to sit upright without being half smothered by it is impossible.

Great numbers of aborigines dwell along the sea-coast. They came on board M. Garnier’s vessel in crowds, bringing provisions and shell-fish, and examining everything with the greatest attention.

The natives of this tribe are of a fine type. M. Garnier noticed among the visitors several men admirably built, and with a perfectly developed muscular system; but he nevertheless remarked as a general defect of the New Caledonians, that they have too thin legs in comparison with their bodies, and calves placed higher than in Europeans.

Whether from habit, or in consequence of anatomical formation, these people assume positions at every moment which would fatigue us terribly. They sit down on their heels for whole days, and when they climb up into a cocoa-tree, or rest themselves by the way, place themselves without any effort in postures that are really surprising.

The singular fancy which some of these tribes have for clay, has been already noticed, and M. Garnier convinced himself of the reality of the fact. The earth in question, is a silicate of magnesia, greenish in colour. It is ground by the teeth into a soft, fine dust, by no means disagreeable in taste. The habit of eating this clay, is, however, far from general; women only, in certain cases of illness, take a few pinches of it.

M. Garnier had an opportunity of being present at the _pilou-pilou_, a dancing festival which takes place on the occasion of the igname harvest. On a piece of high but level ground, overlooking a vast plain, were seated the chiefs and old men; the crowd were assembled below, and in front of them was piled a huge heap of ignames. Thirty or forty youngsters, selected from the handsomest of the tribe, advanced and each took a load, and then ascended the plateau in a body, all dashing at full speed to lay their burdens at the feet of the chiefs. Then, still running, they returned to the great mass of ignames to carry away a fresh cargo, and so on until the whole pile disappeared. They were pursued during this wild race by the yelling crowd, bounding around them with brandished weapons. Every European would have been interested in this strange spectacle; but a painter or a sculptor would have never grown weary of admiring the forms of the young performers: finer artistic models have seldom “posed” in any studio.

This _fête_ was interrupted by a mock fight, during which the warriors, either in complete nudity or with gaudy cloths tied round their waists, whirled their weapons about as they kept bounding, yelling, and taunting their adversaries. The old withered men, whose hands could throw neither stone nor javelin, animated the courage of the young people and showered insults on their opponents.

We are unable to retrace in its entirety, the curious and graphic description which M. Gamier has given of this contest, but a scene of cannibalism at which he was present, is too dramatic to be passed over.

Near a large fire sat a dozen men, in whom the traveller recognized the chiefs he had seen in the morning, and pieces of smoking meat surrounded with ignames and taros were laid on broad banana leaves before them. The bodies of some unfortunate wretches killed during the day, supplied the materials for this ghastly banquet, and the hole in which their limbs had just been cooked was still there. A savage joy was pictured on the faces of these demons. Both hands grasped their horrid food. An old chief with a long white beard did not seem to enjoy so formidable an appetite as his comrades. Leaving aside the thigh-bone and the thick layer of flesh accompanying it which had been served him, he contented himself with nibbling a head. He had already removed all the meaty parts, the nose and cheeks, but the eyes remained. The old epicure took a bit of pointed stick and thrust it into both pupils, then shook the horrid skull until bit by bit he brought out the brain; but as this process was not quick enough, he put the back of the head into the flames, and the rest of the cerebral substance dropped out without difficulty!. . . .

ANDAMAN FAMILY.

We comprise in the _Andaman_ Family those Eastern blacks who possess the characteristics of the Negro race strongly marked. These nations are as yet but little known. The inhabitants of New Guinea, the aborigines of the Andaman Isles, in the bay of Bengal, the blacks of the Malacca peninsula, those dwelling in some of the mountains of Indo-China, the natives of Tasmania, and, finally, the indigenous population of Australia are included in this group.

Among all these people the facial angle does not exceed 60 degrees; the mouth is very large, the nose broad and flat, the arms short, the legs lanky, and the complexion the colour of soot. The women are positively hideous.

The tribes which form these groups are, in general, numerous and subject to the arbitrary authority of a chief. Language is extremely limited among them; they possess neither government, laws, nor regularly established ceremonies, and some do not even know how to construct places of abode.

In order to convey to the reader an idea of the people composing the Andaman Family we shall give a glance at the inhabitants of the Andaman Isles and also at those of Australia.

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_Andamans._--The dwellings of the Andamans are of the most rudimentary kind, being hardly superior to the dens of wild beasts. Four posts covered with a roof of palm-leaves constitute these lairs, which are open to every wind, and “ornamented” with hogs’ bones, turtle shells, and large dried fish tied in bunches.

As for the inhabitants themselves, they are of an ebon black. They seldom exceed five feet in stature; their heads are broad and buried between their shoulders; and their hair is woolly, like that of the African blacks. The abdomen is protuberant in a great many cases, and their lower limbs lank. They go about in a state of complete nudity, merely taking care to cover the entire body with a layer of yellow ochre or clay, which protects it from the sting of insects. They paint their faces and sprinkle their hair with red ochre.

