Part 4

It seems that the several races of mankind are usually rather proud of their peculiarities, and that each has an inclination to make much of, and artificially exaggerate, the points in which it differs from the others. Thus the Chinese are remarkable for the spareness of their hair and the smallness of their feet; so the men shave their heads, leaving only the pig-tail, and the women squeeze up their feet in the remorseless manner we have seen. The Singhalese, who are flat-footed, are said to consider it one of the requisites for a ‘belle’ that the soles of her feet should not have any hollow. The red Indians of America delight in staining and painting their skins of a lively red colour. The Columbian tribe of Indians increase the natural lowness of their forehead by flattening it out in infancy, and succeed in bringing about a deformation of the skull almost as remarkable in its way as is the effect of Chinese cramping upon the foot. These people also take pains to reduce the small quantity of hair upon their eyebrows, lips, and chin, by plucking it out.

_Joints of the Metatarsus with the Tarsus._

I will briefly draw your attention to one other point in the anatomy of the foot; and that is, the mode in which the “metatarsal” bones are jointed with the “tarsal.” If you take hold of the ends of the metatarsal bones--in other words the “balls”--of the great toe and of the two toes next to it, in your own foot, you will find that you can move them scarcely at all; they are firmly set upon the rest of the foot, almost as though they formed one piece with it. If you then try the end of the metatarsal bone of the fourth toe you will be able to move it a little upwards and downwards; and in the case of the little toe the movement is still more distinct. This difference depends upon the mode of construction of the joints of the metatarsal bones with the tarsal, which is easily understood by the aid of the accompanying drawings, representing sections, from above downwards, through these joints. In 21, 22, and 23, which are the tarso-metatarsal joints of the great toe and the two next it, the opposed surfaces of the bones between _c_, _c_, are quite flat, so that the only movement that can take place is a slight sliding of one bone upon the other, just enough to assist in breaking the jar, but not enough to interfere with the firm basis of support which these toes are required to afford to the plantar arch in consequence of the great stress of the weight in walking being borne upon this side of the foot. In No. 24, which is the joint of the ring toe, and still more in No. 25, which is the joint of the little toe, the end of the metatarsal bone (A) is rounded and is received into a corresponding concavity or cup in the tarsal bone (B). This allows a slight revolving of one bone upon the other to take place, and permits the movement which you discover when you grasp the balls of these two toes between your fingers. The outer part of the foot needs not to be so strong and firm as the inner part, because it does not lie so nearly in the plane of gravity during walking; and the provision just described, which permits some movement in the outer two metatarsals, enables the balls of the toes to adapt themselves to inequalities on the ground, and to share more equally, under various circumstances, the weight which is thrown upon them.

_Standing and Stooping._

When we STAND straight upright (fig. 26) the centre of gravity of the head is directly over a point midway between the two ankles; and the plane of gravity, represented by the vertical line in the figure, descends, from the head, through the spine, pelvis, and lower limbs, to the key-bone of the instep. And you observe that, between the head and the ankle, the skeleton is not quite straight, but is arranged in six curves, which are, alternately, in front of and behind the line of gravity. Of these curves the upper three are in the spine. They are well marked; the uppermost (_a_) is in the neck and is directed forwards; the next (_b_) is in the back and is directed backwards; the third (_c_) is in the loins and is directed forwards. The fourth curve (_d_), less distinct than those above it, is in the pelvis and is directed backwards. The fifth and sixth curves are very slight; the fifth (_e_), directed forwards, is at the hip-joint; and the sixth, (_f_), directed backwards, is at the knee. The last two curves, though slight, are not unimportant; and they contribute very much to our comfort and to prevent fatigue when we are standing: they do so in the following way. The strong ligaments of the hip are placed towards the _fore_ part of the joint, that is, in _front_ of the line of gravity; and the strong ligaments of the knee are placed towards the _back_ part of the joint, that is, _behind_ the line of gravity. It follows that when these joints are fully extended they are “locked,” as it is termed, just as is a hinge when opened to a little beyond the straight line; and, by this means, the muscles are set at rest, and we are able to maintain the erect posture, for some time, steadily and without fatigue.

When standing upright in this way, at rest on both legs, or on one leg in the military position of “at ease,” and the muscles are off their guard, if a sudden and unexpected, though slight, pressure be made upon the ham, so as to bend the knee a little and throw the joint in front of the line of gravity, the man will drop, unless the muscles come quickly to the rescue--a tendency which has not escaped the observation of school-boys.

In BENDING or BOWING (fig. 27) the head is carried forwards; and, to maintain the balance, the opposite pole of the trunk is carried backwards, so as to preserve the line of gravity still over the ankles.

