CHAPTER XII

THE CLIMAX: THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONISTS

"If we can remove the turbulent Gallics the seat of Empire might be transferred to America."[281] Such were the characteristically pompous words of John Adams, which nevertheless contained something of the spirit that animated a few of the thinking colonists in their final struggle with the power of France. The Conquest of Canada liberated the settlers of the Thirteen Colonies from a state of continuous and watchful alarm; but it also increased their attitude of resistance to interference on the part of England, and was an undoubted cause of the American War of Independence. The actual conquest was, however, due to British commanders, and more than half the troops employed consisted of British regulars. It is not intended to belittle the work of the colonials, for without them many of the stirring scenes which took place between 1750 and 1763 could never have been enacted; but without the discipline and experience of English leaders the great task could never have been accomplished, because of the hopeless internal jealousies of these quarrelsome communities. In the last chapter it has been shown that the burden of the war with the French fell upon the New England group, and in the period now under discussion the men of Massachusetts also played an active part; but, whereas the rapine and murder had been confined to the northern border, the stress of warfare now fell upon the western frontiers of the more southern States, and New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia were called upon to take a serious share in the great struggle. It had long been seen that these provinces as they grew in size must necessarily extend their borders, and the men from Pennsylvania and Virginia must come into hostile contact with the Canadian backwoodsmen who had pushed into the valley of the Ohio.

It is during this period that the want of unity between the Thirteen Colonies is more clearly evidenced than even in previous years. New York was torn by internal factions, and the history of that colony would have been infinitely more sad had it not been that its fighting contingent was led by the redoubtable William Johnson. The state of Pennsylvania was actually worse than that of New York; it was "a sanctuary for sloth, cowardice, and sordid self-interest. The humanity of Penn, the peace principles of the early Quakers, were a cloak behind which the factious and indolent citizen with no sense of public responsibility could always screen himself."[282] The Pennsylvanians were as callous, during this colossal epoch, as if the war had been on the plains of Germany, and were not only inert themselves but endeavoured to neutralise the action of the other Colonies, so that they have earned the reputation of selfishness and disloyalty. Maryland was not like Pennsylvania in its open refusal to help; its attitude was one of indifference, which was partly due to niggardliness, and partly to the fact that it was safely screened by the colonies of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The latter colony has been severely blamed for the ineffective assistance rendered during the war. It is urged with truth that the inhabitants consisted of the very men who should have composed a fine fighting force, but that the Virginian youth exhibited an astounding supineness in following the gallant Washington. There are, however, two reasons that may be found as partial excuses for the unpatriotic attitude of the Virginian settlers. The first was an ever-present dread of a slave insurrection if the militia left the colony; while the second is to be found in the irascible temper of the governor, Robert Dinwiddie.

The year after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French governor of Canada, La Galissonière, had sent Celeron de Bienville to register the claims of France to the Ohio valley, and thus carry on the great scheme of shutting in the English settlers behind the Alleghany Mountains. The demonstration was purely peaceful, and for the next three years nothing serious came of it. Galissonière resigned his government to De la Jonquière, who, in turn, was succeeded by the Marquis Duquesne. In the meantime, in 1750, the Virginian traders, for the most part, had formed the Ohio Company for the exploiting of that rich valley. The work of this corporation was not of a successful character, owing to the jealousies between Virginia and Pennsylvania, both colonies trying to shift the burden of fort building on to the shoulders of the other. The French, seeing their opportunity, began to teach these bickering colonials those bitter lessons which were at last to be an indirect cause of their union. In June of 1752, the Miami Indians, a confederacy friendly towards the English, were attacked; their town was burnt, and their chief killed. This was not a mere raid upon an insignificant group of Redskins' wigwams, but was the outward and visible sign of the aggressive policy of Duquesne towards the advanced English traders in the Ohio valley. In the spring of the next year, a veteran French officer, Marin, established, by means of two forts, communication between the Great Lakes and the sources of the Ohio. This, indeed, was a direct act of trespass upon that debatable land lying on the borders of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, and was a heavy blow at the Ohio Company and their trading station at Fort Cumberland. The French intrusion aroused the wrath of William Shirley of Massachusetts, and also of the cross-grained Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia. Ill-tempered though the latter was, he possessed clear judgment and tenacity of purpose, and from this moment worked strenuously for the welfare of the colonies against the French.

In November 1753, George Washington, then a young land-surveyor, but already fairly prominent among the Virginians, was despatched to warn off the French trespassers. He found that what had formerly been an English trading station at Venango had been converted into a French Canadian outpost. Resistance was obviously necessary; and Dinwiddie embarked upon a zealous military policy, calling upon the Governors of Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Carolinas to assist in preventing the Governor of Canada becoming the master of the valley of the Ohio. Virginia responded cheerfully to the Governor's appeal, and subscribed £10,000; North Carolina gave a small sum and sent a few soldiers; South Carolina and New York also sent a contingent of militiamen; but Pennsylvania refused both men and money. Dinwiddie did what he could by despatching, in February 1754, a small force to build a blockhouse at the junction of the Monongahela and the Alleghany Rivers. The settlers were overpowered by the Canadians in April, and the fort which was erected was the work of French hands, and was called after the Canadian Governor, Fort Duquesne. With a party of Virginians, Washington was ordered to take this fresh example of Canadian insolence, then under the command of Contrecoeur. His lieutenant, Jumonville, was killed in a sortie or scouting expedition, but even with this advantage Washington's little army was outnumbered. He was forced to retreat, first to Fort Necessity, and after a nine hours' fight, across the Alleghany Mountains.

The campaign of 1754 had been utterly disastrous for the English settlers, but it only encouraged the indefatigable Robert Dinwiddie to further efforts. He saw that "if the misfortune attending our forces has aroused the spirit of our neighbouring colonies, it has done more than probably a victory could have effected."[283] He now did his best to still further arouse the united enthusiasm of the Middle and Southern colonies, and so stirred the Assembly of Virginia that it voted £20,000. The defeat of Washington also gave a stimulus to a movement towards unity that had already been made in the autumn of 1753. The delegates of the seven colonies of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, had met in friendly conference at Albany, and had listened to Benjamin Franklin's great scheme of union, under which a colonial Council of forty-eight members was to be formed, each colony supplying members according to its population. This Council was to have very important powers and privileges, including those of declaring peace or war. Had Franklin's statesmanlike proposals met with the general acceptance of the colonies, North America would have become one great self-governing community, having more independent powers than any of the present-day colonies of Great Britain. The time, however, was not yet ripe; the colonies were still too jealous of their own petty rights and privileges; and those who were acting for the welfare of the English in America did not at the moment wish to rush into some great revolutionary change in the constitution, but desired rather a firm attitude of resistance to the French aggressions in the Ohio valley. Dinwiddie found the task difficult enough. He wrote to the Governor of Pennsylvania that the colonies "seemed satisfied to leave the French at full liberty to perpetrate their utmost designs to their ruin."[284] But he did not despair, and asked help from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the Carolinas, and received encouraging replies from all the governors, except Glen of South Carolina. In his excellent work he was ably supported by William Shirley of Massachusetts, who, at this time, was working strenuously to stir the home government to realise the danger that threatened the Thirteen Colonies.

The combined efforts of these two men were not in vain; and although there was peace in Europe, two regiments were sent out under Major-General Braddock in January 1755. Edward Braddock has been the subject of much controversy; his character has been torn to pieces by different historians, and certainly the records point to a man of a curious combination of magnanimity and brutality. When in command at Gibraltar, he was adored by his men; whereas in America, Horace Walpole speaks of him as "a very Iroquois."[285] William Shirley, son of the Governor of Massachusetts, said "We have a general most judiciously chosen for being disqualified for the service he is employed in, in almost every respect."[286] This view is upheld by Burke, who wrote of him as "abounding too much in his own sense for the degree of military knowledge he possessed."[287] It is, however, extremely doubtful if the terrible disaster associated with his name can be entirely attributed to the general's own personal character, and recent writers have shown that the charge of utter incompetence cannot be satisfactorily sustained.[288]

Braddock's forces landed at Hampton, Virginia, in February 1755; and a colonial conference was at once held at Alexandria. This important meeting was attended by six of the colonial governors, including the most patriotic and energetic, Dinwiddie, Shirley, and Sharpe. They concluded that four practically simultaneous expeditions should be made against the French. The English general was to march against Fort Duquesne; two forces were to converge on Crown Point from a base of operations at Albany; while the fourth effort, under Shirley, was to be made against the French conspirators in Acadia.

The English regiments, the 44th and 48th, were reinforced by two hundred and fifty Virginian rangers, and by small detachments from New York, Maryland, and the Carolinas. The force supplied by the wealthy colony of Virginia was utterly inadequate; while Pennsylvania, as usual, sent no aid in the way of troops, and only voted a sum of money to be collected with such difficulty that it was practically valueless. George Washington, at that time recovering from a severe illness, was requested by Braddock to accompany him as one of his aide-de-camps. After a series of delays, on July 3rd Braddock unexpectedly fell in with a French force under Beaujeu on the right bank of the river Monongahela, about eight miles from Fort Duquesne. The majority of the enemy were Indians trained to forest fighting, while the English, accustomed to European methods, fought in a solid mass, their red coats affording an excellent target for their invisible foes. Braddock fought with heroic perseverance; four horses were shot under him, and it was only when he saw the approaching failure of the ammunition, and that his men were exhibiting distinct signs of panic, that he gave the order to retreat. At that moment he was mortally wounded. "I cannot describe the horror of that scene," wrote Lieutenant Leslie of the 44th, three weeks after the battle: "no pen could do it. The yell of the Indians is fresh on my ear, and the terrific sound will haunt me to the hour of my dissolution."[289] The disaster was immediately attributed to the incompetence of Braddock. The colonials naturally praised the conduct of the Virginian detachment, the members of which had had the common-sense to conceal themselves behind trees, and fought the Indians after their own methods. Thus Washington wrote: "The Virginia companies behaved like men and died like soldiers";[290] but there can be no doubt that Washington and other settlers were prejudiced against the English general and were filled with contempt for his scheme of fighting. They never took into consideration that Braddock's failure was partly due to the delay caused by the quarrels between Pennsylvania and Virginia, and partly owing to the utterly worthless horses supplied to him by the colonial authorities for his transports. Where Braddock's great mistake lay was in the belief that "it was better to be defeated in conformity with orthodox methods than to win by conduct which seemed lacking in courage, and by imitating the hitherto unknown tactics of colonials and barbarians."[291]

