Part 1

Transcriber’s Notes:

Italic text is marked _thus_.

Bold text is marked =thus=.

The spelling, punctuation and hyphenation are as the original, except for apparent typographical errors, which have been corrected.

_WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL TM 11-410_

_This manual supersedes TM 11—410, 10 September 1940_

THE HOMING PIGEON

_WAR DEPARTMENT • JANUARY 1945_

_DISSEMINATION OF RESTRICTED MATTER._

The information contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 23b, AR 380-5, 15 Mar 44.)

_U. S. Government Printing Office Washington: 1945_

WAR DEPARTMENT Washington 25, D. C., 1 January 1945

TM 11-410, The Homing Pigeon, is published for the information and guidance of all concerned.

[AG 300.7 (6 Nov 44)]

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR:

OFFICIAL: G. C. MARSHALL J. A. ULIO _Chief of Staff_ _Major General_ _The Adjutant General_

DISTRIBUTION:

AAF (10); AGF (10); ASF (10); Arm & Sv Bd (2); Dept (10); Tech Sv (2); Sv C (10); PC & S (1); Gen & Sp Sv Sch (10); USMA (1); ROTC (1); ROTC, Lib (1); A(10); CHQ (10); D(2); Bn(1); Bn 11(2); C 11(5); T/O & E 11-39 (50)

For explanation of symbols, see FM 21-6.

CONTENTS ★★

_Paragraph_ _Page_

SECTION I. GENERAL

Purpose 1 1 Methods 2 1 Origin and history 3 1 Nature 4 1 Utility 5 2

II. DESCRIPTION

General appearance 6 3 Weight 7 3 Plumage 8 3 Head 9 3 Neck 10 3 Body 11 3 Respiratory channels 12 5 Digestive organs 13 6 Bloom or milt 14 6 Molt 15 8 Varieties of feathers 16 9

III. CARE

Loft 17 11 Preparation of loft to receive pigeons 18 11 Receipt of pigeons at loft 19 11 Watering 20 14 Feeding 21 15 Pigeon feed 22 16 Bathing 23 25 Catching and handling 24 25

IV. LOFT MANAGEMENT AND RECORDS

Routine 25 28 Classification of pigeon colors 26 28 Records and reports 27 29 Banding 28 37 Loft equipment 29 39 Message holders 30 42

V. TRAINING

Responsibility for training 31 45 Qualifications for pigeoneers 32 45 Introduction to pigeon training 33 46 Settling pigeons 34 46 Training for messenger service 35 50 Delivering pigeons by parachute 36 58

VI. MATING AND BREEDING

Mating 37 62 Sex 38 62 Selection of stock 39 62 Line breeding 40 64 Nests 41 64 Control of breeding 42 64 Laying 43 65 Hatching and feeding 44 65 Identification 45 65 Culling 46 65

VII. DISEASES AND MEDICINES

General 47 67 Prevention of disease 48 67 Control of disease 49 67 Anatomy and physiology 50 68 Indications of sickness 51 69 Diseases 52 69 External parasites 53 73 Internal parasites 54 77 Treatment of injuries 55 81 Medicines 56 82

_This manual supersedes TM 11-140, 10 September 1940_

SECTION I

GENERAL

1. Purpose

This manual provides instructions for proper breeding, care, and training of the homing pigeon, and for the selection and training of enlisted pigeoneers. With certain modifications this information can be used by all pigeon units serving field forces, both in theaters of operations and in the zone of the interior. Instructions in FM 24-5 for units using the homing pigeon in communication have not been repeated. The mission, function, and operation of a signal pigeon company and the tactical employment of pigeons are described in FM 11-80.

2. Methods

The methods prescribed in this manual are based upon experience. Accordingly, if any new procedures are found by experience to improve pigeon communication they should be submitted to the Chief Signal Officer for consideration.

3. Origin and History

The homing pigeon used by the Army for signal communication (referred to in this manual as “pigeon,” “homing pigeon,” and “bird”) is a distinct variety created through careful cross-breeding to obtain maximum distance and speed in controlled and directed flight. Homing pigeons are grouped in families or strains usually identified by the names of the civilian pigeon fanciers who bred them for many generations to develop certain characteristics of performance and appearance. When the several varieties of pigeons used to breed the modern homing pigeon actually originated is not certain. It is known, however, that the following varieties existed in England and Belgium before the nineteenth century, although the exact percentage and order of their blend have not been determined: Smerle, Horseman, Cumulet, Dragoon, Carrier, and Owl.