In STOOPING (fig. 28) or SQUATTING (fig. 29), as in picking up any thing from the ground, the lower limbs and the trunk are bent in a zigzag manner; the heels are raised; and the plane of gravity falls, in front of the ankles, over the balls of the toes. Now we recognise one of the advantages which accrues to man from the great length of his thigh. For the head and upper part of the trunk are advanced so far in _front_ of the feet, that it would be impossible to maintain a balance at all, even upon the balls of the toes, and we should necessarily fall forwards, were it not that, owing to the length of the thigh, the lower part of the trunk is carried backwards to a plane _behind_ the heels, and so serves to maintain the equilibrium.

_Walking._

Let us next consider the part which the foot performs in WALKING. To understand this it is necessary to consider its positions and movements in the several stages of a step. When first placed upon the ground the foot (R, fig. 30) is a little in advance of the body; and the heel comes first (fig. 33) into contact with the ground. The toes quickly follow; and the body, then, passes, vertically, over, the ankle and the key-bone of the instep. The foot (R, fig. 31 and fig. 34) now rests steadily upon the heel and the balls of the toes; the other foot (L) leaves the ground, so that the whole weight is borne by one foot; and the plantar arch of that foot expands a little, so as to cause slight lengthening of the foot, under the weight that is laid upon it. Much yielding of the arch is, however, prevented by the ligaments that brace the arch (fig. 7), and by the muscles that are disposed beneath it. Next, the heel (fig. 35) is raised by the action of the calf muscle, and the weight of the body is thrown forwards, over the balls of the toes, while the other foot (L, fig. 32) is carried onwards, and is placed upon the ground ready to receive the weight and commence its carrying work. When this has been done the foot is withdrawn from the ground; and, in the withdrawal, a final impulse onward is given, so as to throw the weight of the body fairly over to the other foot. The fore part of the foot is then raised, and the knee is bent a little. By these means the toes are kept clear of the ground, while the foot is swung forward, beside the other, so as to be ready again to rest upon the ground and bear the weight of the body.

In each complete step, therefore, there is a period during which the foot rests upon the ground, and a period in which it is swinging in the air. In walking the former period is considerably longer than the latter; and at the commencement, and at the end, of that period (figs. 30 and 32) the other foot is also upon the ground, so that it is only during the middle of the time (fig. 31) in which the foot rests upon the ground that it has to bear the whole weight of the body.

_Running._

In RUNNING the process is much the same as in walking. The chief difference is that, whereas in walking _both_ feet are never _off_ the ground at the same time, and both are _upon_ the ground at the beginning and end of each step; in running _both_ feet are never _on_ the ground at the same time, and both are _off_ the ground, and the body is flying unsupported through the air, at the beginning and end of each step (figs. 36 and 38). Thus, you may always distinguish running, though it be ever so slow, from walking, because, in the latter, the two feet are upon the ground at the same time; while, in the former, only one foot touches the ground at a time.

The period during which the body rests upon the ground in running is comparatively very short, being merely the time when one foot is set down in the middle of each step (fig. 37); and great force has, consequently, to be exerted to propel the body through the air during the whole remainder of the step. Hence the exertion of running is much greater than that of walking. In slow running the same parts of the foot are applied upon the ground as in walking, and in the same order; but in quick running the balls of the toes only touch the ground. The quicker we run the shorter, relatively to the rest of the step, is the time during which the foot rests upon the ground, and the greater, consequently, is the effort.

After the foot leaves the ground, in running, it is thrown up behind; and, at the same time, the fore part of the sole and the toes are turned a little obliquely _in_wards, so as to prevent their catching against adjacent objects. If the toes were turned _out_, when thrown up behind, it would present a very awkward appearance, and we should frequently be tripped up by their coming in contact with substances near which we pass. While the foot is being swung forwards the toes are gradually turned a little the other way. Thus, by the time they pass the other leg the toes have lost the inclination inwards, and are directed straight _for_wards; and when the foot has reached a point in advance of the other leg, and the sole is preparing to present itself to the ground, the toes are turned a little _out_wards. This turning of the foot _in_wards and _out_wards during its movement _back_wards and _for_wards, in each step, is a graceful movement, and may be compared to the “feathering” of an oar. It takes place, also, in walking, but is less marked than in running; and in many persons it can scarcely be discerned during walking.

The distinction between the paces of other animals resembles that between the walking and the running of man, and is equally definite. Take, for instance, the WALKING, TROTTING, and GALLOPING of the Horse. In WALKING the fore and the hind limbs of the _same_ side are moved together, or nearly together, but they do not leave the ground till the limbs of the opposite side are placed upon it; so that at one period all four limbs are upon the ground together. In TROTTING the fore and the hind limbs of _opposite_ sides move together; but, as in walking, neither of them are withdrawn from the ground till the opposite one has reached it[4].