Their weapons are, however, manufactured with much cleverness. Their bows, which require a very strong pull, are made of a sort of iron-wood and gracefully shaped. Their arrows are tipped with fine points, some of them barbed, and they shoot them with much skill. They handle expertly their short paddles, marked with red ochre, and hollow their canoes with a rather rude implement formed of a hard and sharp stone fastened to a handle by means of a strong cord made from vegetable fibres.

The Andamans are ichthyophagists, for the seas which wash their islands abound in excellent fish and palatable mollusks. Soles, mullets, and oysters constitute the staple of their food, and when during tempestuous weather fish runs short, they eat the lizards, rats, and mice which swarm in the woods.

Though not cannibals, the Andamans are nevertheless a most savage race, who do not even exist in a state of tribedom, but who are merely gathered into gangs.

The bitterest contempt has been lavished on these rude inhabitants of the islands of Bengal, and people have been willing to consider them as brutes of the worst cruelty, and most extreme ugliness; but more recent observation, and the few facts which we have mentioned, show that this estimate should be somewhat mitigated.

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_Australian Blacks._--We have arrived at the black people who occupy part of Australia, and take advantage of some valuable information concerning them, found in M. H. de Castella’s “Souvenirs d’un Squatter Français en Australie,” and which was acquired by the author’s personal experience of these uncouth beings.

The wild state in which the aborigines of Australia exist is the result of the poverty of their country, which affords no other source of sustenance than animals. True, these abound there; kangaroos, squirrels, opossums, wild-cats, and birds of all kinds are so numerous, that the natives need, as it were, only stretch out their hands in order to take them. In this mild climate they can live without any shelter.

According to M. de Castella, the Negroes of Australia are not so ugly as they have been represented. Among the men whom he examined, some were tall and well made. Their slow, lounging gait, was not devoid of dignity, and the solemnity of their step reminded one of the strut of a tragedian on the stage.

The Australian blacks recognize family ties. None of them have more than one wife, but they do not marry within their own particular tribe. They live encamped in bands, and now that they are reduced to small numbers, in entire tribes. They do not build permanent huts, but protect themselves in summer from the sun and hot winds merely by a heap of gum-tree branches, piled up against some sticks, thrust in the ground. When winter comes on, they strip from the trees large pieces of bark, eight or ten feet high, and as wide as the whole circumference of the trunk, forming with these fragments a screen, which they place at the side whence the rain is blowing, and alter if the wind happens to change. Squatted on the bare earth, in the opossum skin which serves the double purpose of bed and clothing, each of them is placed before a hearth of his own. Fig. 241 is an engraving taken from a photograph of Australian natives.

The Australian Negroes of the present day have guns, and employ little axes for chopping their wood and cutting bark, but it is not so long since the only weapons they possessed were made of hard wood, and their hatchets consisted of sharp stones fastened to the end of sticks, like the flint instruments used by men before the Deluge. There is in fact little or no difference between the people of the age of stone, and the Negroes of Australia, and consequently an acquaintance with the wild manners and customs of these races has been of great advantage to naturalists of our day in throwing light upon the history of primitive man.

M. H. de Castella was greatly struck by the agility of the Australian blacks in climbing gum-trees whose straight stems are often devoid of branches for twenty or thirty feet from their base, and are besides too thick to be clasped. When by perfect prodigies of acrobatism the native reached the wild cats and opossums’ nests, he seized the animals, and threw them to his wife.

This wife carried everything; her last-born in a reed basket hanging from her neck, the slaughtered game in one hand, and in the other a blazing gum branch, to light the fire when the family took up fresh quarters. The man walked in front, carrying nothing but his weapons; then came the wife, and after her, their children according to height.

A batch of Australian blacks is never, by any chance, to be met walking abreast, even when in great numbers, and if a whole tribe is crossing the plains, only a long black file is to be seen moving above the high grass.

M. de Castella was a spectator of the curious sight which eel-fishing affords among these natives. Holding a spear in each hand, with which to rake up the bottom, they wade through the water up to their waists, balancing and regulating their movements to the even measure of one of their chants. When an eel is transfixed by a stroke of one lance, they pierce it in another part of the body with the second, and then, holding the two points apart, throw the fish upon the ground, the quantity which they take in this manner being enormous. They dispense with saucepans and cooking utensils of all kinds in the preparation of their meals, simply placing the game or fish on bright coals covered over with a little ashes.

Everyone has heard of the skill with which savages navigate their rivers in bark canoes, but the people of whom we are now speaking render themselves remarkable above all others by their adroitness in guiding their little crafts over the rapids. Only two persons can sit in their boats, while a spear supplies the place of an oar, and is used with astonishing dexterity.

No one acquainted with this kind of barbarous life will be surprised to hear that the blacks of Australia are diminishing at a wonderfully quick rate. Of the whole Varra tribe, formerly a numerous one, M. de Castella could find no more than seventeen individuals.

What most struck the author of an account of a journey from Sydney to Adelaide, which appeared in the “Tour du Monde,” in 1860, was the small number of aborigines which he met in a distance of more than two hundred and fifty miles. Sturt and Mitchell, in the middle of the present century, had visited tribes on the higher tributaries of the Murray river, which then consisted of several hundred persons, but M. de Castella found them only represented by scattered groups of seven or eight famished individuals. Fig. 242 portrays one of the types sketched by this gentleman.