4. Nature

The principle of using homing pigeons as messengers is based on their instinctive attempt to return to their home lofts whenever they are removed some distance and released. They will do this even with an attached message or other light article. This desire to return is largely based on natural urges of hunger and reproduction. Because the pigeon has only one mate the reproductive urge is often the stronger. These impulses can be stimulated by _controlled_ feeding, mating, and breeding without harming the pigeon’s health.

5. Utility

The pigeon’s usefulness to the Army is measured by the reliability and speed with which it returns to its loft. Speed and reliability are largely determined by the pigeon’s strain, physical condition, training, and treatment. Therefore any lowering of standards for these factors will be a serious handicap. Further handicaps are discussed in _e_ below. Section V sets minimum ability standards for properly-trained, well-bred, healthy birds to be used by combat units as message carriers.

_a._ BREEDING. Since physical characteristics and homing instinct are usually inherited from the parents, records are maintained for each pigeon. Then pairs are selected, mated, and allowed to produce young birds on the basis of these records, plus other desirable attributes described in section VI.

_b._ CONDITION. The physical condition of a pigeon greatly affects its performance. Therefore, study physical characteristics of pigeons and enforce procedures prescribed in sections III and VII for feeding, watering, and maintaining proper physical condition.

_c._ TRAINING. Training of the pigeon begins at an early age, and is progressive and constant. The object is to settle the pigeon in its home loft in order to develop reliability and speed as described in section V.

_d._ TREATMENT. The pigeon is highly sensitive and responsive to kindness, firmness, reward for good performance, and calmness of personnel handling it. Make the loft as attractive as possible because the pigeon prizes its home.

_e._ HANDICAPS. Bad weather, darkness, and injury, as well as inadequacies in breeding, conditioning, and training, reduce efficiency of pigeons (see par. 9_c_).

(1) _Bad weather._ This includes snow, fog, rain, and adverse winds, or any other conditions which reduce visibility or oppose the flight of the pigeon. Generally, flights may be predicted according to certain atmospheric conditions as follows:

_Conditions_ _Results_

Blue sky, high ceiling with white Very fast speed. fleecy clouds, and low humidity.

Solid grey or bluish grey sky with Very slow speed, losses may low ceiling, no clouds, and high occur. humidity.

(2) _Darkness._ Pigeons never lose their initial fear of flying at night, but it is possible to train them to overcome this fear to a great extent. Their natural instinct and intelligence will come to their aid. Night operation, however, is considered impracticable for the Army pigeons because of the highly mobile tactics of modern warfare.

(3) _Injury._ Injuries are commonly caused by improper handling, predatory birds (such as hawks), enemy shellfire, or obstacles pigeons strike in flight. Protect pigeons by destroying all hawks in the vicinity of the lofts with shotguns provided for that purpose. Select safe locations for releasing pigeons. Minor injuries rarely prevent a homing pigeon from returning to its loft as long as they do not hamper it from determining the proper course of flight. When vitally injured, the pigeon will continue its return flight until physically exhausted. Any injury which permanently impairs the eyes or wings of a pigeon makes it unsuitable for any employment except breeding.

SECTION II

DESCRIPTION

6. General Appearance

Pigeons must look healthy, well-balanced, alert, intelligent, and showing abundance of rich feathers and sheen. Figure 1 shows the main parts of the homing pigeon (the right wing is extended for ease of description).

7. Weight

A cock weighs from 14 to 17 ounces; a hen, from 13 to 16 ounces.

8. Plumage

Rich, abundant, and soft plumage should cover the entire body. The color itself is of no importance, but rich shades, with the checkered pattern (if present) standing out brightly and distinctly, usually indicate good health and satisfactory condition. For classification of pigeons according to color see paragraph 26.

9. Head

The head should be of a medium size, round or oval shaped, of broad structure and strongly set. It should not be tight or drawn at any one place.

_a._ BILL. The bill should be of medium length with small to medium wattles and set well into the head. No openings should be noticeable when the bill is closed.

_b._ EYE. See section VI.

_c._ EAR. The ear seems to play an important part in the bird’s sense of direction. It includes three parts: external ear, middle ear, and inner ear. At the top of the inner ear there are three semicircular canals which appear to be the nerve conductors of orientation. Although no one knows just what helps homing pigeons find their loft, it is possible that the great sensitiveness of their ears enables them to receive magnetic and atmospheric impression, and thereby to determine direction either at departure or during flight. This theory is based on the fact that atmospheric disturbances often cause the bird temporarily to lose its way.

10. Neck

The neck is of medium length, with no sign of dewlap at the throat. It tapers to a wide, well-sprung chest.

11. Body

_a._ BREAST. The breast (or chest) is broad and full in front; depth of breastbone should not exceed the width.

