Volume I.

Number 9.

PHILADELPHIA, MAY, 1910.

$1.00 a year 15 cents a copy

Freshman History Course at Yale

BY EDWARD L. DURFEE.

The scope and character of the elementary history course at Yale[1] is determined by a twofold necessity: first, that of giving a general survey of the main facts of historical development from the fall of the Roman Empire to modern times which shall be valuable in itself and profitable to the student, even though he were to pursue his historical studies no further; and second, that of providing a course which will fit into the general scheme of the history curriculum, and serve as an introduction to the more advanced courses which follow it. According to the present arrangement, the fields of English and American History are reserved for succeeding years, and as a result, the Freshman course is limited to the study of Continental European History, from 375 A.D. to 1870 or thereabouts.

Although I follow current local usage in speaking of this course as “Freshman History,” the name is not strictly appropriate; it is open to Sophomores, and even to upper classmen under certain limitations and restrictions. The name by which it is known in the catalogue, History A 1, better expresses the fact that it is the introductory course which is a necessary preliminary to all the other history work. As a matter of fact, the popular name is not seriously in error, for over four-fifths of the students pursuing it are Freshmen.

The amount of time allotted to the study of the different epochs is pretty evenly distributed. Beginning with a summary view of the Roman Empire and an analysis of the causes of its decline, the work of the first twelve weeks covers rather thoroughly the history of the Middle Ages to 1250 A.D.; the Renaissance, Reformation, and Religious Wars occupy the next third of the year; and the spring term has to suffice for the period from Louis XIV to the Congress of Vienna. At that point, the course practically ends, for the events of the nineteenth century are sketched very briefly, partly because time is lacking, but more particularly for the reason that a later and more advanced course treats that period in detail.

Experience has convinced the instructors that any course, particularly an introductory one, which deals in specious generalizations and vague trends of development to the exclusion of a thorough drill in concrete facts will, of necessity, be a failure; and so the methods of instruction are designed, first of all, to secure an accurate knowledge of events,--to make the student master the fundamental data upon which any real comprehension of a great movement as a whole must be based. Of course, this is equivalent to saying that we do not consider the lecture method adapted to the immaturity of first year students,--even the mixture of lecture and quiz recitations seems to offer too many temptations to irregularity and slovenliness. Consequently, each of our three exercises per week is devoted to a thorough test of the student’s industry by oral questioning and, at frequent intervals, by short written papers. The fact that the class is divided into small divisions, averaging only twenty men in each, makes the desired end comparatively easy of attainment.

In the matter of text-books, three or four are used, chosen for their supplementary excellencies, and with the additional object in view of developing in the student an elementary power of comparison and synthesis,--an ability to select facts from different sources and mould them into some sort of orderly cohesion for presentation in the recitation. The proof that he has done this is sought, not only in the recitation, but by inspection of his note-book, in which he is required to keep a condensed but carefully arranged digest of the facts gleaned from the various books.

As regards original sources, an experience lasting for a period of six years has forced upon the unwilling minds of the instructors the conviction that contemporary material, as a part of the required reading, cannot be used to advantage in a general course, so broad in scope as the one we are considering. The experiment was a thorough one and long continued,--in fact, the feeling that we _ought_ to find a profitable method of using sources lingered long after the proof had been forced upon us that we could not, and it has produced no change in the general opinion that such work is of the utmost value where time is available to pursue it properly. But in this particular instance, that was precisely what we could not do, at least not without entirely changing the character of the course and modifying its relation to the rest of the curriculum. Source collections are therefore no longer among the required text-books, but are relegated to the domain of collateral reading.

Unity and cohesion among the different instructors and the various text-books is obtained by the use of a syllabus, blocked off into lessons, each containing in addition to an outline and the necessary assignments in the text-books, further references for reading in the larger standard histories and biographies. Nor is historical geography neglected, for each student must fill in with colors the successive maps of an outline atlas.

Casual mention of collateral reading has already been made, but there now remains to be described the method by which it is enforced and directed,--a method which, I think, is unique and which, judged by its results, would seem to be the most valuable feature of the course. In the fall term, which is by far the hardest, owing to the Freshman’s unfamiliarity with college methods of work and the difficult character of the text-books used, little is done in this direction other than to introduce him to the library, to point out to him the section in which the books are to be found that are especially reserved for this course, and to require him to do a fair amount of collateral reading upon some specific subject, a clear outline of which he must insert in his note book. But in the winter and spring terms a much more systematic and thorough drill is undertaken, a brief description of which follows:

Some time in January or February a topic is assigned to each student, comparatively restricted in its scope, chosen from the field of medieval history up to and including the Renaissance. Within two or three days, at a definitely appointed time, he meets his instructor in a conference lasting from twenty minutes to half an hour, and submits a list of books, magazine articles, essays, etc., which contain material bearing upon his subject. This list is to be as complete as the student can make it, and the first object of the conference is to discover if he has exhausted the possibilities of the library,--to find out whether he knows how to use the various catalogues, the more ordinary aids such as Poole’s Index, the A. L. A. Index to General Literature, etc., and whether he is familiar with the location of the reference shelves and the stacks accessible to him. Satisfied upon these points, the instructor selects from the list presented (and perhaps amended) a number of chapters, articles, or books, as the case may require, from which the student is to extract and collect in the form of notes material for an essay on his particular subject. The remaining portion of the conference period is occupied with describing and explaining to the student just how these notes are to be taken.

The method of note taking is the most important matter in connection with this first piece of work, for here, probably for the first time in his life, the student is introduced to this particular application of the card index and filing system. It is required that each note be taken upon a separate card, that each card shall have a head line appropriate for filing purposes, and that there be an accurate volume and page reference to the book from which each bit of information was taken. Emphasis is also put upon the fact that all the reading should be done and all the notes completed before the essay is begun, and that the essay should be written solely from the notes, without further reference to the books; for experience has shown that this is the best way of proving to the student himself whether his notes have been well or poorly taken.

It may be urged that twenty or thirty minutes will not suffice for thorough instruction in such a variety of matters; it certainly would be impossible if it were not for the fact that the whole process is simplified by providing each student in advance with a pamphlet which, besides explaining briefly all these points, contains also a condensed guide to the library. With the aid of this, the work of the instructor is reduced to the task of ascertaining by well-directed questions just what the student has done, and what he would do if he were confronted with certain problems which are sure to arise. And of course, each man is encouraged to consult the instructor informally at any time in connection with puzzling points that may crop up.

As before, a definite time limit is set for this part of the work, and at a second meeting, both the notes and the essay are handed in; and in addition, directions are at that time given for the construction of a formal bibliography. This differs from the preliminary book list which was submitted at the beginning of the work in the following points: in the first place, each book is to be properly and formally listed on a separate card; secondly, reference must be made on each card, not only to the pages which deal with the student’s particular topic, but to those where further bibliographical lists are to be found; again, he is at this time introduced to and taught to use the principal historical bibliographies, and required to enter on cards those which give lists of books on his subject, with an exact reference to the pages where these lists are to be found, without, however, copying any titles from these lists; and lastly, he must make an elementary classification of all his cards by dividing them into three groups,--bibliographies, sources and secondary works.

In the spring term the process is repeated with each student, certain modifications being introduced, however, which constitute steps in advance and prevent the men from viewing the second piece of work as a monotonous repetition of the first. For instance, the subject is chosen from the modern period; while the notes and essay are done in the same manner, a longer time is allowed, and, on the basis of a sharp criticism of his first theme, much improvement in these respects is expected; and the character of the bibliography is entirely changed.

The primary object of the first bibliography, it will be noticed, was to teach the student how to find _all_ the books on his subject, how to use the library, catalogues, bibliographies, etc. In the case of the second, we endeavor to teach him how to find the _best books_; in other words, we require a selected and critical bibliography, and insist that no book be entered unless its card bears a statement of its comparative value by some recognized authority. To secure such statements the student must, of course, in addition to using the usual bibliographies critically and selectively, search for book reviews in the various reputable magazines, historical and otherwise. As an additional incentive, a prize, named for the Hon. Andrew D. White, is awarded to the author of the best piece of work.

This system was evolved from tentative experiments lasting three years, and has now been in operation, in its present form, for three more; and it seems to be the opinion of competent judges that it is an unqualified success. In the first place, it teaches the student a great deal, not only about particular phases of European history, but more especially about methods of work which will stand him in good stead in all his future courses; and while it demands much of him, the requirements are all so carefully graded and the work so progressive in character that at no time is he overwhelmed by the amount suddenly thrust upon him. And another feature that deserves emphasis is the care taken to prevent each man from slighting any part of the process; during the time he is at work on his two themes he must meet his instructor in no less than five personal consultations which punctuate at carefully chosen times the various stages of the work.

The obvious difficulty that the system demands too much of the instructor is met by the fact that the History Department, as well as the whole Faculty, have shown their appreciation of the results obtained by lightening the ordinary work of teaching to an extent that permits the teacher to carry this extra burden without undue effort.

THE WRITINGS OF WILLIAM PENN.