Dinwiddie, with that same wonderful energy which he had displayed during the whole of this anxious epoch, did his best to mitigate the harm done by the terrible disaster. He realised clearly what Washington pointed out to him, "the consequences that this defeat may have upon our back settlers."[292] He again sent frantic appeals to the Governors of Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North Carolina. The apathy, at this time, of the Middle and Southern colonies was extraordinary; and "while sleek Quakers and garrulous Assembly men prated of peace and local liberties, the outlying settlements were given over to fire and sword."[293] The New England States were, however, more energetic; and on the northern frontier an attempt was being made by Shirley and William Johnson to put into execution the other schemes arranged by the colonial conference. William Johnson was a man who had lived a semi-savage life and who had gained remarkable influence over the Iroquois, particularly the Mohawks. Governor Shirley had recognised this man's gifts, and had appointed him commander of the Massachusetts, New England, and New York levies, consisting of about 6000 men. In the early summer of 1755 Johnson rapidly constructed Fort Lyman, and in August moved slowly forward to the southern extremity of Lake George, with the intention of taking Crown Point. The French, hearing of these warlike preparations, despatched Baron Dieskau to Ticonderoga; he marched still farther south and cut off Johnson's communications with his recently constructed fort. At first the French cleverly ambuscaded a party of the English, but in an assault upon Johnson's camp they were defeated, Dieskau being wounded and taken prisoner. The results of the fight were of some slight importance, as the capture of the leader and the repulse of his men were regarded in England and the colonies as some compensation for the disaster of General Braddock. Johnson was rewarded with a baronetcy and £5000; the little camp was converted into Fort William Henry; and the lake, hitherto known as the Lac du Sacrament, was rechristened, in honour of the King, Lake George. On the other hand, the object of the expedition, Crown Point, remained in the hands of the French, and their possibilities of aggrandisement in the West were still as illimitable as they ever had been.

The two other campaigns of 1755 were under the superintendence of Governor Shirley. In June he sent two thousand men of Massachusetts to Acadia. Their commander was the much-respected John Winslow; and by his assistance the English at last defeated the machinations of the French under De Loutre. Governor Laurence, however, was forced to take strong measures to preserve peace, and deported the intriguing and disloyal Acadians to Massachusetts, Virginia, South Carolina, and elsewhere. His action has been severely criticised and the story has been depicted in words of horror by the poet Longfellow. The expulsion of these "men whose lives glided on like rivers" was, as a matter of fact, absolutely essential for the welfare of the English nation in Nova Scotia. Winslow, who assisted in the work of deportation, recognised the necessity although he disliked the action; but he carried out his orders with the greatest humanity that could be shown under exceptionally difficult circumstances. Meantime, Shirley's second expedition, though commanded by himself, was not so successful. His troops were composed for the most part of colonials paid by the British Government. His object of attack was Fort Niagara, a place of considerable danger to the trading station at Oswego, and one of the main connecting links between Canada and the south-west. The season grew late; the troops were delayed by unexpected obstructions; and towards the end of October, having reinforced Oswego, Shirley found it better to retire.

The campaigns of 1755 had proved most unsatisfactory for the colonists. The southern confines of Virginia continued to be harried, although Washington and his little band, for the most part composed of Ulster Protestants, did what they could to preserve peace along the border-line. In much the same way the frontiers of New England were open to attack, and French animosity was by no means decreased by the skilled scouting expeditions of Robert Rogers and his bold New England rangers. The only great achievement was in Acadia, a province of more value to Great Britain than to the settlers of any particular colony. The French had not only succeeded in remaining in the coveted valley of the Ohio, but had also repulsed with enormous loss a general of some repute, which brought with it the much-desired Indian alliance. Along the shores of the Great Lakes no practical advantages had been gained; and Johnson's victory at Lake George brought rewards to the individual rather than to the New Englanders as a community. The Puritan colonists, however, came out of these campaigns with an enhanced reputation; they were distinguished from their southern brethren by a readiness to sacrifice both men and money in a great imperial cause.

In the early spring of 1756, war in Europe had not yet been declared, but border skirmishes still continued unabated in the distant West. The main effect on the colonies of the declaration of the Seven Years' War, on May 11th, was an increase in the number of regular troops sent to America. These were largely supplemented by the colonial militia and by colonial royal regiments in the pay of the Crown. Before the arrival of the regulars, the French again began their raids, and, under De Lery, captured Fort Bull, thus threatening the more important neighbouring station of Oswego. Shirley at once despatched Colonel Brodstreet with supplies and reinforcements to the traders at that fort, and for the moment baulked the Canadians. But by this time, a greater than De Lery had been sent to America, in the person of the Marquis de Montcalm, who immediately undertook the capture of Oswego. For this purpose, in July, he started from Ticonderoga, and by August 10th was in close proximity to the doomed blockhouse. The powerful artillery of the French, together with the cunning tactics of their native allies, forced Oswego to surrender after its commander, Colonel Mercer, had been killed. This success was invaluable to the French, for as Braddock's defeat had given to New France the Ohio valley, so now Montcalm's victory made her undisputed mistress of the Great Lakes.

The man who had done this great work may be regarded as the French hero of the Seven Years' War. The Marquis de Montcalm was by this time forty-four years of age, and had gained his military experience on many European battlefields. He owed his command to his own intrinsic merits and not, like so many French generals, to the influences of Court mistresses. He was a gentleman of France; a man of impetuous spirit, but possessed of many lovable characteristics; he was kind, tolerant, and gentle, and yet one of the sternest of soldiers. Owing to his ability and energy, his chivalrous courage and kindliness of manner, he was a leader who not only had his men under perfect discipline, but was also endeared to them by those very sterling qualities which they fully recognised. He hated corruption, cheating, and lying; he detested the brutality of many of his companions; and although Wolfe said that "Montcalm has changed the very nature of war, and has forced us ... to a deterring and dreadful vengeance,"[294] yet in reality he did his best to lift the war from mere butchery and murder on to the higher plane of civilised methods. Montcalm, Marquis of the Château de Candiac, gave his life to an ungrateful country, which repaid him for his sacrifice by cruel and unjust charges.

To oppose so good an officer the English Government selected the unsatisfactory leaders, Colonel Daniel Webb, dilatory in taking action, General Abercromby, in Wolfe's opinion "a heavy man," and the Earl of Loudoun, who lacked tact in his treatment of the settlers, and quickness in his command of troops. To add to the English errors, the home authorities recalled Shirley, who had given up the best of his life to sturdily resisting French aggrandisement. Fortunately the colonial forces were not without their own leaders, in many instances men of merit, such as William Johnson, friend of the Mohawks, John Winslow, famous for his Acadian experiences, Colonel Brodstreet, a good and dashing soldier, and, above all, that daring and clearheaded Prince of Rangers, Robert Rogers of New Hampshire.

The individual settlers were brave and true, but the year 1757 opened with the same petty and local quarrels in the colonial Assemblies, chiefly in Pennsylvania and New York, in the former concerning the everlasting squabble about taxing the proprietors' land, in the latter on the question of billeting. The Earl of Loudoun, though his position had given him some weight and authority in the factious Assembly of New York, failed to win the respect or goodwill of the colonial forces. They doubted his capacity, and blamed him in particular for his mismanagement of what ought to have been the crisis of the war. Ever since the restoration of Louisburg by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the settlers had been anxious to again seize that key of the St Lawrence. Loudoun recognised the importance of such an action, and, in conjunction with Admiral Holborne, in August and September endeavoured either to take the fortification, or at least to tempt the French fleet into a pitched battle. That Loudoun was unsuccessful in both schemes was partly due to those delays that have left deep stains upon colonial history, and partly because the elements warred against the British, and Admiral Holborne's fleet being shattered by storms, the expedition had necessarily to be abandoned.

Meantime Montcalm had again displayed his activity; and while Loudoun was engaged in his abortive attempts on Louisburg, the colonies received a severe blow by the loss of Fort William Henry. Towards the end of 1756, the French had made an attack upon this fort, but had been repulsed. Throughout the following July, Montcalm massed his troops at Ticonderoga, and with Lévis, his second in command, and La Corne, a noted Canadian irregular, arrived before Fort William Henry on the 4th August. General Webb ought to have pushed forward to its relief, but he felt himself too weak to cope with Montcalm's army of regulars and Indian allies. For four days the defenders made a gallant struggle; and on August 9th only capitulated on the terms of safe-conduct to Fort Edward. The Indians refused to recognise those terms, and fell upon the English. A massacre ensued, horrible in character and of revolting details, though possibly these may have been exaggerated by lapse of years. It is thought that Montcalm and Lévis did what they could to preserve order, but were unable to prevent the many coldblooded murders because of the utter indifference of the French Canadian officers, who had been hardened in the terrible school of border and Indian warfare.

The French had now reached the high-water mark of their triumph in the West; but in Europe the dawn of better things for the English people had already come, for the king had been forced to place William Pitt in office. An end was now to be put to all the dilatory conduct either of the home authorities or of the colonial Assemblies. A man had been found to save England and the Empire. Pitt's plans were not original; they had been tried before; but they were at last to succeed because proper effort was made, and able generals instead of incompetents were sent out, and chiefly because behind all was the man who inspired with his own glorious spirit every one with whom he came in contact. On December 30, 1757, Pitt addressed a letter to the Governors of the Thirteen Colonies, who cheerfully responded by raising a substantial force.

The first expedition--in which the colonials were not employed--was the capture of Louisburg. The possession of this fortress on Cape Breton Island by the English would ensure the starvation of the Canadians, who were at this time, practically without food. The men chosen for the work were Admiral Boscawen, a hard fighter and typical English seaman; General Jeffrey Amherst, a good but cautious soldier; and three others, Whitmore, Laurence, and General James Wolfe, of "whom the youngest was the most noteworthy,"[295] and whose name is so famously connected with the story of the British in North America.