_b._ SHOULDERS. The shoulders are heavy and strongly reinforced with muscles.

_c._ BACK. The back is well-feathered, strong, flat and broad at the shoulders, narrowing toward the rump.

_d._ KEEL. The keel is strong, arched in front, and of medium length and depth. Width of keel denotes strength.

_e._ ABDOMEN. The abdomen is reduced to the smallest proportions.

_f._ WINGS. The wings must be medium-sized, strong, well-proportioned, and rounded at the butt, with plenty of muscle. Primary flights should be of a good width, with plenty of overlapping space and a pronounced curvature towards the body. See _i_ below. Secondary feathers should also be long and wide to provide a good covering for the entire back. Covert feathers should be sturdy and abundant, because they supply additional wing strength, as well as protect pigeons against adverse weather.

_g._ PELVIC BONES. The pelvic bones (or vent bones) are very firm, close together over the vent, and extend toward the keel on each side of the vent. These bones form a body girdle by which the legs are joined to the body.

_h._ RUMP. The rump is wide and continues the line of the back. It is well covered on all sides with fine, soft feathers.

_i._ TAIL FEATHERS. The tail feathers, 12 in number, are short, wide, overlapping, and do not extend farther than 3/4 inch beyond the wing tips.

_j._ LEGS. The legs are of medium length and well muscled. Thighs are chubby. Lower leg is red and stout, and toes are short with firm nails.

=12. Respiratory Channels= (fig. 2)

Respiratory channels are highly developed, enabling the pigeon to fly continuously from 12 to 15 hours. Air circulates through the bronchial tubes and lungs and also through nine air sacs, from which other small, irregular cavities extend under the skin between the muscles, and even into the inside of the bones. These small air sacs contain a reserve of warm air which feeds the lungs during flight when the muscular apparatus consumes a large amount of oxygen. They inflate and collapse alternately, acting as a lift and force pump which renews air in the lungs.

13. Digestive Organs

Digestive organs of the pigeon are shown in figure 3 (for functions see par. 50_b_).

14. Bloom or Milt

This white, chalky powder is one of the means provided by nature to protect feathers against moisture during flight. When the pigeon bathes, the bloom is deposited in the form of a white scum on the top of the water. If a bird is caught and held closely, the bloom rubs off, leaving a white substance on the clothes. Absence of bloom is a symptom of poor health.

15. Molt

Molting is nature’s way of shedding feathers and furnishing new ones for the entire body. Thus, feathers lost or injured the preceding year are replenished, and a perfect coat is insured for the coming year. An imperfect molt indicates an unhealthy condition which will reduce the pigeon’s efficiency and result in the breeding of inferior offspring.

_a._ TIME OF MOLT. Every pigeon should molt once a year. Mated pigeons start molting approximately 1 week after the second set of eggs has been laid in the new season. Unmated old pigeons ordinarily begin molting in May or June. The time young birds molt depends primarily on the date of hatch. Those hatched during the early part of July begin with head and neck feathers very soon after leaving the nest, and later during the year partially molt all feathers. The process is completed the following summer. Various influences hasten or retard molting. For example, exceptionally warm weather may hasten it. Poor health retards and may prevent a complete molt. Early breeding ordinarily hastens the process, while late breeding tends to delay it.

_b._ ORDER OF MOLT. Feathers are shed in the following order (see par. 16 and fig. 1):

(1) Primary flight No. _1_ is shed first, and new feathers begin to grow in its place.

(2) As soon as new feathers are one-half to three-quarters grown, remaining primary flights are shed in numerical order.

(3) When flights Nos. _5_ or _6_ have been shed, molt spreads to neck and shoulders.

(4) By the time flights Nos. _6_ or _7_ have been shed, the tail-molt begins with feathers No. _2_ (fig. 8), then continues in the following numerical order: _1_, _3_, _4_, _6_, and _5_.

(5) When the last flights have been shed, the molt is practically complete, except for a few fine body feathers.

_c. Care during molt._ The molt is a great physical drain on pigeons; therefore, if practicable, hard flying and breeding activities should be temporarily abandoned during this period. Exercise flights should be only as long as is necessary for the pigeon’s health. When weather permits, the birds should be allowed to bathe regularly, because this will soften the skin and help feathers drop. The only sure method of correcting an unsatisfactory molt is to restore the pigeon to a healthy, vigorous physical condition. No attempt should be made to aid the molt by plucking the next feathers in order, as in all probability the new feathers will be inferior, or may not even appear. The substance which creates new feathers is lacking in the sockets for about 2 months after the molt is completed. During the molting period, it is especially necessary that birds be fed rich, oily, easily digested food such as grain (hemp, canary, flax or linseed) and greens. This food will keep weight up to normal and insure a good growth of feathers.