An interesting announcement has been made by Albert Cook Myers, of Moylan, Pa., concerning a plan for the publication of the complete works of William Penn. It is noteworthy that there is no edition of Penn’s works which is nearly complete. The fullest edition, that of 1726, is difficult to obtain. The later editions of 1771, 1782 and 1823 contain but a small portion of his works. Yet even the first edition contains but twenty per cent. of the works which were published during Penn’s lifetime. Of the eleven hundred known letters of Penn only one hundred and twenty-five have ever been printed. The aim of Mr. Myers is to obtain a guarantee from members of the Society of Friends and others of a fund amounting to $18,000, which will be sufficient to defray the expense incident to making such a collection. A committee of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania has been appointed to co-operate with Mr. Myers in this publication. The committee includes Hon. Samuel W. Pennypacker, William Brooke Rawle, Charlemagne Tower, John Bach McMaster, Isaac Sharpless, William I. Hull, and William Penn-Gaskell Hall. Persons willing to assist in this work either by the contribution of funds or by the loaning of manuscripts are requested to correspond with Mr. Myers.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] This article deals solely with the History A 1 course of the School of Arts or Academical Department, and makes no attempt to describe the course given in the Sheffield Scientific School.

History in the Summer Schools, 1910

EDITOR’S NOTE.--In the April number of the Magazine appeared descriptions of the summer courses in history at University of Arkansas, Cornell University, University of Chicago, University of Illinois, Indiana University, University of Kansas, Ohio University, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State College, Summer School of the South, University of West Virginia, and University of Wisconsin.

University of California.

Berkeley, Cal.

SUMMER SESSION, 1910.

1. EUROPEAN BACKGROUND OF AMERICAN HISTORY. By Professor J. N. Bowman.

2. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. By Professor J. N. Bowman.

3. UNITED STATES HISTORY, 1815-1850. By Professor E. D. Adams.

4. BRITISH OFFICIAL AND PARLIAMENTARY OPINION ON THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. By Professor E. D. Adams.

5. ENGLAND FROM THE REVOLT OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS OF 1909-1910. A study of Organic and Social changes. By Mr. Edward Porritt.

University of Colorado.

SUMMER SCHOOL, 1910.

1. MEDIEVAL INSTITUTIONS. Professor WILLARD.

A detailed study of the organization of certain of the more important medieval institutions. Special emphasis will be placed upon the formation and organization of the medieval church, the monastic orders, feudalism and the Holy Roman Empire. The course is designed to supplement a knowledge of medieval political history by a more careful study of institutional life.

2. THE REVOLUTION AND CONSTITUTION, 1750-1800. Professor RISLEY.

From the Albany plan of union to the completion of the organization of the government under the Constitution; the period preceding the Revolution as preparation for separation; the Revolution; the confederation and the constitution. Special stress will be placed on the formation of the constitution.

3. METHODS OR PRESENTING HISTORY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Professor RISLEY.

This is a lecture course intended for teachers and involves a consideration of teachers’ preparation, model lessons, emphasis, definiteness, point of view, various aids as outlines, maps, illustrative material, etc., with suggestions as to syllabus and a review of leading texts.

NOTE.--Course 1 and 2 may be taken with graduate credit upon the recommendation of the professors.

Columbia University.

New York City.

SUMMER SESSION, JULY 6 TO AUGUST 17, 1910.

HISTORY.

sA1. EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE AGES; THE CHIEF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND INTELLECTUAL ACHIEVEMENTS. Lectures, reading, and discussion. Three points. Dr. HAYES.

sA2. MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN HISTORY. Lectures, reading, and discussion. Three points. Dr. HAYES.

This course is designed as an introduction to current national and international problems. The principal topics will be monarchy by divine right and the old régime in Europe, the intellectual achievements of the eighteenth century, the French Revolution with reference to political and economic changes, the work of Napoleon in reforming France and in re-shaping the map of Europe, the Industrial Revolution, the development of Italian and German unity, the third French Republic, the rise of Russia, modern social problems, and European imperialism in Africa and the Orient. The text-book will be Robinson and Beard, “The Development of Modern Europe.”

s356. Seminar. ENGLISH HISTORY DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. 2 points. Professor SHOTWELL.

This course is designed primarily for students taking s156. It will furnish an introduction into the extensive collections of sources on the economic and industrial history of England available in both the University and the Astor libraries. The course will include as well some practical investigation of the working out of the Industrial Revolution in America.

s156. THE SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. Lectures, readings, and discussions. Two points. Professor SHOTWELL.

This course is mainly concerned with the Industrial Revolution and the rise of democracy during the nineteenth century.

s13-14_b_. AMERICAN HISTORY; POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1815 TO 1889. Recitations, written tests, reports and occasional lectures. Two points. Professor BASSETT.

The course begins at the point at which foreign affairs cease to predominate, and deals with the important phases of internal history.

s162_b_. AMERICAN HISTORY, FROM 1815 TO 1837. Lectures, reports, examination of original materials, and familiarity with the larger secondary sources. Two points. Professor BASSETT.

The course will deal with the decay of the Virginia hegemony and the rise and supremacy of Jacksonian democracy.

s115-116_b_. ANCIENT HISTORY: ROMAN POLITICS. Two points. Professor ABBOTT.

A research course identical with Latin s155-156.

Harvard University.

Cambridge, Mass.

SUMMER SCHOOL, JULY 9 TO AUGUST 18, 1910.

BRIEF ANNOUNCEMENT.

GOVERNMENT

*S1. CIVIL GOVERNMENT; THE UNITED STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, GERMANY, FRANCE, AND SWITZERLAND. Lectures, conferences, and thesis. Five times a week. DR. ARTHUR N. HOLCOMBE.

HISTORY.

*S2. ANCIENT HISTORY FOR TEACHERS. Lectures, reports, reading, and examination of illustrative material. Five times a week, 9-10 and 11-12 a.m. Assistant Professor WILLIAM S. FERGUSON.

*S4. HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM 1689 TO THE PRESENT. Lectures, discussions, and written reports. Five times a week. Professor WILLIAM MACDONALD, of Brown University.

*S5. AMERICAN HISTORY FROM THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION TO 1783. Lectures, discussions, and written reports. Five times a week. Professor WILLIAM MACDONALD, of Brown University.

Courses for Advanced Students.

*S25. HISTORICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. Two hours, once a week. Professor CHARLES H. HASKINS.

This course is open only to college graduates.

*S20_i_. RESEARCH IN GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. Asst. Professor WILLIAM S. FERGUSON.

*S20_c_. RESEARCH IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Professor CHARLES H. HASKINS.

*S20_d_. RESEARCH IN MODERN EUROPEAN OR ASIATIC HISTORY. Professor ARCHIBALD CARY COOLIDGE.

*S20_e_. RESEARCH IN AMERICAN HISTORY. Professor WILLIAM MACDONALD, of Brown University.

State University of Iowa.

Iowa City, Iowa.

SUMMER SESSION, JUNE 20 TO JULY 30, 1910.

History.

PROFESSOR WILCOX.

I. EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Five hours.

An outline study of European history from the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte to the close of the nineteenth century. Professor WILCOX. Daily, except Saturday, at 10.00.

II. AMERICAN HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY. Five hours.

Lectures on the personal element in American history. A critical study of the public careers of some of the principal American leaders. Professor WILCOX. Daily, except Saturday, at 1.30.

III. PUBLIC LECTURES. One hour.

1. The danger of democracy. 2. The educated American girl. 3. What is an education in Iowa in 1910? 4. The eastern question and the western question. 5. The triumph of American diplomacy.

Saturday, at 9.

IV. GRADUATE WORK. An opportunity will be given for graduate students to do individual research work in preparation for advanced degrees. Special appointments and conferences with each candidate, either in European or American history, will be made upon request.

Political Economy.

III. ECONOMIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Five hours. A general course designed to supplement courses in political and constitutional history and to serve as a background for the study of economic and social questions. Assistant Professor PEIRCE. Daily, except Saturday, at 9.00.

Political Science.

PROFESSOR SHAMBAUGH.

I. MODERN GOVERNMENT. Five hours. A study of leading European governments in comparison with the government of the United States. Daily, except Saturday, at 9.

II. IOWA HISTORY AND POLITICS. Five hours. A course of lectures with library reading on the history and government of Iowa. Daily, except Saturday, at 7.

III. RESEARCH IN IOWA HISTORY. Two to four hours. In this course work along the lines of Iowa history will be outlined and directed for students who have already taken a course in Iowa history.

Louisiana State University.

Baton Rouge, La.

SUMMER SCHOOL, JUNE 6 TO AUGUST 5, 1910.

1. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.

2. AMERICAN HISTORY. Based entirely upon the study of sources.

3. HISTORY OF LOUISIANA. An advanced course, in which the French authorities and the sources are used.

4. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY IN HIGH SCHOOLS. A course of four hours a week of lectures and discussion, and two hours a week of observation and practice in the University Demonstration High School.

5. THE GOVERNMENT OF LOUISIANA. A study of the constitutional history of the State, and of the present State Government.

6. THE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT.

7. THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN SCHOOLS.

8. PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS.

9. ELEMENTS OF SOCIOLOGY.

The work in History and Political Science will be given by four instructors. The summer term lasts nine weeks, and a subject taken six hours a week for the nine weeks is equivalent to the regular course of three hours a week for one of the regular terms. It is the purpose of the Departments of History, Political Science, and Economics to give first term work at one summer school and second term work in the next one, in addition to certain courses planned especially for teachers.