James Wolfe was born in Kent in 1727. When most modern boys are still at school, he was adjutant of his regiment, and took part in the Battle of Dettingen. He then went through the arduous campaign necessitated by the Jacobite Rising of 1745. At twenty-five years of age he found himself a full colonel. There can be little doubt that he was possessed of many ennobling qualities, but his appearance was much against him, as his face, with its pointed nose and receding forehead and chin, resembled very closely the flap of an envelope. His figure was loose and ungainly, and though over six feet in height, he lacked the smart appearance of the military man. As a soldier he showed the greatest enthusiasm in everything connected with his profession; he worked hard at mathematics, tactics, and strategy, and did his best to perfect himself in the French language. The records of this man's life go to prove that he won the affection and regard of every one, and that he was almost worshipped in the different places in which he was quartered. He never, however, lost his good sense, never became puffed up with pride, never thought himself greater than others. His gallantry in the unfortunate enterprise against Rochefort in January 1758 had come to the notice of the great Pitt, and it was for this reason that he was chosen to accompany Amherst in the attempt to capture the "Dunkirk of America."

Boscawen's fleet with the transports containing the army came in sight of Louisburg in June. Since the capture of the fort by the Massachusetts militia in 1745, something had been done to strengthen its walls, and it was now regarded in Europe as impregnable, though it was probably not so formidable as it looked, since Drucour afterwards referred to it as "crumbling down in every flank, face, and courtine, except the right flank of the king's bastion, which was remounted the first year after my arrival."[296] A town of about four thousand inhabitants nestled in false security beneath the apparently[297] massive walls; but it was of little good for them to imagine that assistance could reach them from France, for the British navy made it impossible for her to send soldiers or supplies. The English force was at last landed, and batteries were at once erected under the distinguished guidance of Wolfe. These fortified entrenchments were moved day by day nearer the doomed stronghold. The guns never ceased to bombard the wretched town that had once considered itself so secure. Within the harbour were eleven French men-of-war, but soon four of these were deliberately sunk at the mouth of the harbour by Drucour, while the rest were driven on shore or captured by a cutting-out expedition. On the 20th of July, Wolfe had erected his last battery; an enormous shell was sent into the chapel of the town, and a fearful explosion occurred. On the 27th the French, under their Governor, Drucour, were forced to capitulate, and Amherst and Wolfe entered the fortress in triumph. Shortly afterwards the vast fortifications were razed to the ground, and to this day there remains nothing save some few ruined casements and huge, grass-grown stones, lying in dismantled heaps upon the edge of the restless Atlantic, to mark the spot where once stood one of the great triumphs of Vauban's engineering art.

The news that Louisburg had fallen was received with every expression of joy in all the colonies, and even the Quakers, who could not fight themselves, gave way to the general outburst and showed suitable signs of rapture at the victory of British arms. The news came at a moment when such glad tidings were sadly needed, for only three weeks before the colonies had been plunged into despair by the horrors of a great tragedy. General Abercromby, with a large force of regulars and colonials, had set out from Albany in May, and after tedious delays had come on July 5th to within striking distance of Ticonderoga. In a skirmish, two days before the great fight, Lord Howe, the most beloved of the British officers, was killed. On July 7th Montcalm with Lévis hurriedly erected a palisade of pines with their branches outward about half a mile from the actual fort. The English general most foolishly did not bring up his guns, fearing lest they should impede his progress. On the morning of July 8 the assault began upon this palisade manned by the trained marksmen of Canada; regiment after regiment of the English were ordered to their annihilation. The Black Watch, for example, went into action about a thousand strong; they straggled out of that awful Gehenna with only half their numbers. At last, having thrown away the lives of two thousand men, Abercromby ordered the retreat, and left Montcalm for the third time the victor.

Amongst the men who fell in that disastrous expedition, no one was so honestly mourned as Lord Howe. Pitt spoke of him as "a complete model of military virtue in all its branches,"[298] but these words in no way summed up the character of one who was not only beloved by the English Army, but also by every man in the colonial contingent. Wolfe himself wrote, "if the report of Howe's death be true, there is an end of the expedition, for he was the spirit of that army, and the very best officer in the King's service."[299] It was in winning the goodwill, respect, and admiration of the settlers that Howe differed so remarkably from his fellow officers. Burke writes of him, "from the moment he landed in America he had wisely conformed and made his regiment conform to the kind of service which the country required."[300] In other words, he acted in a manner which would have caused Braddock to shudder; but it was the right thing to do. The long-tailed tunic of the British regular, his wonderful pig-tail, his buttons and smart points were ruthlessly cut off because they were in the way. He dressed his men as nearly as possible like the colonials, for he it was who for the first time recognised that from them the English might gain experience in this new and strange warfare. He learnt much from men like Rogers the Ranger; and he taught much. Had Lord Howe and James Wolfe been spared to give more of their short lives to the American people, the later history of the Thirteen Colonies must have been very different.

As a set-off to the Ticonderoga disaster, two great victories marked the last six months of 1758. Colonel Bradstreet, in August, with a small portion of Abercromby's army, took Fort Frontenac, thus temporarily cutting off the communication between the French in the Ohio forts with those on the upper lakes. Besides this, Bradstreet was able to destroy the presents collected for the Western Indians and all the winter provisions for Fort Duquesne. These facts considerably assisted General Forbes, who was no less successful in his undertaking. He had to contend against the squabbles of Virginia and Pennsylvania, but he managed to get both men and money. With a force of about six thousand, for the most part settlers from the southern states, but also including a Highland regiment, he set out for Fort Duquesne. His first attack was repulsed; but in November on again advancing he found that the French commander De Ligneries had been obliged, owing to Indian desertions, to evacuate and destroy the fort. A stockade was at once erected by the English to take the place of the once formidable French fortress, and was now christened by the old general, in honour of his master, Pittsburg.

The year 1759 is called "the year of victories," and one of the chief of these was the capture of Quebec. With the actual struggle for the possession of the capital of New France, the colonials had little or nothing to do; the work was entirely that of the British sailors and soldiers. The expedition against Quebec, however, was only a part of a general plan of attack upon Canada, and in this the settlers showed some activity under the leadership of the Commander-in-Chief General Amherst. In May, acting under Amherst's orders, General Prideaux, with two regiments and a small body of colonials, joined Sir William Johnson and his Mohawks at Schenectady. The plan of campaign was that this force should move forward to Fort Niagara, then commanded by Pouchot, and if possible drive out the French. Prideaux's force was quite sufficient for this, but his lack of skill seems to have delayed the surrender of the fort. On July 20 Prideaux was killed and the command devolved upon the more fiery Johnson, who first marched out and defeated a large French reinforcement, and then returned to receive Pouchet's surrender. The capitulation of Niagara was of considerable importance, as from that moment the French were debarred from exercising any influence on the lower lakes. Burke says that it "broke off effectually that communication so much talked of and so much dreaded between Canada and Louisiana."[301]

Meanwhile Amherst advanced north with a large force composed for the most part of regulars. In July he reached the deserted fort of Ticonderoga; on August 1 he found Crown Point abandoned. From this position Amherst ought to have hurried forward to the assistance of Wolfe at Quebec, but he suddenly directed his energies into wrong channels, and instead of pushing forward, employed his army in cutting paths and roads during the whole of August and September. The exertions of Robert Rogers and his New England Rangers has alone saved the expedition from contempt. Amherst lost his opportunity, and instead of being the Conqueror of Canada, by sheer sloth and lack of energy he allowed another man to do the work and win immortal glory on the Heights of Abraham.

James Wolfe had returned to England after the capture of Louisburg, but Pitt had other work for him to do, and he was dispatched to undertake the siege of Quebec. His immediate subordinates were Townshend, Monckton, Murray, and Carleton. The men who were to oppose him in this great undertaking were Montcalm and the incapable Vaudreuil, with Bougainville, upon whom his senior maliciously placed all the blame. In June 1759, Wolfe, supported by a strong naval contingent, sailed up the St Lawrence to the attack of Quebec. The town, steep and precipitous, frowned defiance upon the English; all along the Beauport shore was one vast camp, any path being strongly guarded, and the whole ridge being one long extended earthwork. Montcalm knew his business. If he could but keep Wolfe out until the winter months had come, he felt convinced that the expedition must fail. The English general, on the other hand, longed to tempt the French regulars and Canadian militia out of their snug position and beat them in open ground. In vain Wolfe established a battery upon the Ile d'Orleans, opposite to Quebec, and shattered the lower part of the town. Night after night the countryside was lighted by the fires of farmsteads and barns which were answered back by the flashing fires of Lower Quebec in flames. Nothing would tempt Montcalm to come out. His position was enormously strong, for his flank was protected by the rushing falls of Montmorency. It was at the foot of these that Wolfe made his first serious attempt on July 31, which proved a failure, not for want of bravery, but because of the rash behaviour of the grenadiers. To the astonishment of the general and his officers, the grenadiers had no sooner landed than without orders they tried to rush the hill. They clambered over the rocks, fought their way through bushes and thickets, and were then suddenly met with a withering fire from the French above them. A rain-storm came on at the moment and the army below stood petrified. The rain ceased almost as quickly as it had begun, and the cliffside was seen to be strewn with the redcoats; and worse, the Indians had rushed out and were wreaking their vengeance by their awful custom of scalping.

This success of Montcalm did not tempt him to leave his position and make an attack upon the English. The latter were now for a short time to lose all hope, for the news passed rapidly through the army that their beloved general was at the point of death owing to an incurable complaint from which he had long suffered. His indomitable spirit, however, overcame his sufferings, and rousing himself he once more spent his time gazing carefully at the beetling cliffs. On the 2nd of September he had found what he wanted and determined to start upon what seemed to him somewhat of a forlorn hope, but which was destined to form one of the most glorious pages in British history.

A path had been discovered up the cliffside--the path disclosed seventy years before to Phipps--at the top there was a small guard and nothing more. On the night of the great venture the boats slipped quietly down the river, and as the French were expecting a convoy of provisions two sentries let them go by after a first challenge. Wolfe, sitting in the stem of one of the boats, was murmuring in a solemn whisper the beautiful lines of Grey's Elegy:--

"The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike th' inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave."[302]

"Gentlemen," said he, "I would sooner have written that poem than take Quebec."