[4] In WALKING the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of the same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of the opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three feet on the ground, at another two, but never less than two.

In TROTTING, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at the same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders it difficult to make out the sequence of the movements.

In GALLOPING, or CANTERING, the horse springs or bounds with all four limbs at the same time; all the feet are thrown up nearly together; all are off the ground together; and all reach the ground again nearly at the same time ready for another spring. I say that the feet are all thrown up _nearly_, and not _quite_, together, because the fore and the hind limbs of one side take the precedence a little of the others, or “lead,” as it is called. The trained horse is taught to lead, habitually, with one, usually the right, side, because the motion is more steady when the horse is accustomed to gallop in one way than if he be allowed to vary it. Directly the horse begins to gallop, the rider knows, by the motion, whether he is leading with the proper leg. In some animals, as the DEER, the two fore and the two hind feet move together exactly in galloping. Anthony Trollope tells us that in Panama, Cuba, and other Spanish countries in the West, the horses are “taught to pace, that is, move with the two off legs together, and then with the two near legs. The motion is exceedingly gentle, and well fitted for those hot climates, in which the rougher work of trotting would be almost too much for the energies of debilitated mankind.” This _pacing_ is probably only a quick walk.

When we walk the heels follow one another nearly in a straight line, as is shewn by “walking a chalk,” or more readily by walking along the line between the curb and the flagstone pavement; and the plane of gravity of the body corresponds with this line. There ought, therefore, to be no perceptible _swerving_ of the trunk from side to side in walking. There should, also, be scarcely any _rising_ or _falling_; inasmuch as there are provisions in the mode of bending the limbs (which I cannot here discuss) to prevent the body from being moved up and down during the step. The head and shoulders should be carried along nearly in a straight line. If it were otherwise, if they were moved in a zigzag or undulating manner, from right to left, or up and down, the space traversed in a given distance would be much increased, and there would be a proportionately greater expenditure of muscular force. By a beautiful combination of movements this is prevented, and a rectilinear course is maintained, while the weight of the body is transferred from foot to foot, in a succession of steps.

Only observe a good walker for a minute or two, and you will see how straight the head is carried along; and when your eye falls upon a person who “rolls in his walk” you perceive how ungainly are his movements, and you have an instinctive feeling that he is an awkward fellow. Whether you are disposed to make an exception in favour of the British tar, in consequence of his many other good qualities, I must leave you to judge. His peculiar gait on shore is probably due to his not being sufficiently practised in straight walking to counteract the effect of the lounging manner and general disregard for appearances which he acquires on board ship. Whatever the reason may be, though he has the better of us in a storm at sea, he certainly does not always appear to advantage on _terra firma_. Now that a general improvement in gait and step may be expected among landsmen, as a result of the volunteer movement, it becomes still more desirable that the sailor should participate in the good influences of the drill.

Although the heels follow one another in a line the toes diverge a little from the line, because the foot slants, as I have just said, somewhat _out_wards when it is placed upon the ground. It results from this position of the foot that the weight of the body descends upon it with a slight obliquity, _in_wards as well as forwards; and that is precisely the direction in which the foot is best prepared to receive weight. For, when the foot rests upon the ground in this position all the ligaments on the inner side (and they are very strong) as well as those beneath, are on the stretch; and the joints, with the exception of the ankle-joint, are as it were locked, so as to afford a secure, steady basis of support to the leg. When the weight of the body descends upon the foot in the direction mentioned a sprain rarely occurs. It is when the weight falls in the opposite direction, that is, more or less obliquely _out_wards, and throws the ankle out, that a sprain easily happens. Thus a slight inequality of the ground, or any other cause that tilts up the inner edge of the foot, is likely to lead to a sprain, especially when we are going down hill or down steps.

Here let me remark that a SPRAIN is the result of a stretching of some ligament, or other part, caused by an undue force being brought to bear upon it. The ligaments are very strong, and under ordinary circumstances are not very sensitive; and they are capable of offering great resistance to force applied in the direction in which they are calculated to meet it. But, if the force be applied in a direction in which they are not calculated to meet it, they are easily injured, and they become, then, very painful. The same is, also, likely to occur if the force be severe or sudden.