University of Michigan.

Ann Arbor, Michigan.

SUMMER SESSION, JULY 5 TO AUGUST 26, 1910.

HISTORY.

1. GENERAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. From the Restoration to the Eve of the American Revolution. This course, treating briefly the chief features of the Restoration and the Revolution of 1688, aims to deal in more detail with the Revolution Settlement and the events which followed. Considerable emphasis will be laid upon the two characteristic features of the period: the Great Wars, with the resulting expansion of England, and the development of cabinet and party government. Two hours credit. Room 5, T. H., M, T, W, Th, at 2. Professor CROSS.

2. GENERAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. From the Norman Conquest to the accession of Henry VII. This course deals with the political institutions and the constitutional development of England. Attention is paid to bibliography. Two hours credit. Room 7, T. H., M, T, Th, F, at 1. Mr. BACON.

3. A HISTORY OF EUROPE FROM 814 TO 1300. This course deals in outline with the Roman Papacy, the revival of the Roman Empire on a German basis, the conflict of the investiture, the Hohenstaufen policy in Germany and Italy, the Crusades, growth of the French Monarchy, the Intellectual Life, and Feudal Institutions. Two hours credit. Room 7, T. H., M, T, Th, F, at 3. Mr. BACON.

4. THE HISTORY OF CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION. The causes and nature of secession are considered; the conduct of the war is sketched; the constitutional, political and social conditions resulting from the struggle are examined in detail. Two hours credit. Room 2, T. H., M, T, W, F, at 8. Assistant Professor BRETZ.

5. THE CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, AS AFFECTED BY JUDICIAL DECISIONS. The course will deal with the history of the process by which the original conceptions of the meaning of the constitution has been changed by court decisions. Two hours credit. Room 2, T. H., M, T, W, F, at 11. Assistant Professor CORWIN.

Graduate Work.

6. SEMINARY IN AMERICAN HISTORY.--This course is intended to offer training in the investigation of historical problems and practice in the handling of original material. Open only to graduates and to seniors receiving special permission. The field of work will be in the history of the Westward Movement. Two hours credit. East Seminary Room. T and Th, 2 to 4. Assistant Professor BRETZ.

University of Missouri.

Columbia, Missouri.

SUMMER SESSION, 1910.

HISTORY.

PROFESSOR N. M. TRENHOLME; DR. F. F. STEPHENS.

For Undergraduates.

1b. MODERN HISTORY. With especial reference to the later or strictly modern portion of the period. This course will deal with the history of western Europe from the age of the Renaissance and Reformation to the present time. It is especially designed for teachers of medieval and modern history and as introductory to the English, American, and more advanced modern history courses in the University. Five times a week; (3). Dr. STEPHENS. [A. 53; 8:00-9:00.]

2. ENGLISH HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. A course dealing with the political, social, and governmental history of England. The earlier or medieval portion of English History will be covered somewhat rapidly, and the attention of the class directed to such topics as the formation of parliamentary government, social and economic changes and advances, and the evolution of popular government. Five times a week; (3). Professor TRENHOLME. [A. 53; 10:30-11:30.]

3. AMERICAN HISTORY. A general course on the exploration and settlement of North America, the French and English colonies, the American Revolution, and the United States. Five times a week; (3). Dr. STEPHENS. [A. 54; 9:00-10:00.]

5b. ANCIENT HISTORY. With especial reference to the later or Roman period. This course will cover the political, social and institutional aspects of the history of the ancient world from the rise of Roman power in Italy to the conquest of Western Europe by the Germans. It is especially designed for teachers, and will be conducted as a discussion and recitation course with a small amount of required written work. Five times a week; (3). Professor TRENHOLME. [A. 53; 9:00-10:00.]

Primarily for Graduates.

35b. ADVANCED UNITED STATES HISTORY. A study of selected topics in United States History. Lectures, discussion, and reports by the class. Twice a week; (2). Dr. STEPHENS. [A. 53; 10:30-11:30.]

36. RESEARCH STUDIES IN EUROPEAN CULTURE. An advanced course of pro-seminar character, open to students who are qualified to pursue graduate work. The subject of study for this summer will be Dante and his times from the historical viewpoint. The work will be conducted by means of lectures and reports based on extensive reading in sources and secondary literature. Students are recommended to purchase Snell’s Handbook to Dante for reference. Twice a week; (2). Professor TRENHOLME. [A. 53; 11:30-12:30, Tu. Th.]

University of Nebraska.

Lincoln, Neb.

SUMMER SESSION (EIGHT WEEKS), 1910.

AMERICAN HISTORY.

The following courses are intended to meet the needs of three classes of students: (1) teachers of history in Nebraska high schools who may wish to enlarge or perfect their knowledge of the subject they are teaching; (2) undergraduate students desiring to make extra credits towards the Bachelor’s degree; (3) graduate students seeking advanced degrees through summer session work.

2. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD, 1764-1783. British “change of colonial policy” after 1763; the Stamp act, Townshend acts, Tea act, and Intolerable acts; revolution, independence, alliance, confederation; war and peace. Open to all. Five hours attendance; three hours preparation. Three hours credit. Associate Professor PERSINGER.

9. TERRITORIAL EXPANSION. European rivalries in colonial America; territorial making of original union; diplomacy, politics and geography of the various acquisitions; government and administration of dependencies. Open to advanced students. Five hours attendance; three hours preparation. Three hours credit. Associate Professor PERSINGER.

6. THE NEW NATION, 1877-1910. Industrial problems: tariff, banking, money, transportation, immigration, trusts, labor and conservation; reforms: Granger movement, Farmers’ Alliance, anti-monopoly; politics: White supremacy in South; reorganization; rise of third parties; expansion into tropics and its problems: Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines. Open to graduates and advanced students; three hours attendance; ten hours per week preparation; two hours credit. Professors CALDWELL and PERSINGER.

New York University.

New York City.

SUMMER SCHOOL, JULY 6 TO AUGUST 16, 1910.

Professor MARSHALL STEWART BROWN; Professor W. K. BOYD (Trinity College).

HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE.

S1. POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Thirty hours. Professor BROWN.

S2. AMERICAN CIVIL GOVERNMENT. Thirty hours. Professor BROWN.

S3. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Thirty hours. Professor BOYD (Trinity College).

S4. SECESSION, THE CONFEDERACY AND RECONSTRUCTION. Thirty hours. Professor BOYD.

SG1. THE AMERICAN COLONIES. Thirty hours. Professor BOYD.

SG2. SEMINAR IN AMERICAN COLONIAL HISTORY. Thirty hours. Professor BROWN.

Northwestern University.

Evanston, Illinois.

SUMMER SCHOOL, JUNE 27 TO AUGUST 6, 1910.

HISTORY.

DR. POOLEY.

(Not more than three of the following courses will be given.)

GENERAL COURSE IN AMERICAN HISTORY, 1783-1860. Some attention will be given to the methods of presenting this subject in secondary schools. Credit, two semester hours.

GENERAL COURSE IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Special attention to social, economic, and intellectual life. Credit, two semester hours.

ANCIENT HISTORY. This will be a course in either Greek or Roman History, as the class may elect. Credit, two semester hours.

MEDIEVAL HISTORY. A course covering the period between the break-up of the Roman Empire to the Reformation. Credit, two semester hours.

Ohio State University.

Columbus, Ohio.

SUMMER SESSION, JUNE 20 TO AUGUST 12.

HISTORY.

PROFESSOR KNIGHT.

101. AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY. Three credit hours. Prerequisite: a thorough high-school course in American History and Civics. Daily, 10.30.

A study of the period from 1600 to 1776, based upon Thwaites’ “The Colonies,” and Hart’s “Formation of the Union.”

For Advanced Undergraduates and Graduates.

112. THE SLAVERY STRUGGLE AND ITS RESULTS, 1854-1900. Three credit hours. Prerequisite: at least one full year of collegiate work in American History.

This course will be devoted to a study of the divergence of the North and South, and the rise and fall of political parties as influenced by slavery; the relation of slavery to the Civil War; the results of the struggle as traced in the reconstruction of the Southern States; and the readjustment of society and the States to the new status of the negro. Daily, 8.30.

For Graduates.

205. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF PIERCE AND BUCHANAN. Two credit hours. Hour to be arranged. Lectures and student research. Students intending to take this course must first consult with the instructor.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR PERKINS.

102. MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY, FROM 1500 A.D. Three credit hours. Text-book: “Robinson’s History of Western Europe.” Daily, 8.30.

A thorough course covering the whole period, but with especial emphasis on the Protestant Revolt, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, and the Nineteenth Century. Extensive outside reading will be required.

105. THE HISTORY OF GREECE. Preceded by a brief sketch of the ancient empires of the East. Three credit hours. Daily, 7.30.

An advanced course conducted by means of lectures, discussions, and assigned readings, designed especially for high school teachers of history.

Primarily for Graduates.

203. SEMINARY IN MODERN HISTORY. One or two credit hours. Time to be arranged.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR SHEPARD.

101. CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. Three credit hours. Prerequisite: American History 101, European History 101, or a substitute acceptable to the department. Daily, 7.30.