The landing was successfully accomplished, the guard at the top was overpowered, and before Montcalm knew that the English had left their camp, four thousand five hundred men were standing in that "thin red line" upon the Heights of Abraham. The gallant Montcalm did what he could, and with surprising energy collected his troops and led them against the English. The French fired time and again upon Wolfe's men, but they stolidly awaited their advance until they could see the whites of their eyes and then let loose upon them a withering fire. The white coats of the French regulars and the gay costumes of the French Canadian trappers were ready targets and they reeled and fell. Wolfe then ordered the assault, and with a second volley the whole army charged, Wolfe leading his grenadiers. After receiving a slight wound, a fatal bullet singled out that gallant man, and he fell, unnoticed for the moment save by four of his officers, who tenderly carried him to the rear of the advancing host. "They run! They run!" cried one of the officers. "Who run?" said Wolfe. "The French," they replied. "God be praised, I die in peace."

Montcalm was also mortally wounded, and just before the city actually capitulated he passed away, happy that he should not witness the surrender. Montcalm, like Wolfe, was a hero and a patriot, but whereas Wolfe gained the love and everlasting memory of a grateful country and Empire, Montcalm's name was dragged down by unworthy men who never understood his burning zeal, who had none of his ambition for a glorious French Empire in the West. Wolfe's "star had only just arisen. For a moment something like a cloud seemed to have obscured its very dawn; when suddenly bursting like a meteor across the whole horizon of war and politics, it vanished amid a blaze of glory as splendid in a sense and as lasting as that of Nelson himself. It seemed, in truth, as if a great leader had been found and lost in a single moon."[303]

General Murray was left in command of Quebec to pass one of the most trying winters ever undergone by a garrison which was without proper clothing or supplies. At no great distance was a very capable leader, Lévis, plotting to recover the city, which he very nearly succeeded in doing, by defeating Murray outside the walls at the battle of St Foy, on April 28, 1760. The French general, however, lost his opportunity by not striking at the city itself when the garrison was confused by the defeat. Murray was saved by the timely appearance of the British fleet on May 15, and Lévis retreated. All that was now left to be done to complete the conquest of Canada and the salvation of the Thirteen Colonies from French attack was a final advance upon Montreal. Murray was the first to make a move in July; while Haviland advanced down the Richelieu River with three thousand five hundred men, including Rogers and his New Englanders. Amherst's army had already collected at Schenectady, but its progress was retarded by the slow arrival of the colonial contingent of about five thousand men. The forces at last combined before Montreal; and on September 8, just a year after Wolfe's splendid victory, the last stronghold of New France capitulated to the combined forces of England and the Thirteen Colonies.

According to Lord Chesterfield the acquisition of Canada cost the English nation four score millions. No one at the present day can think that the possession of the great Dominion, then regarded as "a few acres of snow," was not worth twenty times the sum. By the Treaty of Paris, 1763, Louis XV. ceded "in full right Canada with all its dependencies, as well as the island of Cape Breton and all other islands and coasts in the gulf and river of St Lawrence." The French had done their best, ever since the great voyage of Jacques Cartier in 1534, to build up a new French Empire in the West. They had failed, partly because of the fallacious principles of the French colonial system, but particularly for two reasons. The first was the absolute exclusion of the Huguenots, whereby the Canadians shut out the very people who would have made the Empire rich and strong; and the second reason was because their dreams were too diffuse, too magnificent, beyond the physical capacity of so small a nation. They proposed to shut within narrow limits a nation twenty times as large in population, far more energetic and industrious, and one which would by the laws of nature overflow into those very valleys and happy hunting-grounds that they had marked out for themselves.

What, then, was the effect of the capture of Canada upon the settlers of the Thirteen Colonies? We stand at the parting of the ways. The Treaty of Paris not only marked the increase of the British dominions beyond the seas, but also carried within it the germ of the future schism within the British Empire. Several of the Thirteen Colonies had for many years been filled with "a spirit of independence, puritan in religion, and republican in politics."[304] Ever since the seventeenth century the people of Massachusetts had kicked against the pricks of the Navigation Act. The danger from the north and the west had undoubtedly had a repressive influence upon the colonists, and had kept them subservient to the English colonial system, which they hated and which was in reality at the root of their disaffection. The Peace of Paris removed all danger from Spain in the south, while the French danger was removed by the victory of Wolfe; and the rising colonies felt themselves as a new race about to start some great venture. They were (they knew it themselves, and the French recognised it most clearly) absolutely free to choose their future. The sagacious Vergennes predicted events that actually occurred. "England," he said, "will soon repent of having removed the only check that could keep her colonies in awe. They stand no longer in need of her protection. She will call on them to contribute towards supporting the burdens they have helped to bring on her, and they will answer by striking off all dependence."[305] The defeat of New France meant the possibilities of a new nation in the Western hemisphere; and Old France revenged herself for the loss of her would-be Empire by throwing in her lot with those aforetime jealous and jarring Thirteen States. Old France, therefore, though she knew her own Empire was gone, largely assisted to create the new nation, the new people, the United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies had scarcely been taught the lessons of unity by the horrors of Indian barbarities and the French border war; but so much as they had learnt they tried to put into practice at the first Philadelphian Congress, and at the time of the Declaration of Independence. The Treaty of Paris, one of the most important of all colonial treaties, was merely the forerunner of that other great Treaty of Versailles; the former gave to us the vast area now known as the Dominion of Canada; the latter marked the disappearance of England's Thirteen Colonies, and the creation of the United States of America. It would not have been any very great or wonderful prophecy for a statesman, after the Treaty of Paris, to have foretold the rise of that new nation which has grown with such marvellous strides; and it would not have been inappropriate for him to have used the words of the poet in which to describe this great evolution, and say, "Methinks, I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation, rousing herself as a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks. Methinks I see her like an _eagle_ viewing her mighty youth and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full midday beam."

FOOTNOTES:

[281] Adams's _Works_ (ed. 1856), vol. i. p. 23.

[282] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), pp. 544, 545.

[283] _Dinwiddie Papers_, vol. i. p. 258.

[284] _Dinwiddie Papers_, vol. i. p. 306.

[285] _Letters of Horace Walpole_ (Ed. 1861), vol. ii. p. 459.

[286] Parkman, _Wolfe and Montcalm_ (1901), vol. i. p. 188.

[287] _Annual Register_, 1758, p. 4.

[288] Bradley, _The Fight with France for North America_ (1905), pp. 81-99.

[289] Quoted by J. A. Harrison, _Washington_ (1906), p. 95.

[290] Letter of Washington to Dinwiddie, July 18, 1755.

[291] Doyle, _The Colonies under the House of Hanover_ (1907), p. 575.

[292] Letter of Washington to Dinwiddie, July 18, 1755.

[293] Lucas, _Hist. Geo. of British Colonies, Canada_, part i. (1901), p. 240.

[294] Wright, _Life of Wolfe_ (1864), pp. 440, 441.

[295] Parkman, _Wolfe and Montcalm_, vol. ii. p. 48.

[296] Drucour's letter, _Annual Register_, 1758, pp. 179-81.

[297] Bradley, _The Fight with France for North America_ (1905), p. 217, says a million sterling had been spent on the fortifications since 1745.

[298] _Grenville Correspondence_, vol. i. 262.

[299] Quoted by Bradley, _ut supra_, p. 245.

[300] _Annual Register_, 1758, pp. 72, 73.

[301] Burke, _Annual Register_, 1759, p. 34.

[302] Major W. Wood, in _The Siege of Quebec_ (1904), doubts the truth of this picturesque story.

[303] Bradley, _Life of Wolfe_ (1895), p. 208.

[304] Hunt, _Political History of England_, 1760-1801 (1905), p. 141.

[305] Bancroft, _History of the United States_ (1891), i. p. 525.