The muscles are a very great assistance to the ligaments, forasmuch as, by placing and retaining the joints in proper positions, they regulate the direction in which forces are brought to bear upon the ligaments. Moreover, by steadying or bracing the joints, they check or break the force and prevent its being suddenly imposed upon the ligaments. And the muscles, by virtue of their contractile property, have the capability of becoming tight in any position of the joint, which is an immense advantage; whereas a ligament having no contractility and, usually, no elasticity, is tight only in one position. The office of a ligament is to limit the movement of a joint in a particular direction; and, till the joint has assumed a certain position--till it is bent or straightened to a certain angle--the ligament does not come into play. During the bending or straightening of a limb the muscles regulate the movement, and bring it to a stop or check it before it has gone to its full extent; and, thus, the ligament is relieved from that sudden imposition of force which would result if it were required to check the movement of a joint in its full swing.

Accordingly, when the muscles are prepared and in proper action, that is, when they place the joint in a suitable position and duly support or brace it, a sprain very rarely occurs. It is when the muscles are unprepared, when we make a false step, or when the foot encounters an unexpected obstacle, and the weight falls suddenly upon the ligaments in an unfavourable direction, that a sprain occurs. A man jumps from a considerable height, or descends deep steps with a heavy weight upon his back, and no harm results; but he slips off the curb-stone, or treads unwarily upon a piece of orange-peel, or turns his foot hastily, to avoid some object on the ground, and sprains his ankle.

In order that they may do their work well, be alert, and maintain good guard, the muscles need to be kept in practice. A person unaccustomed to throw a ball is very liable to sprain his elbow with the sudden jerk which is required for that feat; or if a person takes to tumbling and jumping, without proper training, he will probably suffer for his temerity. Again, common experience tells us that a joint which has been sprained is, for a long time, liable to be sprained again. This is because the part remains tender as well as weak; and the muscles do not brace it steadily and firmly, or come nimbly to its aid when it is in danger.

In consequence of the foot, in walking, being placed upon the ground with the toes slanting a little outwards, the _out_er and hinder edge of the heel first touches the ground. Hence this part of the heel of the shoe is usually worn down before the remainder. The ball of the little toe next comes to the ground, and the balls of the other toes follow in quick succession; and it is from the great toe--that is, from the inner side of the foot--that the last impulse is given to propel the body, forwards, over the other foot. In order to give full effect to this final impulse an especial muscle, the “Long Fibular” muscle (I in fig. 13), is provided. The tendon (i) of this muscle passes, behind the outer ankle, beneath the sole of the foot, to the great toe. It has the effect of pressing the ball of the great toe upon the ground, while it raises the outer ankle, and so contributes to throw the weight, across, in the direction of the other foot.

Thus the foot revolves upon the ground, from the heel to the balls of the toes, and from the outer edge of the former to the inner edge of the latter; and during the revolution, which has been compared, though the comparison fails in many points, to the revolving of the segment of a wheel, the ankle is raised and advanced forwards.

On the complete and steady execution of this movement good walking chiefly depends, more particularly upon the full performance of the last stage of the process, viz. the rising fairly upon the balls of the toes and delivering the weight steadily over to the other foot. This is the most difficult part of the process, the whole weight of the body during its execution being borne upon the fore part of the foot, that is, upon the longer pillar of the plantar arch; forasmuch as the heel is being raised and the other foot is off the ground. For the good performance of this part of the process, all the features of the well-made foot are essential. There must be a high and firm plantar arch, a heel set at a proper angle, and a strong great toe running straight forwards. There must be also a fully developed calf to set the machinery well in motion.

If the plantar arch be low it cannot bear the strain attendant upon this movement; and the person, in consequence, shirks the full performance of it. He does that by turning the toes too much out; and, then, he contrives to roll over the inner side of the foot, instead of rising upon the balls of the toes; and so he gets along with short, shuffling, feeble steps. How many persons, owing to one cause or other, hobble in this way! Some turn the toes very much in, and rise over the ball of the little toe, instead of over the great toe. This is done with comparative ease, because the ball of the little toe is nearer to the ankle; but the step is, thereby, shortened, as well as rendered less firm and less graceful.

The revolving movement of the foot, or the bringing of its several parts into contact with the ground in succession, in a distinct manner, is peculiar to man. Many animals do not bear upon the heel at all; they only tread upon the toes, and are, therefore, called DIGITIGRADE. Some, indeed, bear only upon the tips of the toes, as the Horse (fig. 5, p. 15). Others go upon the balls of the toes, as the Cat, the Hare, the Pig, and the Dog. Some animals bear upon the heels as well as the toes, and are called PLANTIGRADE, as the Bear, the Badger, and the Monkey; but these all flop the sole upon the ground in its whole length at once. The foot in them is not sufficiently compact and strong to bear the weight of the body first upon one part then upon another; and they, consequently, walk in an ungainly manner, as compared with man.

_Character evinced by manner of Walking._