State University of Oklahoma.

Norman, Okla.

SUMMER SCHOOL, 1910.

HISTORY.

1. AMERICAN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. Required of all who take the B.A. Degree. By Associate Professor GITTINGER.

2. POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES FROM JACKSON TO THE PRESENT TIME. Professor BUCHANAN.

3. MEDIEVAL EUROPE. An introductory survey of the period from barbarian invasions to the end of the fifteenth century. Text and readings. By Associate Professor FLOYD.

4. MODERN EUROPE. An introductory survey of the period from the end of the fifteenth century to the present time. Associate Professor FLOYD.

5. A COURSE IN ENGLISH HISTORY. Associate Professor GITTINGER.

Syracuse University.

Syracuse, N. Y.

SUMMER SCHOOL, JULY 5 TO AUGUST 16, 1910.

HISTORY.

PROFESSOR GILBERT G. BENJAMIN, PH.D.

A. ANCIENT HISTORY. A general course in Ancient History. This course is preparatory to a study of history. It aims to show the continuity of history, and will lay especial stress on the contribution of the Ancients to our modern cultural development. Not only will the political and dynastic changes be studied, but the economic and the social life of the various peoples will be outlined. West’s “Ancient History” will be used as an outline. Lectures, readings and manual.

By especial arrangement with the instructor extra credit may be given. University credit, two semester hours. Five hours a week.

B. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. A preparatory course in the institutional development of the Middle Ages, from about 395 A.D. to the German Reformation. The rise and growth of the Christian church; the feudal state and a general study of the rise of modern nations.

Students will be expected to prepare papers upon some topic to be assigned by the instructor. Robinson’s “History of Western Europe” and Robinson’s “Readings” will be used as manuals. University credit, two semester hours. Five hours a week.

C. AMERICAN HISTORY. A lecture course with assigned readings on American history from 1765-1860. A great deal of reading in the sources will be demanded. Special stress will be laid upon the economic and constitutional development of the American people.

University credit, two semester hours. Five hours a week.

D. METHOD IN HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH AND CRITICISM. A course in Methods of teaching history especially adapted for teachers in secondary schools. It will also deal with scientific criticism of historical documents.

This course will not be offered unless at least five students are registered. Students will be expected to prepare papers on the teaching of History, and topics will be assigned for historical criticism.

For the work in criticism. Langlois and Seignobos’ “Introduction to the Study of History” will be used, and students contemplating entering the course should prepare themselves with a copy of this manual. University credit, two semester hours. Five hours a week.

University of Texas.

Austin, Texas.

UNIVERSITY SUMMER SCHOOLS, JUNE 18 TO AUGUST 4, 1910.

COLLEGE OF ARTS.

HISTORY.

1f. HISTORY OF GREECE. Five hours a week throughout the term. A general survey of Greek History. Text-book to be announced later. Dr. DUNCALF.

1w. HISTORY OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF JULIUS CAESAR. Five hours a week throughout the term. A general survey of the period. Text-book, Abbott’s “History of Rome.” Dr. DUNCALF.

2w. THE FEUDAL AGE, 814-1300. Five hours a week throughout the term. Mr. HAMILTON.

3f. EUROPE DURING THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS WARS, 1500-1648. Five hours a week throughout the term. Adjunct Professor BARKER.

13f. A. THE CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Five hours a week throughout the term. Adjunct Professor BARKER.

4s. IMPERIAL ENGLAND, 1688-1910. Five hours a week throughout the term. Dr. RAMSDELL.

5f. EUROPEAN EXPANSION IN AMERICA, 1492-1775. Five hours a week throughout the term. Professor GARRISON.

7. A. SOUTHWESTERN HISTORY. Five hours a week throughout the term.

In 1910 this course will be occupied with a study of the diplomatic relations of the Republic of Texas with the United States. The materials used will be the diplomatic correspondence between the two countries, together with various related sources in the libraries of the University and the State. Credit will vary from one-third to one full course according to the amount of work accomplished by the student. Professor GARRISON.

SUMMER NORMAL SCHOOL.

HISTORY, GENERAL. Five times a week throughout the term. Dr. RAMSDELL and Mr. HAMILTON.

HISTORY OF TEXAS. Five times a week during the second half of the term.

This course will be based on Pennybacker’s “History of Texas.” The student should read Bolton and Barker’s source-book, “With the Makers of Texas,” for realistic and vivid pictures of the life in Texas during all the periods of her romantic history, and familiarize himself with the history of the United States from 1800 to 1845. Principal LITTLEJOHN.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Five times a week during the second half of the term. Superintendent MCCALLUM.

University of Washington.

Seattle, Washington.

SUMMER SCHOOL, 1910.

HISTORY.

PROFESSORS MEANY, RICHARDSON AND MCMAHON.

1. ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS AND STUARTS. The history of England in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries, with special reference to the social and political conditions which led to the foundation of the Tudor absolutism; and to the development of the religious, political and constitutional issues which culminated in the Puritan Revolution and the Political Revolution of 1688-9. Lectures and supplementary reading. Five hours per week at 10. Two credits. Professor RICHARDSON.

2. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEONIC ERA. An advanced course. Among the principal topics considered are the following. The material conditions out of which, in France, the Revolution emerged, and the nature of the new ideals which inspired it; contemporary conditions in the European states system which facilitated the extension of the revolution over Europe; the epoch of international wars, with special reference to its effect on France, Europe, and the liberal movements of the Nineteenth century; the career of Napoleon. Lectures and supplementary reading. Five hours per week at 11.00. Two credits. Professor RICHARDSON.

3. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE CLOSE OF THE WAR OF 1812 TO THE END OF JACKSON’S PRESIDENCY. In this course the relation between economic, social and political forces are considered; and the Constitutional history of the period is studied as the outgrowth of economic and social conditions in the physiographic provinces that made up the United States. Lectures and assigned reading. Five hours per week at 8.00. Two credits. Professor MCMAHON.

4. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION. A study of the political and constitutional phases of the civil war and the problems of statecraft involved in a realignment of National powers and a readjustment of the political forces between 1865 and 1876. Lectures and assigned readings. Five hours per week at 9.00. Two credits. Professor MCMAHON.

Professor Meany gives 13 popular lectures on “The History of the Northwest.”

Historical Publications, 1909-1910

The following list contains references to the principal publications of American publishers issued between April 15, 1909, and April 15, 1910. In addition to new text-books and books for class reference, it contains general works upon history and biography. No attempt has been made to include in it the publications of historical societies or works peculiarly of local interest. The works of foreign publishers are not included. If the list proves helpful to history teachers similar lists will be printed each year.

Books on Method.

Committee of Eight. Report to the American Historical Association, upon the Teaching of History in Elementary Schools. Charles Scribner’s Sons. 50 cents.

Keatinge, M. W. Studies in the Teaching of History. The Macmillan Co. $1.50 net.

Text-books.

Callender, G. S. Selections from the Economic History of the United States, 1765-1860. Ginn & Co. $2.75.

Caldwell, H. W., and Persinger, C. E. A Source History of the United States from Discovery (1492) to End of Reconstruction (1877). Ainsworth & Co. (Chicago). $1.25.

Chambers, A. M. A Constitutional History of England. The Macmillan Co. $1.40.

Channing, Edward, and Ginn, Susan J. Elements of United States History. The Macmillan Co. (In press.)

Channing, Edward, and Ginn, Susan J. A Short History of the United States for School Use. The Macmillan Co. $1.00 net. [For 7th and 8th grades.]

Davis, William Stearns. An Outline History of the Roman Empire. The Macmillan Co.

Dickson, Marguerite Stockman. American History for Grammar Schools. The Macmillan Co. (In press.)

Forman, S. E. School History of the United States. The Century Co. $1.00.

Gerson, Oscar. History Primer. Hinds, Noble and Eldredge.

Gerson, Oscar. Our Colonial History. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge.

Harding, Samuel B. Essentials in Medieval History. American Book Co. $1.00.

Hix, Melvin. History for Fifth Grades. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge.

James, James Alton, and Sanford, Albert Hart. American History. Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Mace, William H. A Primary History. Stories of Heroism. Rand, McNally & Co.

Montgomery, D. H. Leading Facts of American History. Revised. Ginn & Co.

Morris, Charles. School History of the United States. J. B. Lippincott Co.

Renouf, V. A. Outlines of General History. The Macmillan Co. $1.30 net.

Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A. Readings in Modern European History. Vol. II. Ginn & Co.

Stearns. A Primer of Hebrew History. Eaton & Mains (N. Y.). 40 cents net.

Southworth, G. V. D. First Book in American History. D. Appleton & Co.

Supplementary Reading for Elementary Schools.

Bevan, Thomas. Stories from British History (B. C. 54--A. D. 1485). Little, Brown & Co. 50 cents.

Bruce, H. Addington. The Romance of American Expansion. Moffat, Yard & Co.

Coe, Fanny E. The First Book of Stories for the Story-Teller. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 80 cents net.

Cox, John H. Knighthood in Germ and Flower. Little, Brown & Co. $1.00 net. (In press.)

Otis, James. Richard of Jamestown: A Story of the Virginia Colony. American Book Co. 35 cents.

Elson, H. W. A Child’s Guide to American History. Baker & Taylor Co. $1.25 net.