Mitchell has given a description in his “Travels,” of the “groves of death”--those romantic burial-places of the Australians--but the writer in the “Tour du Monde” found them no longer in existence. The tombs of the natives at the present day are as wild and rude as themselves. In the bleak deserts of the land of the West four branches driven into the ground and crossed at the top by a couple more (fig. 243), support the mortal remains of the Australian aboriginal, whose only winding sheet is the skin of a kangaroo.

INDEX.

ABABDEHS, 362 Abases, 204 Abipones, 420 _Abouna_, 360 Abruzzans, 104 Abstraction, a faculty of man, 1 Abyssinians, 355, 357 Abyssinian Christians, 360 ---- Family, 355 ---- religion, 360 ---- soldiers, 360 ---- type, 355, 357 _Achagy_, 427 _Acquajolo_, 105 Afghans, 190, 199 Africa, original population of, 11 ---- populations of, 355 Agglutinative languages, 9, 32 Agora, 154 Agows, 357 Agricultural stage of Man, 35 Aguilots, 425 Aïnos, 210 ---- type, 210 Alanians, 70 Albanians, 149, 152, 160, 161, 162 Alfusus, 375 Algonquins, 460, 472 Alphabetic writing, 33 Aluta River, 109 Amakisas, 496 Amapendas, 496 Amathymbas, 496 Amazulas, 496 American Indians, 404, 416, 460, 471 ---- type, 65 _Amin_, 166 _Amin-el-oumena_, 166 Anahuac, 452 Ancient Chinese writing, 282 ---- Egyptians, 173 ---- Etruscans, 93, 101 ---- Illyrians, 160 ---- Incas, 408 ---- Mexicans, 405, 454 ---- Peruvians, 405 ---- Persian type, 191 Andaman Family, 532 ---- Islanders, 532 Andian Family, 407 _Angaskah_, 342 Angles, 55 Annamites, 324 Antis Indians, 407, 410, 411 ---- customs, 412, 413, 414, 415 ---- religion, 416 ---- type, 411 Apaches, 470, 481 Apolistas, 410 Apontis, 444 Aquitanians, 66 Arab type, 184 Arabs, 183 ---- nomadic, 184 ---- Shegya, 184 Aramaic Race, 163 Aramean Branch of White Race, 40, 163 ---- civilisation, 163 Araocas, 449 Arapahoes, 470 Araucanians, 407, 416 Arcadians, 150 _Arch_, 166 Ardschis River, 109 Aristocracy, English, 62 Armenians, 190, 201 ---- in Turkey, 253 Armenian population, 202 ---- religion, 202 ---- type, 201 Artisans, French, 76 Aryans, 353 Aryan Race, 10, 40 Asia, original population of, 11 Assyrians, 183 Atacamas, 407, 410 Athens, 157 Athenian type, 160 Australian aboriginals, 533 ---- native customs, 531, 536 ---- native tombs, 538 _Ayams_, 248 Aymaras, 407, 410 Aztecs, 451

BAKTYAN, 199 Bambara, 364 Banians, 336 Bankok, 330, 332 Barabras, 357, 361 Barabra type, 361 Barbotes, 428, 432, 440, 450, 492 Baskirs, 129 Bavaria, 48 Batavians, 368 Battas, 365, 373 Bechuanas, 497, 498 Bedouins, 183 _Beglebeig_, 191 Behring’s Straits, 10 Beloochees, 199 Bengalese, 340 Berbers, 163 Beyram, 250 Beys, 246 Bible, unity of Man proclaimed in the, 11 Bicharyehs, 362 Bielo-Russians, 118 Big-Bellies, 470 Blackfeet Indians, 464 Black Race, 495 Bohemians, 112 _Bolas_, 427 _Bolero_, 90 Bonzes, 259, 280 Bosniaks, 113, 130, 141, 142, 143, 145 Botocudos, 435, 449 Bougis, 365, 373 Brahminism, 336 Brahmins, 336 Brahnis, 201 Brain of the ape, 22 ---- of man, 22 ---- of the negro, 508 Brazilian Indian customs, 448 Brazilian Indian dwellings, 447 British Isles, 55 Brown Race, 335 Bucharest, 109 Buddhism, 163, 307, 319, 320, 322, 332 Bulgarians, 113, 130 Burgundians, 71 Burïats, 218, 221 Burïat customs, 223 Burmans, 324 Burmese, 324 Bushmen, 499