16. Varieties of Feathers

Feathers grow in definite areas on the body. These feathered areas or strips are known as pterylae. Bare spaces in between are called apterylae. Feathers are divided into four types: contour feathers, hair feathers, fluff feathers, and down feathers.

_a._ CONTOUR FEATHERS. Contour feathers are large feathers covering the pigeon’s body. When the bird is not in flight or excited, they lie close to its body, normally overlapping and presenting a smooth outer surface. The larger ones are the flight and tail feathers. The average pigeon has 12 main tail feathers; on each wing there are 10 primary flights and 12 secondary flights. The bases of these large feathers are covered by shorter feathers called coverts. These give a rounded, smooth, and continuous line to the body.

The main tail feathers act as a rudder in flight, controlling the bird’s direction. Flying is possible because every flight feather overlaps, presenting a solid surface on the downbeat of the wing. Besides, flight feathers provide lift and pull for the bird’s propulsion. On the upbeat of the wing, the large flight feathers rotate in such a manner as to cut through the air with little resistance, and at the same time to permit escape of air.

The general structure of a contour feather can be best observed in a primary flight from the wing or a large rectrix from the tail. The stiff, hollow, cylindrical portion emerging from the skin is called the quill. The bare quill proper extends only to the webbed portion of the feather. It has a small hole (inferior umbilicus) at the end, penetrating the skin. Nourishment for the feather passes through this opening. The expanded portion of the feather, from the tip to the quill, is known as the vane. The central portion of the vane, which is called the shaft, is solid. Extending laterally from the shaft is a web or webbing composed of barbs or rays. These rays are blade-like in structure. The web of most feathers is generally wider on one side of the shaft than on the other. The barbs are connected by a series of cross structures called barbules which can be seen only with the aid of magnifying lens. To see the barbs, however, apply a slight tension on the webbing of the feather, causing it to spread apart. The invisible barbules will split if too much tension is applied. Barbs can be repaired so that little or no evidence of the split can be detected, by stroking the feather between the index finger and thumb. Pigeons repair a split in the barb by squeezing oil from the oil duct with their beak, and then spreading it on the injured feather.

Feather textures vary greatly with the breed of the bird and the part of the body from which they grow. When selecting homing pigeons, try to select those with strong, firm feathers.

_b._ HAIR FEATHERS. Also known as filoplumes, hair feathers are hair-like structures interspersed among the regular body feathers. They are so fine that they are usually overlooked.

_c._ FLUFF FEATHERS. Sometimes called semiplumes, fluff feathers are soft and fluffy because of the absence of a rigid feather shaft and barbules in their web. The barbs are also long, soft, and fluffy, and present a downy appearance. Fluff feathers grow only on certain parts of the body.

_d._ DOWN FEATHERS. Down feathers are the soft, hairy, yellow feathers on young pigeons. They are extremely fine, almost filamentous in structure. These feathers drop off all through the period of the young bird’s growth; a few, however, may remain after complete feathering has taken place.

SECTION III

CARE

17. Loft

Pigeons are housed in lofts which may be buildings or vehicles designed and equipped for that purpose. The loft includes all the equipment, accessories and utilities necessary for the care of pigeons (figs. 6, 7, and 8). Perches are placed on the sides of loft walls. When a pigeon is “settled” to a loft, that loft becomes its home.

_a._ An _aviary_ is the part of the loft where pigeons can be given sunlight. It is usually built with wire netting on the sides and roof.

_b._ The _trap_ is a specially constructed opening which permits the pigeon to enter but not to leave the loft. When a pigeon enters the loft this way, it is said to have “trapped.” A trap which permits the pigeon to enter and leave at will is called an “open trap.” A landing board is placed in front of the trap upon which pigeons alight when about to enter the loft.

_c._ A _settling cage_ of wire which is built to fit over the roof and landing board of the loft, is used to aid in settling and training pigeons to trap.

18. Preparation of Loft to Receive Pigeons

The first step in preparing to receive a shipment of pigeons is to arrange for their housing. If it is the initial stock for a loft, the entire loft will be available. In the case of subsequent shipment, place new stock in a separate compartment for a period of observation. In order to anticipate arrival of birds, maintain contact with the agency making delivery. Then proceed as follows:

_a._ Clean the loft.

_b._ In good weather keep front of the loft open so that plenty of sunlight and air can enter.

_c._ To keep drafts out during extreme cold and windy weather, cover openings of the loft with porous materials which will allow passage of air and will not interfere with the camouflage appearance.