CHRONOLOGY OF COLONIAL HISTORY

1492. First voyage of Columbus. 1496. Charter to John and Sebastian Cabot. 1497. John and Sebastian Cabot discover Newfoundland. 1498. The second voyage of the Cabots. 1500. Gaspar Corte Real sailed to Newfoundland. 1501. Gaspar Corte Real wrecked in Chesapeake Bay. 1502. Miguel Corte Real sailed to search for his brother. 1506. Denys of Harfleur reached the Gulf of St Lawrence. 1508. Aubert of Dieppe brought American Indians to France 1523. Verrazano sent out by Francis I. 1524. Verrazano sailed along the coast of North America. 1527. John Rut and Albert de Prado sailed to Newfoundland. 1534. Jacques Cartier of St Malo sailed to the St Lawrence. 1535. Jacques Cartier's second voyage. He reached Stadacona. 1536. Master Hore was wrecked on Newfoundland. 1541-42. Cartier's third voyage, joined by De Roberval. 1553. Voyages of Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor. 1562. Jean Ribault's expedition to Florida. 1564-65. René de Laudonniere sailed to the Carolinas. 1565. The French settlement destroyed by the Spaniard Menendez. 1576. Martin Frobisher's first voyage. 1577. Martin Frobisher's second voyage, and discovery of Meta Incognita. 1577-80. Drake's voyage round the world. 1578. Martin Frobisher's third voyage. Grant of a patent for colonisation to Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 1583. Newfoundland claimed as an English colony. 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sends out Captains Amidas and Barlow. 1585. Raleigh's first Virginian colony. 1586. The colonists brought back by Drake. 1587. Raleigh's second attempt. 1589. First edition of _Hakluyt's Voyages_ published. 1598. Second and complete edition of _Hakluyt's Voyages_. Marquis de la Roche attempts to found a convict settlement. 1599. Chauvin and Pontgravé attempt a settlement at Tadoussac. 1602. De Chastes obtains the services of Samuel Champlain. Bartholomew Gosnold makes a voyage to the West. 1603. The voyage of the _Discovery_ and the _Speedwell_ to America. De la Roche's settlers rescued from Sable Island. Samuel Champlain sailed up the St Lawrence. De Monts obtained a patent to colonise Acadia. 1604. De Chastes joined to De Monts and established Port Royal. 1605. Samuel Champlain remained the winter in Acadia. 1606. Relief arrived. The expedition included Lescarbot, the historian. The formation of the London and Plymouth Companies. 1607. The foundation of Jamestown, Virginia. Popham and Gilbert's expedition to the Kennebec. 1608. Champlain founded Quebec. 1609. Champlain discovered Lake Champlain. Claude Etienne and Charles de la Tour settled on the Penobscot. Sir George Somers and Sir Thomas Gates sail for Virginia. 1610. Lord Delawarr governor of Virginia. 1611. Sir Thomas Gates governor of Virginia. 1613. Marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe. Champlain and de Vignau follow the course of the Ottawa. 1614. Samuel Argall sacked Port Royal in Acadia. Captain John Smith made a voyage to New England. 1615. Champlain and Le Caron came to Lake Huron. 1616. The Recollet missionaries settled in Canada. 1619. Sir George Yeardley governor of Virginia. 1620. Reorganisation of the New England Company. The voyage of the _Mayflower_ and establishment of New Plymouth. 1621. Sir William Alexander obtained a patent to colonise Acadia. 1622. Sir Robert Gordon attempted to settle Cape Breton Island. 1623. James I. demanded the surrender of the charter of the London Company. A fishing station at Cape Ann, Massachusetts. Levitt established a settlement on Casco Bay, Maine. 1625. Jesuit missionaries first came to Canada. 1626. Definite settlement of the Dutch on Manhattan Island. 1627. Death of Sir George Yeardley. Harvey governor of Virginia. Richelieu establishes the Company of the One Hundred Associates. 1628. David Kirke destroyed the French fleet in the St Lawrence. 1629. David Kirke captured Quebec. Sir Robert Heath received a grant of land south of Virginia. The establishment of Massachusetts. 1630. Winthrop established Boston. La Tour made governor of Acadia. 1631. Arrival of Roger Williams in Massachusetts. Lord Saye and Sele and Lord Brooke obtain land on the Connecticut. Sir Ferdinando Gorges formed a company for colonising Maine. 1632. Grant of Maryland to Lord Baltimore. Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye, by which Quebec was restored to the French. 1634. Champlain built a fort at Three Rivers. 1635. Champlain died. Maine granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges. Captain John Mason established New Hampshire. Foundation of Providence by Roger Williams. Winthrop, the younger, governor of Connecticut. Harry Vane, Mrs Anne Hutchinson, and John Wheelwright come to Massachusetts. The Pequod War. 1636. The foundation of Harvard College. De Montmagny succeeded Champlain. 1637. The foundation of Rhode Island. Theophilus Eaton founded New Haven. 1638. Minuit's Swedish settlement. 1640. Union of Rhode Island and Providence. 1642. Conformity Act in Virginia. Fort Richelieu (Sorel) founded. 1643. The New England Confederacy. 1647. Peter Stuyvesant made governor of the New Netherlands. 1649. Toleration Act in Maryland. 1650. Sir William Berkeley commissioned by Charles II. 1651. Sir George Ayscue sent to subdue the West. 1651-58. The towns of Maine under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. 1652. Richard Bennet governor of Virginia. 1653. Le Moyne, the Jesuit, sent as an envoy to the Iroquois. 1654. War with the Nyantic Indians. 1654. Stephenson took Acadia. 1655. Peter Stuyvesant captured the Swedish settlements. Edward Digges, Governor of Virginia. Victory of the Protestants at Providence, Maryland. 1657. Lord Baltimore restored in Maryland. 1659. Josias Fendall, Governor of Maryland. 1661. Royal Commissioners sent to the colonies. 1662. Charles Calvert made Governor of Maryland. Charter granted to Connecticut. 1663. Charter granted to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas. Canada became a Royal Province. 1664. Colbert created the Company of the West. Richard Nicolls captured New Amsterdam. 1665. Attempt of De Ruyter to retake New Amsterdam. Marquis de Tracy made Lieutenant-General of Canada. 1666. Courcelles attacked the Iroquois. The Treaty of Breda. La Salle arrived in Canada. 1667. Locke's Fundamental Constitutions for the Carolinas. Terrific gale in Maryland and Virginia. 1668. Francis Lovelace made Governor of New York. Jacques Marquette, a missioner on Lake Superior. 1669. La Salle supposed to have discovered the Ohio. 1670. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. William Sayle came from the Barbadoes to South Carolina. 1671. Sir John Yeamans, Governor of South Carolina. 1672. Count Frontenac made Governor of Canada. Grants in Virginia to Lords Arlington and Culpeper. 1673. Cornelius Eversen retook New York. The establishment of Fort Frontenac. Joliet and Marquette reach the Mississippi. 1674. Death of Marquette. The Treaty of Westminster restored New York to the English. Carteret and Berkeley given rights in New Jersey. Joseph West made Governor of South Carolina. 1674-1676. King Philip's War. 1675. Death of Cecil, Lord Baltimore. 1677. The end of Berkeley's rule in Virginia. Thomas Eastchurch, Governor of Carolina. 1678. Massachusetts purchased all rights over Maine. La Salle given leave to discover the western parts of New France. La Salle, De Tonty, and Father Hennepin allied as discoverers. Fort Niagara built. 1679. La Salle sailed up Lakes Erie and Michigan. 1680. La Salle built Fort Crèvecoeur on the lower Illinois. Father Hennepin travelled on the upper Mississippi. Edward Byllinge and certain Quakers encouraged to colonise Delaware. 1681. William Penn founded Pennsylvania. Limitation of the franchise in Maryland. 1681-1682. La Salle descended the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. 1682. End of Frontenac's first government of Canada. Formation of the "Compagni du Nord." 1682-1683. La Salle established a French colony on the Illinois. 1682-1684. New Hampshire governed by Edward Cranfield. 1683. Seth Sothel, Governor of North Carolina. Thomas Dongan, Governor of New York. 1684. La Vallière, Governor of Acadia, succeeded by Perrot. Lord Howard of Effingham, Governor of Virginia. The Five Nations allied with the English at Albany. 1684-1685. La Salle's expedition to Texas. 1684-1687. The Mississippi Scheme. 1685. The Marquis de Denonville, Governor of Canada. The English colonies lose their charters. Francis Nicholson, Deputy-Governor of New York. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1686. Sir Edmund Andros in Massachusetts. 1687. Death of La Salle. The Marquis de Denonville defeated the Iroquois. 1688. The Revolution in England. Sir Edmund Andros plundered Pentegost. 1689. Denonville destroyed Fort Frontenac. Count Frontenac appointed Governor of Canada for the second time. Count Frontenac sent three raiding parties into New England. Du Luth defeated the Iroquois on the Ottawa. William Penn lost his proprietary rights. Leisler's rising in New York. 1690. Congress of the colonies at Albany. Colonel Sloughter suppressed Leisler's rising. Port Royal taken by Sir William Phipps. Sir William Phipps led an expedition against Quebec. 1691. Successful attack of the English on La Prairie. New Plymouth incorporated within Massachusetts. Maryland placed under the direct control of the Crown. 1692. Benjamin Fletcher, Governor of New York. Andrew Hamilton, Governor of New Jersey. Villebon re-occupied Port Royal. French attacks on the coast of Maine. 1693. Canadians and Indians attacked the Mohawk towns. D'Iberville reconnoitred Fort Pemaquid. English expedition to recover the forts on James Bay. Establishment of William and Mary College, Virginia. 1694. Proprietary rights restored to William Penn. End of the rule of Sir William Phipps in Massachusetts. La Mothe Cadillac sent to command Michillimackinac. 1695. Fort Frontenac was re-occupied. Sir William Phipps died. 1696. Frontenac, Callières, and Vaudreuil attacked the Iroquois. D'Iberville took Fort Pemaquid from Chubb. 1696-1726. Rhode Island governed by Samuel Cranston. 1697. Abortive French expedition under the Marquis de Nesmond against Boston. D'Iberville took Fort Nelson. The Treaty of Ryswick. 1698. Establishment of a college in Connecticut. Frontenac died at Quebec. 1698-1701. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire governed by Lord Bellomont. 1699. First colonisation of Louisiana by Le Moyne d'Iberville. 1701. La Mothe Cadillac founded Detroit. Penn left Pennsylvania. Execution of the pirate Captain Kidd. Lord Cornbury succeeded Lord Bellomont. 1702. The Proprietors resigned their rights over New Jersey. 1702-1713. Queen Anne's War. 1703. Separation of Delaware from Pennsylvania. Colonel Moore's attack upon St Augustine. 1704. Colonel Moore's attack upon Apalachee. The French attacked Deerfield. Major Church threatened Port Royal. 1706. The French and Spanish attacked Charleston. 1707. Colonel March threatened Port Royal. 1708. The French attacked Haverfield on the Merrimac. Lord Cornbury recalled. 1709. Samuel Vetch advocated combined attack on New France. Colonel Francis Nicholson attacked near Lake Champlain the forces of Ramesay, Governor of Montreal. 1710. Colonel Francis Nicholson took Port Royal. 1711. The Walker-Hill expedition against Canada. North Carolina attacked by the Tuscarora Indians. 1712. Birth of Montcalm at Nîmes. 1713. The Treaty of Utrecht. 1715. Proprietary rights over Maryland restored to the fourth Lord Baltimore. 1716. North Carolina attacked by the Yamassee Indians. 1718. Death of William Penn. Bienville, brother of D'Iberville, founded New Orleans. 1720. Settlement of German Palatines in New York. Louisburg on Cape Breton Island began to be important. The French built a permanent fort at Niagara. 1723. The Jesuit Charlevoix recommended a mission among the Sioux. 1724. Sebastian Rasle, a Jesuit priest, killed on the Kennebec. 1726. Peace between the Indians and New Englanders. 1727. Birth of James Wolfe at Westerham, in Kent. The English established a trading centre at Oswego. Fort Beauharnois built in the Sioux country. 1729. Death of Governor Burnet. 1731-1740. De la Verendrye built forts from Rainy Lake westward. 1731. Saint Luc de la Corne built Fort St Frederic (Crown Point). 1732. General Oglethorpe established Georgia. 1734. Salzburg Germans came to Georgia. 1736. John Wesley in Georgia. 1738. George Whitefield in Georgia. 1739-1742. War in Georgia with the Spaniards. 1742. The Spaniards attacked St Simons, Carolina. 1743. General Oglethorpe left Georgia. 1743-1753. George Clinton, Governor of New York. 1744. War between England and France. Canso taken by the French. 1745. Shirley, Pepperell, and Warren take Louisburg. 1747. Warren and Anson defeated the French off Cape Finisterre. 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1749. Celeron de Bienville registered the claims of France to the Ohio valley. Establishment of Fort Rouillé (Toronto). Establishment of Halifax. 1750. Le Loutre burnt Beaubassin. 1752. The Marquis Duquesne became Governor of Canada. Georgia passed into the hands of the Crown. 1753. Proposal to unite the Thirteen Colonies. Duquesne sent Marin to build forts between the Lakes and the Ohio. Washington sent on a counter expedition. 1754. The French built Fort Duquesne. Death of Jumonville. Washington built Fort Necessity, but obliged to retreat. 1755. Braddock's disaster on the Monongahela. William Johnson's expedition against Crown Point. Shirley's advance on Lake Ontario. Beausejour taken and renamed Fort Cumberland. Transportation of the Acadians. Vaudreuil appointed Governor-General of Canada. 1756. Outbreak of the Seven Years' War. Oswego, under Bradstreet, taken by Montcalm. Recall of William Shirley. 1757. Loudoun and Holborne made an abortive attempt on Louisburg. Fort William Henry taken by Montcalm and Levis. William Pitt joined Newcastle. 1758. Louisburg under Drucour taken by Boscawen, Amherst, and Wolfe. Abercromby defeated at Ticonderoga. Death of Lord Howe. 1758. Fort Frontenac taken by Bradstreet. Amherst appointed Commander-in-chief in North America. Fort Duquesne taken by Forbes and renamed Pittsburg. 1759. Stanwix sent to Duquesne and Prideaux to Oswego. Fort Niagara taken by Johnson. Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken by Amherst. The capture of Quebec. Deaths of Wolfe and Montcalm. 1760. The Battle of St Foy. Levis forced the English into Quebec. Relief of Quebec. Surrender of Montreal to the forces of Amherst, Haviland, and Murray. 1763. The Peace of Paris.