Hancock, Mary S. Children of History: Early Times. Little, Brown & Co. 50 cents.

Hancock, Mary S. Children of History: Later Times. Little, Brown & Co. 50 cents.

Harding. Samuel B. The Story of England. Scott, Foresman & Co.

Hill, Frederic Stanhope. The Romance of the American Navy. G. B. Putnam’s Sons.

Hill, F. T. On the Trail of Washington: A Narrative History of Washington’s Boyhood and Manhood. D. Appleton & Co. $1.50 net.

Historical Stories of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages: Retold from St. Nicholas. 6 vols. Century Co.

Jenks, T. When America Won Liberty. Crowell & Co. $1.25.

Josselyn, Freeman M., and Talbot, L. Raymond, eds. Elementary Reader of French History. 30 cents.

Little People Everywhere: Fritz in Germany; Gerda in Sweden; Boris in Russia; Betty in Canada. Little, Brown & Co. 60 cents each.

Lucia, R. Stories of American Discoverers for Little Americans. American Book Co. 40 cents.

Moores, William Elliott. The Life of Abraham Lincoln, for Boys and Girls. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 60 cents net.

Oxley, J. M. With Fife and Drum at Louisburg. Little, Brown & Co. $1.00 net. (In press.)

Smith. Mary P. W. Boys and Girls of ’77. Little, Brown & Co. $1.25.

Stephens, K. Stories from Old Chronicles. Edited with introductions to the stories. Sturgis & Walton. $1.50.

Stevenson, B. E. A Child’s Guide to Biography. Baker and Taylor (N. Y.) $1.25 net.

Stevenson, Augusta. Children’s Classics in Dramatic Form. Houghton, Mifflin Co. Book II, $0.35 net; Book III, $0.40 net.

Tappan, Eva March. Heroes of European History. Houghton, Mifflin Co.

Tappan, Eva March. Old Ballads in Prose. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 40 cents net.

Tappan, Eva March. The Story of the Greek People. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $1.50.

Washington’s Birthday: Its History, Observance, etc. Edited by R. H. Schauffler. Moffat, Yard & Co. $1.00 net.

Government.

Beard, Charles A. Readings in American Government and Politics. The Macmillan Co. $1.90.

Bowker, Richard Rogers. Copyright: Its History and Law. Houghton, Mifflin Co. (Ready May. 1910.)

Commission Plan of Municipal Government: Selected Articles Compiled by E. C. Robbins. H. W. Wilson Co. (Minneapolis).

Dodd, W. F. The Government of the District of Columbia. J. Byrne & Co. (Washington, D. C.). $1.50.

Dodd, Walter F. Modern Constitutions. 2 vols. University of Chicago Press. $5.00 net.

Fuld, L. F. Police Administration: A Study of Police Organization in the United States and Abroad. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. $3.00 net.

Fuller, H. B. The Speakers of the House. Little, Brown & Co. $2.00 net.

Hughes, E. H. The Teaching of Citizenship. W. A. Wilde Co. (Boston). $1.25.

Jenks, Jeremiah W. Principles of Politics, from the Viewpoint of the American Citizen. The Macmillan Co. $1.50 net.

Marriott, C. How Americans Are Governed in Nation, State and City. Harper Brothers. $1.25.

Reinsch, Paul S. Readings on American Federal Government. Ginn & Co. $2.75.

Thomas, W. I. Source Book for Social Origins. University of Chicago Press. $4.50.

United States--General.

Abel, A. H. History of Events Resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi. Government Printing Office (Wash.).

Allen, Gardner W. Our Naval War With France. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $1.50 net.

American Foreign Policy. By “A Diplomatist.” Houghton, Mifflin Co. $1.25 net.

Avery, E. M. A History of the United States and Its People. Vol. VI. Burrows Bros. (Cleveland. O.).

Brooks, U. R. Butler and His Cavalry in the War of Secession. 1861-1865. The State Co. (Columbia. S. C.).

Bruce, H. Addington. Daniel Boone and the Wilderness Road. The Macmillan Co. (In press.)

Buchanan, James. The Works of. Edited by John Bassett Moore. Vol. VII, VIII. IX, X. J. B. Lippincott Co.

Campbell, T. J. Pioneer Priests of North America. 1642-1710. Vol. II.

Canby, G., and Balderston, L. The Evolution of the American Flag. Ferris & Leach (Philadelphia). $1.00 net.

Carpenter, E. J. Roger Williams. The Grafton Press (N. Y.), $2.00 net.

Carr, C. E., Stephen A. Douglas. A. C. McClurg. $2.00 net.

Carter, Charles F. When Railroads Were New. Henry Holt & Co. $2.00 net.

Carter, Clarence E. Great Britain and the Illinois Country, 1763-1774. American Historical Association (Wash., D. C.). $1.50.

Chadwick, F. E. The Relations of the United States and Spain: Diplomacy. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. $4.00 net.

Chinese Question in the United States, Bibliography of the. Compiled by R. E. Cowan and B. Dunlap. A. M. Robertson (San Francisco). $1.40 net.

Clay, T. H. Henry Clay. Jacobs & Co. (Philadelphia.) $1.25 net.

Cockshott, Winnifred. The Pilgrim Fathers. Their Church and Colony. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, $2.50 net.

Coman, Katherine. Industrial History of the United States (revised edition). The Macmillan Co. (ready summer of 1910).

Connelley, William Elsey. Quantrill and the Border Wars. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids, Ia.). $3.50.

Cornish, Vaughan. The Panama Canal and Its Makers. Little, Brown & Co. $1.50 net.

Davis, J. Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America During 1798, 1799, 1800, and 1801 and 1802. Henry Holt & Co. $2.50 net.

Documentary History of American Industrial Society. Edited by John R. Commons, Ulrich B. Phillips, Eugene A. Gilmore, Helen L. Sumner and John B. Andrews. 10 vols. The Arthur H. Clark Co. (Cleveland, O.). The set, $50.00 net. (Vols. I to IV issued to April, 1910).

Documents of the States of the United States. 1809-1904. The Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Dodge, John. Narrative of his Captivity at Detroit. With introduction by Clarence Monroe Burton. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids, Ia.) $5.00.

Dyer, Frederick H. A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion, 1861-1865. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids, Ia.) $10.00 net.

Eggleston, George Cary. The History of the Confederate War. Its Causes and Its Conduct. A Narrative and Critical History. 2 vols. Sturgis and Walton Co. (N. Y.). $4.00 net.

Elliott, Edward G. The Biographical Story of the Constitution. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

Esquemeling, J. The Buccaneers of America. E. P. Dutton. $4.00 net.

Everhart, E. A Handbook of United States Public Documents. H. W. Wilson Co. (Minneapolis).

Ewing, E. W. R. History and Law of the Hayes-Tilden Contest before the Electoral Commission. Cobden Publishing Co. (Wash., D. C.).

Faust, Albert Bernhardt. The German Element in the United States. 2 vols. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $7.50 net.

Fee, M. H. A Woman’s Impressions of the Philippines. A. C. McClurg & Co. $1.75 net.

Fite, Emerson David. Social and Industrial Conditions in the North During the Civil War. The Macmillan Co. $2.00 net.

Flom, George T. A History of Norwegian Immigration from Earliest Times to 1848. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids. Ia.). $2.00.

Fow, John H. The True Story of the American Flag. W. J. Campbell (Phila.). $1.75.

Gilder, R. W. Lincoln the Leader. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $1.00.

Griffin, Grace Gardner. Writings on American History, 1907. The Macmillan Co. $2.50.

Griffin, Grace G. Writings on American History, 1908. The Macmillan Co. (In press).

Gummere, Amelia Mott. Witchcraft and Quakerism: A Study in Social History. Biddle Press (Phila.), $1.00.

Hall, Alfred B. Panama and the Canal. Newson & Co. (N. Y.). 60 cents.

Hanks, Charles Stedman. Our Plymouth Forefathers: The Real Founders of Our Republic. Dana Estes (Boston). $1.50.

Harding, S. B. Select Orations Illustrating American Political History. The Macmillan Co.

Hart, A. B., and others. Decisive Battles of America. Harper & Brothers. $1.50.

Haskell, Frank A. The Battle of Gettysburg. Wisconsin History Commission.

Hayes, John Russell. Old Meeting Houses. Biddle Press (Phila.). $1.00.

Haynes, G. H. Charles Sumner. G. W. Jacobs & Co. (Phila.). $1.25 net.

Hitchcock, Ethan Allen. Fifty Years in Camp and Field. Diary edited by W. A. Cruffut. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

Hulbert, Archer Butler. Index to the Crown Collection of Photographs of American Maps. Only 25 copies printed. The Arthur H. Clark Co. (Cleveland, O.). $5.00 net.

Janvier, T. A. Henry Hudson. Harper & Brothers. 75 cents net.

Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789. Edited by W. C. Ford. Vols. XIII, XIV and XV. Government Printing Office (Wash.). $1.00 each.

Koerner, Gustave. Memoirs of. 1809-1896. Edited by Thomas J. McCormack. 2 vols. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids, Ia.). $10.00 net.

Learned, Marion Dexter. Abraham Lincoln. An American Migration. W. J. Campbell (Phila.). $3.00 net.