_CADIS_, 246 Caffre Family, 496 ---- type, 496, 497 Calabrians, 104 Californian Indians, 493 Cambodian customs, 329 Campagna, The, 93 _Cangue_, 296 Cannibalism, Fijian, 523, 524 ---- Maori, 386 ---- New Caledonian, 531 Caper fig-tree, 168 Capital punishment in China, 294 Caprification of the fig-tree, 168, 169, 170 Capuans, 103 _Caravanserai_, 240 Caribbean Group, 450 Caribs, 450 Carinthia, 116 Carniola, 116 Caroline Islanders, 400, 401 Carpathian Mountains, 109 Carthaginians, 183 Caryis, 444 Caste, 347, 348 Cathsé, 272 Caucasian Race, 40 Cayuguas, 435 Celtic type, 57, 67 ---- weapons, 67 Celts, 66, 67 Chaldeans, 186 Changos, 186 Characteristics of Man, Intellectual, 30 ---- of the White Race, 40 Charruas, 420 Chaymas, 450 Chen-elches, 422 Cherokees, 478 Chichimecas, 452 Chicksaws, 478 Chimehwebs, 484 Chinese agriculture, 271 ---- army, 300 ---- centralization, 256 ---- civilization, 36, 301 ---- corruption, 266 ---- court of justice, 295, 296, 298, 299 ---- customs, 262 ---- dinner, 268 ---- drama, 287 ---- eating-house, 267 ---- education, 280, 281, 284 ---- Family, 256 ---- feet, 262 ---- fishing (river), 274, 275, 276 ---- fishing (sea), 274 ---- food, 278 ---- gambling, 265 ---- idleness, 264 ---- interior, 263 ---- irrigation, 279 ---- jurisprudence, 290 ---- language, 284 ---- law courts, 290, 291 ---- literature, 287 ---- marionettes, 288 ---- marriages, 261 ---- opium smoking, 270 ---- pisciculture, 274 ---- polygamy, 260 ---- printing, 286 ---- punishments, 292, 294-296 ---- religion, 257 ---- religious toleration, 258 ---- rice fields, 278 ---- tea houses, 266, 267 ---- theatres, 288 ---- type, 256 ---- women, 259 ---- writing, ancient, 282 ---- writing, modern, 282, 283, 284 Chinooks, 493 Chiotians, 158 Chippeway Indians, 463 Chiquitos, 420, 432, 433, 434 Chiriguanos, 444 Choctaws, 478 _Choli_, 342 Chunipis, 425 Cingalese customs, 351 ---- costume, 351 ---- of the coast, 351 ---- of the hills, 351 ---- type, 350 ---- women, 350 Circassian Family, 163, 204 ---- slaves, 240 ---- type, 204 Circulatory system of Man, 30 Cirionos, 444 Civilization, Aramean, 163 ---- Chinese, 36, 301 ---- Egyptian, 36 ---- progress of, 37 Classification of Man, Blumenbach’s, 18 ---- ---- Bory de Saint Vincent’s, 18 ---- ---- Buffon’s, 17 ---- ---- Cuvier’s, 18 ---- ---- Desmoulins’, 18 ---- ---- d’Omalius d’Halloys’, 19 ---- ---- de Quatrefages’, 19 ---- ---- Lacépède’s, 18 ---- ---- Pritchard’s, 18 ---- ---- Virey’s, 18 ---- of the Human Race, 17, 38 Clavel’s “Races Humaines,” 48, 53 Comanches, 480 Confucius, doctrines of, 258, 307 Coras, 459 Cossacks, 120, 124 ---- of the Ukraine, 118 Cosninos, 482 Cranium, brachycephalous, 25 ---- dolichocephalous, 25 ---- of Man, 25 Creation, animal centres of, 8 ---- of Man, cause of, 3 ---- ---- in the quaternary period, 3 ---- ---- manifold, 6 ---- ---- special, 3 ---- one human centre of, 6, 8 ---- vegetable centres of, 8 Creek Indians, 462, 478 Croats, 113 Crow Indians, 468 Cshatriyas, 336 Cutchanas, 484 Cymri, 67

DACIA, 106 Dacotas, 464 _Daïri_, 313 Dalmatians, 116 Danes, 42, 46 Danube, 109 Danubian Principalities, 107 Daouria, Tunguses of, 223 Deccan, 340 Deccan Hindoos, 340 Definition of Man, 1 ---- of Race, 12, 13, 14 ---- of Species, 12, 13, 14 _Déhera_, 166 Delawares, 474, 480 Denmark, 46 _Dhamans_, 166 _Dhoti_, 342 _Divan_, 247 _Djama_, 166 _Djelodar_, 198 _Djemaa_, 166 Dokhar, 168 Dongoulahs, 361 Druids, 71 Druzes, 188, 250 Dutch language, 55 Dyak customs, 376, 378 ---- head-cutters, 376 ---- superstitions, 376 Dyaks, 365, 375

EASTERN NUBIANS, 362 Egyptian civilization, 36 ---- dancing girls, 180 ---- marriages, 179 ---- polygamy, 180 ---- sailors, 179 ---- type, 173 Egyptians, ancient, 173 ---- modern, 174 Emmages, 425 _Enderoun_, 196 English, 42 ---- aristocracy, 62 ---- middle class, 64 ---- type, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 ---- women, 60, 61 ---- working class, 65 Esthonians, 129 Esquimaux customs, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217 ---- dress, 214 ---- Family, 206, 211 ---- type, 211 Etruscans, ancient, 101 Etruscan sarcophagi, 101 European Branch (White Race), 40