A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THOSE WORKS WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED EASILY

_Large Bibliographies_

Larned, J. N. (editor). The Literature of American History, Boston, 1902.

Harrisse, H. Notes pour servir à l'histoire, à la bibliographie, et à la cartographie de la Nouvelle France, etc., Paris, 1872.

Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii., Cambridge, 1905.

_General_

Calendars of Colonial State Papers in the English Record Office.

Bancroft, G. History of the United States, 6 vols., New York, 1883-85.

Doyle, J. A. The English in America, 3 vols., London, 1882-87; The Middle Colonies, London, 1907; The Colonies under the House of Hanover, London, 1907.

Egerton, H. L. Short History of British Colonial Policy, New York, 1898; Origin and Growth of English Colonies, Oxford, 1903.

Hart, A. B. (editor). American History told by Contemporaries, 4 vols., New York, 1897-1902.

Winsor, J. (editor). The Narrative and Critical History of America, 8 vols., Boston, 1886-89.

_Discoveries_

Fiske, J. The Discovery of America, 2 vols., Boston, 1892.

Hakluyt, R. Principal Navigations, voiages, etc. (1598), 12 vols., Glasgow, 1904-5.

Payne, L. J. Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, 2 vols., London, 1893.

Prowse, D. W. History of Newfoundland, London, 1895.

_The Thirteen Colonies_

Bradley, A. G. Captain John Smith (English Men of Action), London, 1905.

Brown, J. The Pilgrim Fathers of New England, New York, 1895.

Browne, W. H. Maryland: the History of a Palatinate, Boston, 1884.

Bruce, H. Life of Oglethorpe, New York, 1890.

Bruce, P. A. Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, 2 vols., New York, 1896.

Clarkson, T. Memoirs of William Penn, 2 vols., London, 1813.

Fiske, J. The Beginnings of New England, Boston, 1889; Old Virginia and her Neighbours, 2 vols., New York, 1897; Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, 2 vols., Boston, 1899.

Johnston, A. Connecticut, Boston, 1887.

Jones, C. C. History of Georgia, 2 vols., Boston, 1883.

M'Clintock, J. History of New Hampshire, Boston, 1889.

M'Crady, E. History of South Carolina, 4 vols., New York, 1897-1903.

Neill, E. D. History of the Virginia Company of London, Albany, 1869.

Rickman, J. Rhode Island, its Making and Meaning, 2 vols., New York, 1902.

Roberts, E. H. History of New York, 2 vols., Boston, 1887.

Saunders, W. L. (editor). Colonial Records of North Carolina, 16 vols., Raleigh, 1886.

Shurtlegg, N. B. Records of Massachusetts Bay, 1628-86, 5 vols., Boston, 1853-54.

Weeden, W. B. Economic and Social History of New England, 2 vols., Boston, 1890.

Williamson, W. D. History of Maine, 2 vols., Hallowell, 1832.

Wenson, J. Memorial History of Boston, 1630-1880, 4 vols., Boston, 1880-82.

_Canada_

Bourinot, Sir J. G. Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island of Cape Breton, Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Montreal; 1892, Canada under British Rule, Camb., 1900.

Bradley, A. G. Wolfe (English Men of Action), London, 1889; The Fight with France for North America, London, 1900.

Green, W. William Pitt (Heroes of the Nation), New York, 1901.

Kingsford, W. The History of Canada, London, 1888.

Lucas, C. P. Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. v., Oxford, 1901.

Parkman, F. Collected Works, edited by W. Kingsford, London, 1900-1.

Wright, R. Life of Major-General J. Wolfe, London, 1864.

INDEX

A

Abenaki Indians, 229, 230, 232, 245

Abercromby, General, 267, 272-74

Abolition of slave trade (1807), 190

Abraham, Heights of, 276, 278

Acadia, 35, 227, 233, 237, 243, 244, 248, 261, 264, 265

Adams, John, 254

Africa, 6

Agriculture, 174

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 256, 268

Alatamaha River, 159

Albany, 134, 135, 136, 140, 141, 225, 226, 227, 229, 259, 261, 272

Albemarle (district), 65, 67, 68, 70

Albemarle, Duke of, 64

Albemarle river, 64

Alcazar, Battle of, 10

Alexander VI., rule of, 6

Alexandria (America), 260

Alleghany Mountains, 166, 245, 256

Alleghany River, 258

Allen, Nathaniel, 151

Allen, Samuel, 126

Alva, Duke of, 2

Amelia Island, 161

Amherst, Jeffrey, 270-72, 275, 276

Amidas, Captain, 17, 20, 23, 63

Amsterdam, 79, 132

Andros, Sir Edmund, 102, 103, 112, 139, 140, 141, 148, 192

Annapolis, 197, 203, 237

Anson, Admiral, 251

Antigua, 68

Apalachee, 72

Aquedneck, 114, 175

Archangel, 9, 18

Archdale, Joseph, 71

Argall, Samuel, 34-37

Arkansas River, 215-18

Arlington, Lord, 46

Arnold, _History of the State of Rhode Island, etc._, 117 _n._

Ashley River, 65, 69

_Association for the Defence of the Protestant Religion_, 60

Aubert (French voyager), 200

Augusta, 159

Austrian Succession, War of, 251

Ayscue, Sir George, 44

Azores, the, 22

B

Bacon, Sir Francis, 4, 31

Bacon, Nathaniel, 48

Bahamas, the, 158

Baltic Company, 118

Baltimore City, 62, 191

Baltimore, first Lord, 54, 55

Baltimore, second Lord, 55-59

Baltimore, fourth Lord, 61

Barbadoes, the, 64, 68, 96, 97, 188

Barbary, 10

Barlow, Captain, 17, 23, 63

Barrett, _History and Antiquities of Bristol_, 5 _n._

Bateson, _Cambridge Modern History_, 200 _n._

Beaujeu, Admiral, 220, 261

Beauport, 228, 276

Belcher, Governor, 194

Belknap, 249 _n._

Bellomont, Earl of, 105, 106, 143

Bennet, Richard, 45

Berkeley, Lady, 49

Berkeley, Lord, 134, 139, 146, 147

Berkeley, Sir William, 42-49, 57, 64, 194

Bermudas, 31, 34, 64

Berry, Sir John, 48, 49

Beverley, Robert, 195

Beza, John, 151

Bienville, C. de, 256

Biggar, _Voyages of the Cabots, etc._, 5 _n._

Bigot, 170

Black Watch, 273

Blair, Commissary, 51, 52, 194

Blake, Joseph, 71

Blenheim, Battle of, 232

Block Island, 101

Bolingbroke, Viscount, 237

Bolzius, Martin, 159

Boscawen, Admiral, 270, 271

Boston, 89, 96, 97, 100-104, 110, 115 118, 141, 144, 169, 170, 171, 173, 176, 181, 183, 184, 227, 228, 231, 235, 237-39, 241, 252

"Bostonnais," 227, 228, 233

Bougainville, 276

Bozman, _History of Maryland_, 57 _n._

Braddock, General, 260-63, 266, 273

Bradford, William, 79, 82, 83

Bradley, _Captain John Smith_, 29 _n._

Bradley, _Fight with France for North America_, 260 _n._, 271 _n._, 273 _n._

Bradley, _Life of Wolfe_, 279 _n._

Bradstreet, Anne, 183

Bradstreet, Colonel, 266, 267, 274

Bradstreet, Simon, 89, 169, 171, 179

Braintree (America), 171

Branford, 112

Brayne, Henry, 68

Brazil, 6, 8, 18

Breda, 44

Brewton, Colonel, 72

Bristol, 3-6

British Columbia, 15

Brodhead, 135

Brooke, Lord, 107, 124

Brown, Captain, 245

Browne, John, 90

Browne, Samuel, 90

Bryce, _American Commonwealth_, 108 _n._

Bulkeley, Peter, 99, 100

Burke, Edmund, 165, 273

Burnet, Governor, 144, 177, 246

Burrough, Edward, 96, 97

Byllinge, Edward, 147, 148

Byrd, Colonel, 195

C

Cabot, John, 3, 5, 6

Cabot, Sebastian, 3-6, 8, 9

Cadillac, La Mothe, 222

California, Gulf of, 215

Calvert, Cecil, 193

Calvert, Chas., 59, 60

Calvert, George, 54

Calvert, Leonard, 55-57

Cambridge (America), 89, 93, 184

Campbell, John, 184

Canada, 78, 141, 170, 180, 202-24, 225, 226, 227, 229, 232-34, 242, 244, 247, 251, 254, 257, 264, 273-82