Leupp, F. E. The Indian and His Problem. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. $2.00 net.

Lipps, Oscar H. The Navajos. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids. Ia.) $1.00.

Lyell’s Travels in North America in the Years 1841-2. Edited by J. P. Cushing. C.E. Merrill Co. 30 cents.

McChesney, Nathan W. Abraham Lincoln: The Tribute of a Century, 1809-1909. A. C. McClurg & Co. $2.75 net.

Macdonough, Rodney. Life of Commodore Thomas Macdonough. Fort Hill Press (Boston). $2.00.

McLaughlin, James. My Friend the Indian. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $2.50 net.

McMaster, John Bach. A History of the People of the United States, Vol. VII. D. Appleton & Co. $2.50 net.

Mathews, Lois K. The Expansion of New England. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $2.50 net.

Mathews, John Mabry. Legislative and Judicial History of the Fifteenth Amendment. Johns Hopkins Press (Balt.).

Myers, G. History of the Great American Fortunes. Vol. II. Great Fortunes from Railroads. Kerr & Co. (Chicago).

Newton, Joseph Fort. Lincoln and Herndon. Including the Correspondence Between Herndon and Theodore Parker. The Torch Press (Cedar Rapids, Ia.). In preparation.

Northmen in America. (Vol. II of Islandica.) Cornell University Library (Ithaca, N. Y.).

Noyes, Alexander Dana. Forty Years of American Finance. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. $1.50 net.

Paullin, Charles Oscar. Commodore John Rodgers. 1773-1838. A Biography. The Arthur H. Clark Co. (Cleveland, O.). $4.00 net.

Paxson, Frederic L. The Last American Frontier. The Macmillan Co. $1.50 net.

Phillips, I. N. Lincoln. McClurg & Co. (Chicago). $1.00.

Polk, James K., The Diary of. Edited by M. M. Quaife. 4 vols. A. C. McClurg & Co. $20.00 net. (In press.)

Population Growth, a Century of: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790-1900. Department of Commerce and Labor (Wash.)

Putnam, George Haven. Abraham Lincoln. The People’s Leader in the Struggle for National Existence. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. $1.25 net.

Rankin, George A. An American Transportation System. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. $1.50.

Ray, P. Orman. The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The Arthur H. Clark Co. (Cleveland, O.). $3.50 net.

Sanborn, F. B. Recollections of Seventy Years. 2 vols. The Gorham Press (Boston).

Seal of the United States, The History of. Government Printing Office (Wash.).

Simonds, William E. A History of American Literature. Houghton, Mifflin Co.

Sonneck, O. G. T. Report on The Star-Spangled Banner, Hail Columbia, America, Yankee Doodle. Government Printing Office (Wash.). 85 cents.

Spears, J. R. The Story of the American Merchant Marine. The Macmillan Co. $1.50 net.

Speer, E. Lincoln, Lee, Grant and Other Biographical Addresses. Neale Publishing Co. $2.00 net.

Steele, M. F. American Campaigns. 2 vols. War Department, Washington.

Sumner, E. A. Abraham Lincoln. Tandy-Thomas Co. (N. Y.). 25 cents.

Sutcliffe, A. C. Robert Fulton and the Clermont. Century Co. $1.25 net.

Thorpe, Francis Newton. The Statesmanship of Andrew Jackson as Told in His Writings and Speeches. Tandy-Thomas Co. (N. Y.). $2.50.

Warren, Charles. History of the Harvard Law School and of Early Legal Conditions in America. 3 vols. Lewis Publishing Co.

Weir, Hugh C. The Conquest of the Isthmus. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. $2.00 net.

Worcester, Dean C. The Philippine Islands and Their People. The Macmillan Co.

United States--Local.

Alexander, De Alva Stanwood. A Political History of the State of New York. Vol. III (1862-1884). Henry Holt & Co. $2.50 net.

Ambler, Charles H. Sectionalism in Virginia. University of Chicago Press. (In press.)

Boggess, Arthur Clinton. The Settlement of Illinois. 1778-1830. Chicago Historical Society.

Bruce, Philip Alexander. The Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

Canal Enlargement in New York State, and Related Papers. Buffalo Historical Society Publications. Vol. XIII.

Channing, Edward, and Lansing, Marion Florence. The Story of the Great Lakes. The Macmillan Co. $1.50 net.

Crawford, Mary C. Old Boston Days and Ways. Little, Brown & Co. $2.50 net.

Crawford, Mary C. Romantic Days in Old Boston. Little, Brown & Co. $2.50 net.

Crockett, Walter Hill. A History of Lake Champlain: The Record of Three Centuries. 1609-1909. II. J. Shanley & Co. (Burlington, Vt.).

Drake, Samuel Adams. New England Legends and Folk Lore. Little, Brown & Co. $1.50 net. (In press.)

Enoch, C. R. The Great Pacific Coast. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. $4.00 net.

Griffis, William Elliot. The Story of New Netherland. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $1.25 net.

Hamilton, Peter J. Colonial Mobile. Revised and enlarged. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $3.50 net.

Hart, Albert Bushnell. The Southern South. D. Appleton & Co. $1.50 net.

Hichborn, L. Story of the Session of the California Legislature of 1909. F. Hichborn (Santa Clara, Cal.). $1.25.

Historical Guide to the City of New York. Compiled by F. B. Kelley, F. A. Stokes Co. $1.50 net.

Illinois Historical Collections: Governors’ Letter-Books, 1818-1834. Vol. IV. Illinois State Historical Library (Springfield, Ill.).

Illinois Historical Collections. Vol. V. Virginia Series. Vol. II. Kaskaskia Records, 1778-1790. Edited by C. W. Alvord. Ill. State Historical Library (Springfield).

James, George Wharton. The Heroes of California. Little, Brown & Co. $1.50 net.

Journals of the House of Burgesses of Virginia. 1742-1747, 1748-1749. Virginia State Library (Richmond).

King, Henry Melville. Sir Henry Vane, Jr. Preston and Rounds Co. (Providence, R.I.).

Learned, Marion Dexter. The Life of Francis Daniel Pastorius, Founder of Germantown. W. J. Campbell (Phila.). $5.00.

Long, Charles M. Virginia County Names: Two Hundred and Seventy Years of Virginia History. Neale Publishing Co. (Richmond). $1.50.

Lyman, William D. The Columbia River: Its History, Its Myths, Its Scenery, Its Commerce. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

McElroy, R. M. Kentucky in the Nation’s History. Moffat, Yard & Co. $3.00 net.

Meany, Edmond S. History of the State of Washington. The Macmillan Co. $2.25 net.

Merriam, C. Hart. The Dawn of the World. Myth and Weird Tales Told by the Mewan Indians of California. The Arthur H. Clark Co. (Cleveland, O.). $3.50 net.

Messages from the Governors, State of New York. Comprising Executive Communications to the Legislature, and Other Papers Relating to Legislation from the Organization of the First Colonial Assembly in 1683 to and including the year 1906. Edited by C. Z. Lincoln. Vols. I to XI. Albany.

Minutes of the Commissioners for Detecting and Defeating Conspiracies in the State of New York. Albany County Sessions. 1778-1781. 2 vols. State of New York, Albany, N.Y.

Morse, A. E. The Federalist Party in Massachusetts to the year 1800. Princeton University Library. $2.00 net.

Munford, B. B. Virginia’s Attitude toward Slavery and Secession. Longmans, Green & Co. $2.00 net.

Narratives of New Netherland; 1609-1664. Edited by J. F. Jameson. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. $3.00 net.

O’Flynn, Thomas F. Story of Worcester (Mass.) Little, Brown & Co. $1.75 net. (In press.)

Publications of the Academy of Pacific Coast History. Vol. I. University of California (Berkeley). 50 cents.

Ramsdell, Charles W. Reconstruction in Texas (Columbia University Studies in History. Economies and Law, Vol. XXXVI. No. 1.) Longmans, Green & Co. $2.50 (paper.)

Sale, E. T. Manors of Virginia in Colonial Times. J. B. Lippincott Co.

Sanderson, H. K. Lynn in the Revolution. 2 vols. W. B. Clarke Co. (Boston). $15.70.

Schuyler, R. L. The Transition in Illinois from British to American Government. The Macmillan Co. $1.00 net.

Singleton, E. Dutch New York. Dodd, Mead & Co. $3.50 net.

Slocum, Charles Elihu. The Ohio Country Between the Years 1783 and 1815. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

Special Report of Department of Archives and History, by H. J. Eckenrode. Virginia State Library (Richmond).

Stark. James H. The Loyalists of Massachusetts. W. B. Clarke Co. (Boston).

Thomas, T. E. Correspondence Relating to the Anti-Slavery Conflict in Ohio. R. Clarke Co. (Cincinnati, O.). $1.00 net.

Van Rensselaer, Mrs. Schuyler. History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth Century. 2 vols. The Macmillan Co. $5.00 net.

American Life and Institutions.

Brown, E. E. Government by Influence, and Other Addresses. Longmans, Green & Co. $1.35 net.

Cole, William Morse. The American Hope. D. Appleton & Co. $1.50 net.

Crowley, Herbert. The Promise of American Life. The Macmillan Co. $2.00.