FACIAL ANGLE, 26 ---- ---- of the Negro, 508 Falæshas, 357 _Fandango_, 90 Fehles, 183 Fellahs, 176, 177, 178, 179 Fellans, 355, 363, 364 Fellatahs, 363 _Fetfa_, 247 Fetishes, 512 Fez, 154 Fiji, king of, 520 Fijian cannibalism, 523, 524 ---- dances, 526 Fijians, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525 Finlanders, 129 Finns, 113, 125, 129 ---- of Eastern Russia, 127 ---- of Silesia, 127 ---- of the Baltic, 127 Flat-head Indians, 485, 486 Flemish language, 55 Foudaïsi, 321 Franks, 71 Frank type, 71 French, 66 ---- artisans, 76 ---- bourgeois, 77 ---- peasant, 76 ---- soldier, 78 ---- type, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80 ---- women, 71, 79, 80 Friendly Islanders, 388 Frieslandic language, 55 Fundamental languages of Man, 9 _Fystan_, 154

GADIGUÈS, 435, 436 Gaels, 68 Gallas, 357, 363 Gallic customs, 69 ---- type, 57, 68, 72 Garnants, 357 Gauls, 66 Georgian Family, 163, 203 ---- slaves, 240 ---- type, 204 ---- women, 204 Germanic type, 50, 51, 52, 53, 58 Germans, 42, 47 _Gholaums_, 191 _Ging-seng_ root, 269 Goths, 71 Grand Chaco, 425 Grand vizier, 247 Gränzer, 137, 140, 141 Greek church, 249 ---- Family, 41, 149 ---- peasants, 154 ---- type, 152, 153 Greeks in Turkey, 252 Groves of Death, 538 Guarani, 407, 434, 435, 444 Guaranns, 449 Guarany language, 444 ---- type, 435 Guarayi, 444 Guatos of Cuyaba, 438 Guayquerias, 450

HADHAREBS, 362 Harems, 240 Hawaiians, 399, 400 Hebrews, 183 _Hegira_, 239 Highlanders, 68 Hindoos, 339 Hindoo castes, 336, 346, 347, 348 ---- characteristics, 340 ---- civilization, 336 ---- customs, 344, 348 ---- food, 345 ---- ornaments, 342 ---- religion, 342 ---- society, 336 ---- type, 339 Hindostani, 346 Hispanians, 80 Hospodars, 107 Hottentots, 499 Hottentot type, 499, 501 ---- Venus, 500 Huaxtecas, 460 Hungarians, 48, 113 Huns, 72, 145 Hurons, 460, 462 Hyperborean Branch (Yellow Race), 205, 206

IBERIANS, 66 Icelanders, 43 Ienissian Family, 206, 217 Indian games, North American, 478 ---- languages (East), 346 ---- territory, 473, 478 Indo-Chinese Family, 324 Inflected languages, 9, 32 Intelligence of Man, 1 ---- of brutes, 1 Ionians, 158 Irish, 68 Iroquois, 462, 463, 472 _Isba_, 121 Ischorians, 129 Italians, 66 Italian climate, 93 ---- type, 94

JAKOBITES, 249 Jalovitza River, 109 _Jamah_, 342 Japanese, 256, 302, 304, 306, 312, 320 ---- Bonzes, 302, 320, 321, 322, 323 ---- characteristics, 302, 303 ---- costume, 304, 305, 306 ---- government, 307 ---- literature, 302 ---- manufactures, 306 ---- religion, 302, 307 ---- soldiers, 308 ---- type, 304 ---- weapons, 318, 319 ---- writing, 302 Jats, 340 Javanese, 365, 367, 369 ---- costume, 368 ---- dancing girls, 369 ---- princes, 369 ---- trinkets, 371 ---- weddings, 371 Jews, 183, 184, 186 Jukaghirite Family, 206, 217

KABYLES, 163 Kabyle agriculture, 168 ---- type, 165, 167 Kabylia, 165, 171 Kachintz, 127 _Kakim_, 191 Kaliouges, 493 Kalmuks, 218 Kalmuk customs, 219 ---- type, 219 _Kalva, La_, 242 _Kalyaudjy_, 198 Kamis, 307, 312 ---- religion, 320, 322 Kamtschadale Family, 206, 209 ---- type, 210 Kandians, 350 _Kang_, 262 Kayoways, 470 Kenous, 361 _Ketlkhoda_, 191 Khalkas, 220 Khalkasian customs, 221 ---- type, 221 _Khanoun_, 166 _Kharouba_, 166 _Khodja_, 166 King of Fiji, 520 Kioto, 310 Kirghis, 232, 238 _Kodju_, 247 Kopts, 174, 175, 176 Koptic language, 174 _Koran_, 247 Koriak family, 206, 217 _Kousso_, 361 Kurds, 190, 201 Kymes, 28 Kyrials, 129

LADRONE ISLANDERS, 400 Languages, agglutinative, 32 ---- inflected, 32 ---- monosyllabic, 31 Laplanders, nomadic, 208 ---- sedentary, 208 Lapp Family, 206, 207 ---- customs, 208 ---- type, 206 ---- women, 209 Latins, 49, 66, 72 Latin Family, 41, 66, 93 ---- type, 66, 72 Lencas, 459 Lenguas, 420, 425, 426, 427, 428 Libyan Family, 163 Lithuanians, 113, 116 Livonians, 129