Canary Islands, 6

Canso, 248

Cape Ann, 87

Cape Breton Island, 243, 252, 270, 280

Cape Cod, 81

Cape Fear, 64, 68

Cape Finisterre, 251

Cape Henry, 26

Carleton, Sir Guy, 276

Carlile, Captain, 16

Carolina, North, 17, 52, 63-75, 191, 196, 198

Carolina, South, 53, 63-75, 158, 162, 187, 190, 191, 194, 196-98, 264

Carolinas, The, 5, 107, 201, 235, 257, 258, 259, 261

Carr, Sir Robert, 121, 122, 125, 134

Carteret, Philip, 59, 134, 147,148

Carteret, Sir George, 134, 139, 146, 147, 148

Cartier, Jacques, 201, 202, 280

Cartwright, 134

Carver, William, 82

Cary, Thomas, 73

Casco Bay, 119, 232

Castle Island, 90

Cataraqui River, 216

Cathay, 3, 6, 10

Cathay, Company of, 11

Cavendish, 18, 20

Cecil, Robert, 31

Champlain, Samuel, 203-208, 212, 213

Chancellor, Richard, 9

Charles I., 41, 42, 44, 54, 63, 64, 76, 90, 94, 95, 109, 119, 123, 132

Charles II., 44, 46, 48, 59, 72, 85, 93, 96, 97, 116, 119, 121, 122, 129, 132, 133, 138, 146, 176, 184, 196

Charles V., 9, 200

Charlestown, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 89, 90, 103, 196

Chauvin, 203

Chesapeake Bay, 26

Chesterfield, Lord, 280

Chicheley, Sir Henry, 49

Chowan River, 63

Chubb, 230, 231

Church, Major, 233

Clap, _The Annals or History of Yale College_, 182 _n._

Clarendon, Earl of, 64

Clarendon Settlements, 70

Clarke, George (Junior), 144

Clarke, George (Senior), 145

Clayborne, William, 56-58

Clinton, George, 145

Clothmaking, 171

Cocheco River, 124

Coddington, William, 114, 175

Colbert, 208-11, 219

Colonial Congress, First, 141

Columbus, Christopher, 3, 4, 6, 25, 80, 200

Company of the One Hundred Associates, 207, 208

Company of the West, 210

Conant, Roger, 87

Condé, Prince de, 204

Connecticut, 93, 102, 107-14, 118, 119, 126, 129, 133, 168, 171, 173, 175, 176, 179, 181-84, 226, 249

Connecticut River, 107, 109

Contrecoeur, 258

Convers, 230

Coode, John, 60

Coram, Thomas, 157

Cornbury, Lord, 143, 150

Cosby, William, 144

Costobelle, 238

Cotton, John, 92, 185

Courcelles, Governor, 211

Cranfield, Edward, 126

Cranston, Samuel, 117

Crispen, William, 151

Cromwell, Oliver, 44, 45, 58

Crownpoint, 246, 247, 251, 261, 263, 264

Culpeper, Lord, 46, 50, 67

Curwen, Samuel, 250

Cutts, John, 125

Cuyler, 141

D

Dale, Sir Thomas, 32, 33 _n._, 36, 37

Damariscotta, 248

Dare, Eleanor, 21

Darien, 233

Dautray, Sieur, 218, 219

Davenport, John, 118

Davies, Sylvanus, 226

D'Auville, Duc, 251

De Chastes, 203

D'Estournel, 251

De Lery, 266

De Ligueries, 274

De Loutre, 264

De Monts, 203

De Roberval, 202

De Ruyter, 135

Declaration of Indulgence, 162

Deerfield, 232, 233

Defoe, Daniel, 155

Delaware, 112, 153, 155, 187, 191

Delaware River, 134, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151-53

Delawarr, Lord, 32, 34

Denonville, 225

Denys, the voyager, 200

Detroit, 222-47

Diaz, Bartholomew, 3

Dieskau, Baron, 263

Digges, Edward, 45

Dinwiddie, Governor, 53, 256-62

Dongan, Thomas, 139, 140, 225

Dorchester (America), 86, 90, 108

Doughty, Thomas, 15

Dover (America), 124, 125

Doyle, _Cambridge Modern History_, 67 _n._, 91 _n._, 134 _n._, 165 _n._, 183 _n._

Doyle, _Colonies under the House of Hanover_, 185 _n._, 195 _n._, 197 _n._, 250 _n._, 252 _n._, 255 _n._, 262 _n._

Doyle, _The English in America_, 24 _n._, 38 _n._, 40 _n._, 87 _n._, 178 _n._, 193 _n._

Drake, Sir Francis, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21

Drucour, Governor, 271, 272

Du Luth, 218, 222

Duchambon, 249, 250

Dudley, Thomas, 89

Dummer, Jeremiah, 237

Duquesne, Marquis, 256, 257

Duquesnel, 247

Dutch West India Company, 130-33

Dyre, William, 122

E

East Greenwich, manor of, 111

East India Company, 18, 24, 130

Eastchurch, Thomas, 67

Eaton, Theophilus, 117

Education, 182, 183, 194

Edward VI., 9

Egerton, _A Short History of British Colonial Policy_, 104 _n._

Egerton, _Origin and Growth of the English Colonies_, 15 _n._

Eldorado, 2, 18

Eliot, John, 180

Elizabeth, Queen, 10, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, 45, 78

Endecott, John, 87-91, 109

Eversen, Cornelius, 138

Exeter (America), 124

F

Fabian, Robert, 5

Fairfield, 182

Falmouth, 226, 227

Fendall, Josias, 58, 60

Fenwick, John, 147, 148

Ferrars, John, 36

Fish trade, 170, 172

Fitchett, _Fights for the Flag_, 229 _n._

Five Nations (see also Iroquois), 139, 140, 204, 212, 213, 246

Flax, 175

Fletcher, Benjamin, 106, 142, 143, 153

Fletcher, _Cornhill Magazine_, 10 _n._

Florida, 5, 6, 10, 64, 72, 74, 157, 161, 162

Forbes, General, 274

Force, _Tracts_, 33 _n._, 157 _n._, 158 _n._, 165 _n._

Fort Bull, 266

Fort Casimir, 132

Fort Chartres, 247

Fort Christina, 131

Fort Crèvecoeur, 217

Fort Cumberland, 257

Fort Duquesne, 258, 261, 274

Fort Edward, 269

Fort Frontenac, 212, 216, 217, 222, 274

Fort James, 138

Fort Loyal, 226

Fort Lyman, 263

Fort Necessity, 258

Fort Niagara, 217, 246, 247, 264, 275

Fort Orange, 134

Fort Pemaquid, 230, 231

Fort Richelieu, 208

Fort Rouillé, 246

Fort St Frederic, 247

Fort St Louis, 219-21

Fort William Henry, 264, 268, 269

Fortescue, _Calendar of State Papers, Colonial_, 49 _n._, 50 _n._, 67 _n._, 100 _n._, 101 _n._

Fox River, 213

Francis I., 200

Franciscans, the, 205, 206

Franklin, Benjamin, 195, 259

Frederic the Great, 247

Frederica, 159, 161, 162

French, _Historical Collections of Louisiana_, 218 _n._, 219 _n._

Frobisher Bay, 11

Frobisher Sir Martin, 11, 12

Frontenac, Count, 211-13, 219, 225-28

Fuller, Thomas, 19

Fundy, Bay of, 203

Fur trade, 170, 203, 205

G

Gainsborough, 79

Gardiner, _History of the Commonwealth_, 44 _n._

Gates, Sir Thomas, 24, 31-33, 36

George II., 252

George III., 101

Georgia, 156-67

Germantown, 192, 198

Gigglesworth, Michael, 183

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 6, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19