Howe, F. C. Privilege and Democracy in America. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. $1.50 net.

Low, A. Maurice, The American People. Houghton, Mifflin Co. $2.25 net.

Shaw, Albert. Political Problems of American development. The Macmillan Co. $1.50 net.

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The Tower of Knowledge

DESCRIBED BY PROFESSOR PAUL MONROE, TEACHERS’ COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

Among the many symbolical representations of the world of learning or schemes of intellectual pursuits or of educational institutions furnished by the Middle Ages or the Renaissance period, none is more interesting and few more complete than the accompanying illustration from the “Margarita Philosophica” of Gregorovius de Reisch (or George Reisch).

Reisch was prior of the Carthusian monastery at Freiburg and confessor of the Emperor Maximilian I. Noted for his learning, he published one of the briefest, but also one of the most popular of the numerous cyclopedias of learning produced during the late mediæval and early modern centuries. This work, the “Margarita Philosophica,” first appeared at Heidelberg in 1496, and went through numerous editions, eight of them appearing by 1535. While the substance of the work was mediæval, it was tinged by the dawning modern spirit, as is shown by the title and by a consciousness of the significance of the Renaissance period by the claim set forth in the title to the incorporation of additions to “all known things.” The full title reads: The “Margarita Philosophica,” or the “Philosophical Pearl: treating of all known things; with additions, such as are to be found nowhere else.” (_Aepitoma Omnis Phylosophiae, Alias Margarita Phylosophica Tractans de omni genere scibili: Cum additionibus: Que in alijs non habentur._)

The first seven books treat of the seven liberal arts, the eighth and ninth of natural phenomena; the tenth, eleventh and the twelfth of the soul. These twelve books are divided into 573 chapters containing an epitome of the knowledge of the day. Much of the value of the work to present day students depends upon the numerous illustrations of symbolic character. One of the most important of these is the accompanying Tower of Knowledge, which gives the whole scheme of education of that period.

The youthful victim is admitted to the Tower by the Muse of Wisdom, who presents to him the horn book. Once admitted he begins the toilsome progress through various chambers of the tower which correspond to the twelve books of the treatise, namely, the first eight to the seven liberal arts, grammar being given, not only two chambers but two entire floors. The first chamber is devoted to Donatus, whose “Eight parts of speech,” written about 400 A.D., formed the traditional approach to all studies for many centuries. So nearly universal was the use of this part of Donatus’ larger work on grammar, that the term _donat_ came into frequent use as a synonym for an introduction into any subject. Donatus continued very popular into the 16th or even 17th century, though its popularity was successfully contested by many later works, especially that of Alexander de Villa Dei of the 13th century.

The second chamber is devoted to Priscian, whose more elaborate work on grammar (from about 526 A.D.) formed the source of much of the common literary knowledge of the middle ages. Priscian was one of the works most frequently issued from the early press, and yet exists in more than a thousand manuscripts. In all Priscian quotes more than 250 authors, several of them more than 100 times, the “Æneid” of Vergil more than seven hundred times. Thus the study of Latin grammar was of far greater significance than the modern conception of the term indicates and justifies to Reisch the assignment of two floors of the Tower.

From the study of grammar the youth proceeds to the study of rhetoric and poetry, the middle one of the three rooms of the third floor. Cicero is here the presiding genius. From rhetoric the student proceeds to the logic of Aristotle, thus completing the trivium.

The first subject of the _quadrivium_ is arithmetic, represented by Boethius. The remaining three subjects of the quadrivium form the fourth floor. These are astronomy, represented by Ptolemy; geometry, by Euclid, and music by Pythagoras.

Following the quadrivium come the subjects which no doubt represent “the additions to known things” in the mind of the compiler. These are the physical sciences, typified by Pythagoras, and Moral Philosophy, by Seneca. Crowning all comes the study of theology and metaphysics, represented by Peter the Lombard, whose “Sentences” had been the orthodox theological text now for two centuries.

The symbolic illustrations which accompany the book of the treatise on these several subjects are of no less interest than the tower of knowledge itself; for these go into great detail in exposition of the aim and characteristic features of each study. Such illustrations present in a concrete way the curricula and the methods of school work in the past.

Recent History

The Situation in Great Britain

BY JOHN HAYNES, PH.D., DORCHESTER HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS.

In the last article of this series it was stated that the rejection by the House of Lords of the Budget of 1909 brought before the British people not only a fundamental question of taxation, but the constitutional question of the position of the Upper House. For centuries it had been generally conceded that the authority over finance belonged exclusively to the House of Commons. But the Lords in 1909, claiming that the new proposals were revolutionary, passed a resolution respecting the budget, “that this House is not justified in giving its consent to this bill until it has been submitted to the judgment of the country.” The Commons answered by another resolution that this action was “a breach of the Constitution and a usurpation of the rights of the Commons.” Nevertheless it was necessary for the ministry to dissolve Parliament in January 1910, and carry the issue before the voters. In the campaign the Liberals stood for the budget, the denial of the right of the Lords to reject it, and home rule for Ireland. The Labor party, in addition to supporting the views of organized labor on questions affecting working men, were strongly in favor of the budget. The Irish Nationalists, as always, put Irish home rule before everything else. The Conservatives, under the name of Unionists, which they use to emphasize their opposition to home rule, made their campaign chiefly on the issue of “tariff reform,” which in Great Britain means the abandonment of her free trade policy. Sentiment in favor of doing this has greatly increased in recent years, and those who favor it are supplied with much greater financial resources for pushing their views than those who uphold the present policy. It would not surprise the present writer to see Great Britain return to the “protective” system, though he believes it would be a misfortune of the greatest magnitude to the British people.

The resolution passed by the Lords when they rejected the budget implied that an election would be in the nature of a referendum, and so it was to a certain extent, but it was a very imperfect one. The law which permits plural voting was, as always, a great disadvantage to the Liberals, and undoubtedly lost them several seats. Again, there has been no distribution of seats since 1885, and the present arrangement is grossly inequitable. As an extreme example the member from Romford represents over seventeen times as many voters as the member from Whitehaven. The Liberals and Labor party are the ones who suffer from this condition. Ireland, whose representation is wholly Nationalist and Conservative, has one-fourth more members of Parliament than she is justly entitled to. Another thing which helped the Conservatives were “three-cornered contests” which gave them at least five seats as representatives of districts where the Liberal and Labor voters together far outnumbered the Conservatives. Then, again, the question was so confused with other matters that there was not a direct issue on the budget. Doubtless many free traders voted for Unionist candidates from opposition to Irish home rule or the policy of the Liberals on the school and liquor questions. It is the misfortune of the Liberals that their progressive policies at the same time encounter the three powerful interests represented by the landholders, the liquor dealers, and the Anglican Church. In Ireland the home rule question so overshadowed all others that there was no expression whatever of popular opinion on the budget, though enough is known to make it pretty certain that the majority would be against it. In England, Wales and Scotland, the popular majority of the Liberals and Laborites combined in spite of plural voting, was nearly three hundred thousand. It may be concluded that notwithstanding the growth of sentiment adverse to free trade the Lloyd-George budget would be adopted by a safe margin if it were submitted as a simple question to the British people. The actual result was the choice of 274 Liberals, 273 Conservatives, 82 Irish Nationalists and 41 Labor members, a situation which gives the Irish Nationalists under the leadership of John Redmond the balance of power.

The new Parliament met February 15th. The King’s speech was very brief and foreshadowed the re-introduction of the budget and proposals for giving the House of Commons undivided authority over finance and preponderance in all legislation. This speech from the throne contained the altogether unusual phrase “in the opinion of my advisers.” The motion of the Unionists to amend the King’s speech by inserting a resolution in favor of “tariff reform” was defeated by the votes of the Liberals and Laborites, the Irish Nationalists abstaining from voting. From the opening of Parliament till the 24th of March the time has been occupied with necessary routine work, but it has become evident from the attitude of Mr. Redmond and the more radical supporters of the ministry that the question of curbing the power of the Lords must take precedence of the consideration of the budget. If the Nationalists are satisfied by the action of the ministry on this question the budget will probably pass the Commons, the Irish members either voting for it or abstaining from voting.

For the present, the question of the power of the House of Lords has become paramount. It is recognized even by the Conservatives that the present situation is indefensible. The fact that the membership of the House of Lords is overwhelmingly conservative leads to what is practically a government by a single chamber when the Conservatives are in the majority in the Commons. It has been possible for Conservative ministries to put through measures, like the Education Act of 1902, which have never been submitted to the country and would probably not be approved if submitted. On the other hand when the Liberals are in power the Lords by rejecting and mutilating legislation have prevented the principal Liberal measures from becoming law. The only recourse of the Liberals would be to appeal to the country on every question of any importance. March 23d the House of Lords by a vote of 175 to 17 adopted a set of resolutions introduced by Lord Rosebery, which are likely to become the Conservative platform on the question. They are: “First, that a strong and efficient Second Chamber is not merely an integral part of the British Constitution, but is necessary to the well-being of the State and the balance of Parliament.

“Second, that a strong and efficient Second Chamber can best be obtained by the reform and reconstruction of the House of Lords.

“Third, that a necessary preliminary to such reform and reconstruction is the acceptance of the principle that the possession of a peerage should no longer itself give the right to sit and vote in the House of Lords.”