MACASKILL ISLANDERS, 402 Macassars, 365, 373 Macedonians, 152 Machicuys, 420, 428, 430, 432 Madagascar, 364 Magachs, 435, 436 Magyars, 113, 146, 147, 148, 149 Magyar type, 149 _Mahana_, 427 Mahometanism, 163, 193, 250 Mahrattas, 340 Malabar Family, 339, 354 Malay Branch (Brown Race), 365 ---- customs, 366 ---- type, 365, 366 Malaysia, 365 Man, agricultural stage of, 25 ---- birthplace of, 8 ---- brain of, 22 ---- carriage of, 27 ---- colour of, 29 ---- cranium of, 25 ---- definition of, 1 ---- divine origin of, 24 ---- fundamental languages of, 9 ---- types of, 9 ---- hand of, 23 ---- hunting stage of, 35 ---- intelligence of, 1, 30 ---- language of, 31 ---- moral attributes of, 33 ---- nervous system of, 29 ---- organization of, 21 ---- origin of, 3, 4, 8 ---- original migrations of, 9 ---- pastoral stage of, 35 ---- primitive societies of, 35 ---- senses of, 22 ---- stature of, 28 ---- unity of, 16 ---- writing of, 32 Manchús, 223 Mandan Indians, 492, 493 Manilla, 374 Manufactures, primitive, 37 Maoris, 381 Maori cannibalism, 386 ---- chiefs, 387 ---- costume, 381 ---- customs, 382, 386 ---- dances, 385 ---- language, 385 ---- religion, 385 ---- type, 381 ---- weapons, 385 ---- women, 381 Maratsi, 498 _Maro_, 398 Maronites, 188, 250 Maronite manuscripts, 190 Maropas, 410 Marquesans, 395 Mataguayos, 420 Melanesians, 519 Mesopotamians, 186 Messenians, 150 Metscheriaks, 129 Mexicans, 452 ---- ancient, 405, 454 ---- modern, 454, 455, 456, 458 Mexican Indians, 454 Micronesians, 365, 400, 401, 402 Mikado, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317 Military Confines, 132, 140 Mingrelians, 204 Mirdites, 162 Mixtecas, 460 Mnemonic writing, 32 Moadueinites, 129 Mocéténès, 410 Mohawk Indians, 484 Mohicans, 460, 472 Moldavians, 106 Moldo-Walachians, 66, 105 Mongolian Branch (Yellow Race), 205, 218 Mongols, 218, 220 Mongrels, 15 Montenegriners, 116 Moorish type, 87 Moors, 172 _Mora_, _La_, 97 Moscas, 432, 434 Moyas, 459 _Mudir_, 252 _Mufti_, 247 Mulatto, 505 Mulgrave Islanders, 401 Muscogulges, 461 Mutualis, 190

NAHUATH, 406 Nahuatlacas, 453 Naïbs, 246 Natchez Indians, 460, 472 Navajoes, 481 Nayas Indians, 485, 486, 488, 490, 492 Neapolitans, 104 Negroes, 361, 501 Negro, brain of, 508 ---- characteristics, 506, 508, 509, 512, 514, 515, 516, 517 ---- cross breeds, 505 ---- cruelty, 512 ---- facial angle of, 508 ---- imitative talent of, 515 ---- memory, 514 ---- music, 515, 516 ---- religion, 512 ---- slavery, 510 ---- type, 502, 503, 504, 505 Negus Theodorus, 360 Nervous system of the White Man, 29 ---- of the Negro, 30 Nestorians, 250 New Caledonians, 526, 527, 530 New Caledonian cannibalism, 531 New Zealanders, 381, 382, 384, 385, 386 Nigritia, 364 Nogays, 232, 238 Northern Branch (Red Race), 451 ---- north-eastern Family of, 459 ---- north-western Family of, 493 ---- southern Family of, 451 Northern Italians, 101 Norwegians, 42, 44 Noubas, 361 Nubians, 361, 362 ---- Eastern, 362 Nubian customs, 362 ---- ruins, 362

OCEANIA, 380 Oceanian negroes, 519 Octoroons, 505 Olmecas, 459 Organization of Man, 21 Origin of coloured Races, 11 ---- Man, 3, 4, 8 Orthognathism, 26 Osages, 478 Osmanlis, 232, 239 Ossetines, 190, 202 Ostiaks, 129 ---- of Temisia, 217 Othomis, 460 Oualan, 401 _Ouhil_, 166 Ouragas, 449 Owas, 364 Owhyhee, 397

_PACHA_, 246 _Padishah_, 244 Pah-Utahs, 484 _Pai-aguaá_, 436 Palanquins, 264 Pampas, 419 Pampean Family, 407, 419 Pandours, 144 Pannonians, 116 Papuan Family, 519 Papuans, 520 Paraguay, 435 Parana, 435 Pariahs, 337, 346, 348 Patagonians, 420, 421 Patagonian customs, 421, 422, 424 ---- sacrifices, 424 ---- stature, 28, 420 _Paton-paton_, 385 Pawnees, 470 Payaguas, 437, 438, 440 Payaguasian customs, 440, 441 ---- stature, 437 _Payes_, 425, 441, 442, 443 Pecherays, 416, 417, 418, 419 Pei-Ho river, 274 Peking Imperial College, 286 Permians, 129 Persians, 163 Persian customs, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199 ---- Family, 190 ---- government, 191 ---- manufactures, 191 ---- population, 193 ---- religion, 193 ---- type, ancient, 191 ---- type, modern, 161 ---- visits, 199 ---- women, 197 Peruvians, ancient, 405, 408 ---- modern, 408, 409 Peuhls, 363 Phanariots, 155 Phariagots, 450 Philippine Islanders, 374 Phœnicians, 183 Piasts, 118 _Pilou-pilou_, 528 Pitiligas, 425 Poles, 48, 113 Polygenists, doctrines of, 16 Polynesian customs, 380 ---- Family, 365, 380 Pomotouans, 395 Populations of Africa, original, 11 ---- America, original, 405 ---- Asia, original, 11 ---- Europe, original, 40, 41 Portuguese, 80, 90 ---- type, 90 ---- women, 90 Pouls, 363 Procidans, 103 Prognathism, 26 Prussians, 54 ---- type, 54 Puelches, 420 Pygmies, 28

QUADROONS, 505 Quarries, 129 Quichuan type, 408 Quichuas, 406, 407

RACE, BLACK, 495 ---- Brown, 335 ---- definition of, 12, 13, 14 ---- Red, 404 ---- White, 30 ---- Yellow, 205 Races, Human, 38 Rajpoots, 336, 340 _Ramazan_, 250 _Rebosso_, 454 Red Indian characteristics, 470, 471, 486, 492 ---- languages, 472 ---- type, 460 _Reiss effendi_, 247 Rivobon-Sinton, 322 Roman peasants, 96 Romanians, 72 Romans, 93 Rousniaks, 120 Russian type, 123 ---- women, 124 Russians, 113, 120, 121, 122 _Russians_ (Bielo-), 118 Ruthenians, 118

SAGAÏS, 127 Sahara, 172 _Sahrong_, 368, 371 _Saltatras_, 505 Samchow, 266 Samoiede Family, 206, 209 Sandwichians, 396, 397 Sandwichian morals, 399 ---- type, 396 ---- women, 396 Sanskrit, 346 _San-tse-king_, 284 _Sarapé_, 455 Sarmatians, 114 Saxons, 55 Saxon type, 16 Scandinavians, 41 Schiite sect, 236 Scinde, natives of, 353 Scythians, 114 Seminoles, 478 Semitic Family, 183 Semitics, 163 Senses of animals, 22 ---- of Man, 22 Seraglio, 240 Servians, 113, 114, 130 Shah, 191 Shamanism, 223, 229 Shamans, 229 Shawnees, 480 Shegya Arabs, 164 Shellas, 163, 172 Shiennes, 470 Siamese, 324, 330, 331 ---- agriculture, 332 ---- Cambodia, 331 ---- costume, 325 ---- government, 328 ---- Malacca, 331 ---- population, 324 ---- type, 324 Sichuana language, 497 Sikhs, 340 Simnioles, 460 Sinaic Branch (Yellow Race), 205, 254 Sioux, 464 ---- customs, 464, 465, 466 Sivaism, 342 Skin of Man, colours of, 29 Slavonian Family, 41, 113 Slavonians, 116 ---- northern, 118, 119 ---- southern, 120 Slavonian type, 113, 114, 118, 119, 133 ---- women, 134 Slavonians, 116 Slovachians, 118 _Soff_, 166 Sosists, 193 Souakins, 363 Sounanis, 186 Southern Branch (Red Race), 407 ---- Italians, 103 ---- Italian type, 103 Spaniards, 66, 80 Spanish dances, 90 ---- inquisition, 86 ---- intolerance, 86 ---- type, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88 ---- women, 87 Spartans, 150 _Spathar_, 107 Species, definition of, 12, 13, 14 Stature of Man, 28 Stieng savages, 332, 334 Sudras, 336 Suevians, 71 Sunnite sect, 236 Swedes, 42 Symbolical writing, 33 Syrians, 183, 186

_TABOO_, 380, 391, 399 Tabayari, 444 Tacanas, 410 Tadjiks, 190 Tagals, 365, 373 Tahitians, 391 Tahitian customs, 393, 394, 395 ---- type, 391, 392 ---- women, 302 Taïcoon, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 316, 317 _Taktikios_, 154 _Talagani_, 154 Tamanacs, 449 Tamboukis, 497 Tameyi, 444 Tammahas, 498 Tamuls, 354 Tapigoas, 444 Tapinaqui, 444 Tarascas, 459 _Tatare_, 112 Tattooing, 382, 390, 425, 438 Taygetans, 150 Tchecks, 113 Tcheremissians, 129 Tchoudans, 116 Tchourachians, 129 Teleouts, 127 Telingas, 354 _Tembeta_, 440 Tepanecas, 459 Teptiars, 129 Terra del Fuego, 416 Territory, Indian, 473, 478 Teutonic Family, 41 Thracians, 152 Tibbous, 163, 357, 363 Tibbou type, 363 Tigré mountaineers, 360 Timmimnes, 444 Tobas, 420, 425, 428, 430 Tobatinguas, 435 Tokis, 385 Toltecs, 452 Tongas, 388 Tonga customs, 389, 390, 391 ---- type, 388 Topas, 435 Totonacs, 460 Touaricks, 163, 172 _Touloupa_, 123 Tularenos, 493 Tunguses, 218, 223 ---- of Daouria, 223 Tungusian Family, 223 Tupi language, 444 Tupinambi, 444 Turajas, 375 Turcomans, 232 Turcoman customs, 234, 235, 236 ---- religion, 235 ---- type, 232 ---- women, 232, 233, 234 Turks, 218, 239, 244, 248 Turkish administration, 246, 247, 248 ---- agriculture, 252 ---- corruption, 248 ---- customs, 240, 242, 243, 244, 246 ---- education, 252 ---- Family, 229 ---- Jews, 250 ---- law, 244 ---- literature, 251, 252 ---- manufactures, 252 ---- polygamy, 240 ---- religion, 248 ---- temperance, 239 ---- type, ancient, 230 ---- type, modern, 231, 239 ---- women, 240, 241 Tuscans, 101 Tuscan type, 101 Tzapotecas, 459