It will be noticed that this resolution is non-committal on the question of how the voting members shall be chosen. The suggestions which have found their way into print are that the Peers should choose a certain part of their own number, that county councils should elect, that learned societies should be represented, and that men who had held high posts should be voting members. It has been stated that there would be a number of life peers. The proposal is very indefinite, and furnishes no guarantee on the most necessary point, namely, that the Second Chamber must be one which will not forever defeat the measures of the Liberals when they have a majority of the Commons. It would seem that the only logical position of those who favor a strong upper house would be to have it elected from larger districts and for longer terms than the House of Commons.

The Liberals, however, have not adopted such a plan. On March 22d, Prime Minister Asquith gave notice of three resolutions which will probably for some time or until carried out constitute the platform of the Liberals and their allies. The first declares it expedient that the House of Lords be disabled by law from rejecting any money bill. The second that it is expedient that the powers of the House of Lords over other bills be restricted so that any such bill which has passed the House of Commons for three successive sessions and has been rejected by the House of Lords in each of these sessions shall become a law without the consent of the House of Lords provided that not less than two years have elapsed between the introduction of a bill and its becoming law. The third resolution proposes to limit the duration of each Parliament to five years. These proposals possess the advantage of definiteness which the Rosebery resolutions lack. They are obviously open to the charge of proposing a one-chambered government. Late dispatches seem to indicate that these resolutions have been approved by the leaders of the Nationalists and Laborites, and that at no distant day Premier Asquith will again go to the country with these propositions instead of the budget as the chief issue, for the resolutions are certain to be rejected by the Lords.

In the interval between the preparation of this article (March 28th) and its publication, it is probable that events will move rapidly in Great Britain, but the writer hopes that this and the preceding article on the budget will furnish in brief form a useful historical background for such events as may take place.

ANNOUNCEMENTS.

Officers of associations are requested to send notices of meetings to W. H. Cushing, South Framingham, Mass., as long before the date of meeting as possible.

AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.--December 27, 1910, at Indianapolis, Ind.

PACIFIC COAST BRANCH OF AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.--November 18-19, 1910, at University of California, Berkeley.

CALIFORNIA HISTORY TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION.--July 14, 1910, at Berkeley.

INDIANA.--History Section of the State Teachers’ Association, April 29-30, 1910, at Indianapolis.

LOUISIANA STATE HIGH SCHOOL RALLY.--April 29-30, at Baton Rouge.

MIDDLE TENNESSEE PREPARATORY SCHOOL CONFERENCE.--May, at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.

MISSOURI HISTORY TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION.--May 14, at Kirksville.

MISSISSIPPI ASSOCIATION OF HISTORY TEACHERS.--April 30, at Meridian, Miss.

MISSISSIPPI VALLEY HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.--Third annual meeting, May 25-27, 1910, at Iowa City, Iowa.

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION.--Forty-eighth annual convention, July 2 to 8, 1910, at Boston, Mass.

NEWARK, N. J., EXAMINATION FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF HISTORY.--May 21, 1910.

European History in the Secondary School

D. C. KNOWLTON, PH.D. Editor.

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY.

Italy in Its Relation to Europe.

The history of the unification of Italy is so closely connected with developments outside the peninsula that it is difficult to make the details of the story intelligible, and at the same time preserve the proper European perspective. In order to link together the various episodes which mark the appearance of this new state, the teacher must, of necessity, direct the attention of the class to ground already traversed, besides anticipating in a measure certain events which call for fuller treatment later. There is, then, an unparalleled opportunity for review; but a very real difficulty arises when the instructor has occasion to refer to such events as the Six Weeks’ War or the Franco-Prussian War, which have not yet been taken up in their European setting. In view of these problems it might be advisable to review some of these details after the story of German unification has been told, making the year 1871 an occasion for a retrospect of the history of the preceding quarter of a century. In this way the importance of this period may be brought home forcibly to the class. “With the Crimean War began a period of wars and territorial changes. In sixteen years there were four European wars between great powers, not to mention the local wars in Italy and Denmark; all central Europe was rearranged.” (Seignobos, p. 787.) “Indeed the changes made in the map of Europe between 1850 and 1871 were in some respects greater than the final results of the warfare which ended in that great pacification.” (The reference here is to the Congress of Vienna.)[2]

The Central Theme.

The main points which call for emphasis at the hands of the instructor have been summed up by Seignobos in the following statement: “The union of Italy was accomplished by all the Italian advocates of unity, royalists and republicans, working in harmony with the Piedmontese government, aided by a great European power, first France, then Prussia (p. 351).” Possibly additional interest may be aroused by suggesting the thought that here was the unusual spectacle of a nation made one, “not by conquest, but by consent.” This idea may be brought out best by comparison.

Obstacles to Union.

The chief obstacles to a union of the various states of Italy afford a proper introduction to the story. The most important of these was undoubtedly the presence of the foreigner. Italy had long been “a geographical expression,” controlled in the interest of an extra-Italian power. Dismemberment was its normal condition. A series of maps might be prepared to illustrate this fact, using a vivid color to indicate the territory controlled, first by Spain, then by Austria, then by France, and again by Austria, according to the arrangements made at Vienna. The following subjects are suggested:

(1) The Spanish Hegemony; (2) Beginning of Austria’s power in Italy (1715); (3) Restoration of Spain’s power in Italy, including the Austrian possessions in the peninsula (1735); (4) Italy in the time of Napoleon (1810); and (5) Power of Austria in Italy after the Congress of Vienna, showing the Sardinian territories (1815). These maps will serve the purpose best if not over three colors are used in their construction. The atlases of Dow and Putzger, and such text-books as Robinson and West will supply the necessary details. The constant reappearance on each of these maps of a black band stretching across the peninsula will serve to emphasize the importance of another hindrance to Italian unity, namely, the temporal power of the papacy.

Italy After the Revolution of 1848.

The discussion of Italian politics from 1815 to 1840 will be determined in part by the plan which the teacher has adopted for the treatment of this period in its general European aspect. Whatever line of treatment has been pursued, 1840 marks the real point of departure for presenting the facts connected with the formation of the kingdom of Italy. This date affords an opportunity for summing up the condition of the peninsula and for pointing out some of the lessons taught by the February Revolution. The next ten years constitute “the period of preparation.” Ten more were consumed before the hopes of the advocates of unity had been fully realized--if indeed they can be said to have been altogether realized. One of the first problems confronting the makers of modern Italy was the welding together of the widely scattered territories, occupied by diversified elements and possessing but few interests in common, which were known as the kingdom of Sardinia. (Read Seignobos, p. 346.) If Sardinia was to lead in the movement for unity and independence she must be thoroughly organized and prepared to assume the financial and military burdens involved. Not the least of her problems was that of “convincing all Italian Liberals that she could be trusted;” that she was their Heaven-sent leader. The task was all the more difficult because of the humiliation she had so recently undergone at the hands of Austria. Piedmont, however, had “failed heroically,” and, in spite of Novara, still remained “the center of nationalist hopes.” Two things were patent to the keen student of affairs, first, that Sardinia alone could not drive out the foreigner, and second, that any attempt at union must not be imperiled in the future by differences of opinion as to the nature thereof.

The Great Personalities.

Four great personalities fill the period from 1840 to 1860--“each was complementary in his life work to the other”--Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, and behind them all, displaying rare wisdom and common sense at every crisis, the warrior king, Victor Emmanuel II. Mazzini has been called the Prophet of Italian unity; Cavour, its Statesman; and Garibaldi, its Knight-Errant. Of these three, Mazzini is most difficult to understand. The secondary student will find it next to impossible to enter into the far-reaching, although somewhat Utopian, schemes of this great Italian publicist. It is enough perhaps to point out how, by organizing Young Italy, he created the necessary enthusiasm among his countrymen to make possible the work of Cavour and Garibaldi.

Neither is Cavour’s public career devoid of difficulties. The attention of the class should be confined here to his efforts to place Sardinia on a sound economic basis, and at the same time secure for her the support and friendship of the great powers of Europe. The ambitions of Napoleon III, who dominated European politics prior to 1870, were utilized by the great state-maker in the furtherance of these plans. (See also Cesaresco, Cavour, Preface, for an outline of the policy of Cavour.)

The Attainment of Unity.

When the “epoch of realization” (1859-1870) has been reached, several plans are open to the instructor for presenting the various steps in the process of state-making. Beginning with the Crimean War, it is possible to associate the various acquisitions of territory with the wars which fill the period, namely, the Austro-Sardinian War, the Six Weeks’ War and the Franco-Prussian struggle; or to deal with the successive additions of territory as such, emphasizing the date and circumstances attending each. (See Seignobos, p. 351.) In the first case, emphasis is placed on the means employed; in the second, on the end attained. In either case reference should be made to the eagerness of the people to join with Sardinia, as shown in the plebiscites. If the second plan be followed, it will be easier to introduce Garibaldi. The episode of the Thousand offers material for an interesting report. In this connection mention might be made of a recent work by G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand.

Literature.

Out of the great mass of material on this subject mention might be made of the following: Seignobos, Europe since 1814, Chaps. XI and XXVII (one of the best accounts); Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century,