_ULEMA_, 247 United States, 65 Uruguay, 435 Uscoks, 116 Uzbeks, 238

VALENCIANS, 87 Vampays, 484 Varegians, 116 Varna-Sancára (caste of), 337 Varra tribe, 538 Vativas, 497 Venedians, 114 Vogouls, 127, 129

WALACHIANS, 105, 106, 111, 113 Walachian minerals, 112 ---- type; 109 Wall of China, Great, 301 Walloons, 72 Western Branch (Black Race), 496 Western Guarani, 444 Writing, alphabetic, 33 ---- Chinese, 282, 283, 284 ---- symbolical, 33 Würtembergers, 48

XICALAUCAS, 460

YAKOUBIS, 186 Yakuts, 218 Yakut customs, 226, 227, 228 ---- Family, 223 ---- religion, 226 ---- type, 224, 225 ---- women, 229 Yankees, 65 _Yaschmac_, 244 Yeddo, 309 Yellow Race, 205 Yuracares, 410 Yutes, 470

ZASKAM, 112 Ziguans, 112 Zingari, 353 Zoroath (religion of), 193

BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

Transcriber’s Notes:

This text follows the text of the original work, including inconsistencies in spelling, lay-out, hyphenation, capitalisation, etc.; these have not been changed, except as mentioned below.

Notes on the text: Some words from the Index do not occur in text. Wrong accents (Pyreneés, Lozére) have not been corrected. Page 151, Fallmeseyer: this is possibly a reference to Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer. Page 216, penguin eggs: this seems unlikely on the North Pole; the accompanying illustration shows flying birds. This is possibly a mistranslation from the French.

Changes made to the original text: Illustrations have been moved outside paragraphs. Footnotes have been moved to directly underneath the paragraph to which they refer. Some obviously missing or incorrect punctuation has been corrected silently. Coloured plates and an unnumbered illustration have been added to the List of Illustrations. Page xii: BURIATS changed to BURÏATS as in text Page 10: terrestial changed to terrestrial Page 26: γηαθος changed to γναθος Page 65: silen men changed to silent men Page 66: Moldo-Wallachians changed to Moldo-Walachians as elsehwere Page 116: Slevenians changed to Slavonians Page 170: hundreth changed to hundredth Page 174: fig. 80 changed to fig. 74 Page 214: This consist changed to This consists Page 243: (fig. 109) changed to (fig. 110) Page 262: develope changed to develop Page 267: Tea houses changed to Tea-houses as elsewhere Page 280 Footnote [9]: the original text “Idem” has been replaced with the same text as Foootnote [8] Page 305: tight fiting changed to tight fitting Page 342: developes changed to develops; threw coquettishly changed to throw coquettishly Page 361: Cammar changed to Cammas Page 381: tatooing changed to tattooing as elsewhere Page 395: somtimes changed to sometimes Page 420: Abipoous changed to Abipones Page 488: archeologists changed to archæologists as elsewhere Page 518: disagreeble changed to disagreeable Page 540: Caryii changed to Caryis as in text Page 541: Demoulins changed to Desmoulins as in text Page 542: Gadigues changed to Gadiguès; Dchera changed to Déhera; Dhamars changed to Dhamans; Djelodas changed to Dejelodar; Dejemua changed to Djemaa; Flathead changed to Flat-head; Fondaisi changed to Foudaïsi; Gadigues changed to Gadiguès (all as in text) Page 543: Hindôstani changed to Hindostani; Huasetecas, 489 changed to Huaxtecas, 460; Ischonians changed to Ischorians; kalyandjy changed to kalyaudjy (all as in text) Page 544: Manchus changed to Manchús as in text Page 545: Miridites changed to Mirdites; Pai-agnaa changed to Pai-aguaá as in text; Negus Theodoras changed to Negus Theodorus (all as in text) Page 546: Sagaris changed to Sagaïs as in text Page 547: Slevenians changed to Slavonians; Spathas changed to Spathar; Tamboukies changed to Tamboukis; Tchourachians changed to Tchouvachians (all as in text) Page 548: 242, 242, 244 changed to 232, 232, 234; Wurtembergers changed to Würtembergers (as in text); Yuracaures changed to Yuracares (as in text).