Gilbert, Raleigh, 77

Glen, Governor, 259

Godfrey, Thomas, 195

Goelet, Captain Francis, 169

Goffe, William, 118

Gondomar, 38

Goose Creek, 196

Gorges, Ferdinando, 121-24

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 24, 86, 119, 120, 121, 123

Gorton, Samuel, 115

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 22, 26, 27

Grand Pré, 233

Granville County, 74

Green, J., _Short History of the English People_, 81 _n._, 82 _n._

Green, W., _William Pitt_, 174 _n._

Greenland, 11

Greenwich, 6

Grenville, Sir R., 20

_Grenville Correspondence_, 273 _n._

Guildford (America), 118

Guinea, 14, 18

H

Hakluyt, Richd., 8, 14, 16, 22, 23, 24, 40

Hakluyt, _Discourse of Western Planting_, 23

Hakluyt, _Voyages_, 6 _n._, 20 _n._, 23 _n._, 63 _n._, 201 _n._, 203 _n._

Hall, John, 176

Hamilton, Andrew, 149

Hammond, John, 54, 56 _n._, 58 _n._

Hamor, Ralph, 34, 35 _n._

Hampton, 52, 124, 260

Hankey, Sophia, 159, 160

Hardy, Captn., 74

Harley, 241

Harmon, Captn., 245

Harrison, _Washington_, 262 _n._

Hartford, 108, 113, 182

Harvard, 93, 102, 182, 183

Harvard, Mr, 93

Harvey, Governor, 41, 42

Haverfield, 233

Haviland, General, 280

Hawkins, Sir John, 14

Hayes, Edward, 13

Hazard, _Historical Collection_, 140 _n._

Heage, Wm., 151

Heath, Captn., 245

Heath, Sir Robert, 63

Henning, _Statutes at Large_, 46 _n._

Hennepin, Father, 217, 218

Henrico, 33

Henry VII., 3, 6, 8

Henry VIII., 7, 8

Henry of Navarre, 204

Hiacoomes, 180

Hill, Abigail, 240

Hill, General, 240, 241

Holborne, Admiral, 268

Holstead, Captn., 66

Hooker, Thos., 92

Hore, Master, 7

Howard of Effingham, Lord, 50

Howe, Lord, 272-74

Howe, Thos., 151

Hudson Bay, 243

Hudson River, 129, 130, 134, 139, 146, 147, 150, 226

Hunt, _Political History of England, etc._, 281 _n._

Huron Indians, 205, 214

Hutchinson, _A Collection of Original Papers_, 98 _n._, 103 _n._

Hutchinson, Mrs Anne, 92, 114

Hyde, Edward, 73

I

Iberville, 226-31

Iceland, 18

Ile d'Orléans, 276

Illinois Indians, 214

Illinois River, 215-19

Indian Bible, 180

Indigo, 192

Ingle, 57

Ingoldsby, Major Ralph, 142

Ipswich (America), 102

Iron, 171, 192

Iroquois (see also Five Nations), 209, 211, 212, 222, 223, 225, 226, 229, 263

J

Jack the Feather, 38

James I., 24, 25, 38, 39, 40, 80, 83, 132

James II., 101, 102, 104, 112, 113, 117, 140, 141, 142, 150, 153, 231

James as Duke of York, 132, 134-38, 146-48, 189, 190

James III. (the Old Pretender), 231

James River, 27, 51

Jamestown, 26-33, 45, 47, 48, 189, 197

Janney, _Life of W. Penn_, 152 _n._

Japazaus, 34

Jeffreys, Sir Herbert, 48, 49

Jenkinson, Anthony, 9

Jesuits, the, 180, 205, 206, 209, 213, 216, 229, 232

Johnson, _A History of New England_, 118 _n._

Johnson, Edward, 183

Johnson, William, 255, 262, 265, 267

Johnstone, Sir Nathaniel, 72, 73, 74

Joliet, Louis, 213-15

Jonquière, Marquis de la, 251, 256

Josselyn, _An Account of Two Voyages to New England_, 120 _n._, 123 _n._

Josselyn, John, 122, 123

Jumonville, Lieutenant, 258

K

Keith, Mr, 154

Kennebec River, 77, 104, 120, 245

Kent, Isle of, 56-58

Kidd, Captain, 106

Kieft, Governor, 130

King, Colonel, 239, 242

King Philip's War, 125

King William's War, 113

King's College (Columbia), 194

Kirke, David, 54, 207, 227

Knight, Mrs, 179

Knight, Sir John, 47

L

La Baye, 247

La Chine, 216, 226

La Corne, 269

La Galissonière, 256

La Prairie, 227

La Rochelle, 207, 220, 251

La Salle, Sieur de, 216-22

Labrador, 7

Laconia Company, 123

Lake Champlain, 226, 235, 246

Lake Erie, 216, 222

Lake George, 264, 265

Lake Huron, 213, 222

Lake Michigan, 213, 216, 217

Lake Ontario, 216, 217

Lake Superior, 214

Lake Winnebago, 213, 215

Lane, Ralph, 20

Laud, Archbishop, 76, 89, 90

Laudonnière, 63

Laurence, Governor, 264, 270

Laurie, Gawen, 148

Laws, Peculiar, 185

Le Caron, 205

Le Clercq, Father, 209

Le Clercq, _First Establishment of the Faith in New France_, 210 _n._

Le Moyne, 209

Lead, 171

Leete, William, 112

Leisler, Jacob, 141, 142, 226

Léry, Baron de, 200

Lescarbot, 204

Leslie, Lieutenant, 261

Levant, The, 18

Leverett, Governor, 97

Lévis, French General, 268, 269, 272, 279

Levitt, 119

Leyden, 79, 80, 83

Literature, 183, 184

Locke, John, 66

Locke's _Fundamental Constitution_, 66, 71

Logan, James, 156

Lok, Michael, 11

London Company, 24, 25, 31, 34-42

Long Island, 118, 129, 130, 133, 135-38

Loudoun, Earl of, 267, 268

Louis XIV., 138, 140, 208, 211, 217, 219, 221, 223, 228, 231, 243, 244

Louis XV., 280

Louisburg, 244, 247-52, 268, 270, 272, 276

Louisiana, 167, 219, 247, 275

Lovelace, Francis, 137, 138

Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies--Canada_, 248 _n._, 263 _n._

Ludwell, Philip, 71

Lynn (America), 171

M

Macaulay, Essays, 78 _n._

Macaulay, Lord, 86

Magellan, Straits of, 15

Maine, 8, 35, 77, 94, 119-23, 126, 229, 230, 248, 249

Maisonneuve, 209

Malplaquet, 232

Manhattan Island, 130, 249

Manning, Captain, 138

Manoa, city of, 3

March, Colonel, 233

Marie de Medici, 35, 204

Marin, 257

Marlborough, Duke of, 223, 234, 237, 241-43

Marquette, Jacques, 214-16, 222

Martha's Vineyard, 180

Martin, Advocate of the London Company, 35

Martinique, 73

Mary, Queen, 225

Maryland, 54-62, 74, 107, 150, 187, 190-93, 196, 197, 198, 235, 255, 257, 259, 261, 262

Masham, Mrs, 241

Mason, Captain John, 109, 110, 123, 126

Mason, family of, 124

Massachusetts, 76, 86-100, 112, 114-17, 121-26, 137, 140, 143, 168, 171-82, 227, 228, 230, 232-38, 242, 244-46, 248, 254, 257, 259, 260, 263, 264, 271, 281

Mather, Cotton, 183

Mather, Increase, 102, 105

Mathews, Samuel, 45

Mathews, Virginian settler, 41

Maumee, 247

Maverick, 136

Mayhew, Thomas, 179

Mazarin, Cardinal, 208

Meade, _Old Churches of Virginia_, 196 _n._

Mellborne, Jacob, 142

Membré, Father, 218

Menendez, 63

Mercer, Colonel, 266

Merrimac River, 233

Merry Mount, 87

Meta Incognita, 12

Metacam, 97, 98

Mexico, 9

Mexico, Bay of, 78, 167, 215, 217, 219

Miami Indians, 257

Michillimackinac, 247

Milford (America), 118

Miller, Thomas, 67

Minnesota River, 218

Minuit, 131

Missionaries, 179, 180

Mississippi River, 72, 213-15, 217

Missouri River, 215, 218

Mitchell, _Contest in America_, 247 _n._

Mohawk River, 249

Mohawks, 236, 262, 267, 275

Monckton, General, 276

Monongahela River, 258, 261

Montcalm, Marquis de, 246, 266-69, 272, 273, 277-79

Montmagny, 208

Montmorenci, Duc de, 206

Montmorency, Falls of, 277

Montreal, 204, 208-10, 232, 235, 280

Moore, Colonel, 72

Moore, James, 72

Morley, _Walpole_, 173 _n._, 192 _n._

Morris, Lewis, 154, 191

Morton, 87

Moryson, Colonel Francis, 48, 49

Motley, Thomas, 59

Moulton, Captain, 245

Murray, General, 276, 279, 280

Muscovy Company, 9

N

Nantes, Revocation of Edict of, 202

Nantucket, 180, 228

Narragansett Bay, 91, 94

Narragansett Indians, 109

Naumkeag, 87

Navigation Acts, 52, 99, 128, 129, 170, 174, 281

Neale, Daniel, 172

Negro slavery, 178, 179

Nelson, Lord, 279

Nesmond, Marquis de, 231

New Albion, 15

New Amstel, 132

New Amsterdam, 130-33

New Brunswick, 135

New England Company, 77, 83, 86, 87, 107, 120

New England Confederacy, 93, 94, 97, 111, 119, 124, 126

New Hampshire, 105, 123-27, 143, 172, 173, 226, 229, 235, 236, 238, 246, 249, 259, 267

New Haven, 93, 111, 113, 117, 118, 119, 132, 133, 138, 168, 175, 182, 230

New Inverness, 159

New Jersey, 105, 134, 135, 139, 145-50, 154, 187-95, 234, 247, 257, 259, 263

New London, 113, 182, 184

New Netherlands, 128-45

New Plymouth, 97, 178, 180-84

New Somersetshire, 119

New Sweden, 130-32

New York, 74, 105, 106, 113, 136-54, 184, 187, 188, 190-98, 225, 226, 229, 233-36, 244, 246, 247, 254, 257, 258, 261, 263, 268

_New York Weekly Journal_, 144

Newcastle, Duke of, 145

Newcastle (America), 132, 155

Newfoundland, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16, 18, 54, 201, 243

Newport, Christopher, 26, 27, 51

Newport (America), 114, 115, 169, 198

Newspapers, 184

Nicollet, Jean, 213

Nicholls, Colonel R., 133-37, 146, 197

Nicholson, Francis, 51, 60, 74, 140, 141, 234-37, 240

North-East Passage, 9, 11

North-West Passage, 6, 9, 10, 11

Nova Scotia (see also Acadia), 35, 202, 264

Nyantic Indians, 95

O

O'Callaghan, _Documents relative to Colonial History, etc._, 106 _n._, 177 _n._, 182 _n._, 246 _n._

Oglethorpe, James, 156-65

Ohio Company, 256, 257.

Ohio River, 215-18, 255-58, 265, 266

Oldham, John, 109

Onondaga River, 246

Opechancanough, 38-43

Oregon, 15

Oswego, 246, 264-66

Ottawa, 205

Oudenarde, Battle of, 232

Oxford, Earl of, 237

Oyster Point, 69

Oyster River, 230

P

Paper bills, 177

Paris, Treaty of, 243, 280-82

Parkhurst, Anthony, 8

Parkman, _Half a Century of Conflict_, 232 _n._, 235 _n._, 239 _n._, 242 _n._, 244, _n._ 246 _n._

Parkman, _La Salle_, 217 _n._

Parkman, _Wolfe and Montcalm_, 260 _n._, 270 _n._

Pastorius, _Geographical Description of Pennsylvania_, 153 _n._

Patagonia, 10

Pawtuxet, 115

Peckham, Sir George, 16

Penn, John, 156

Penn, Thomas, 156

Penn, William, 148-56, 255

Pennsylvania, 146, 149-56, 187-96, 234, 249, 255-59, 261, 263, 268, 274

Penobscot, Indians of the, 245

Penruddock, Colonel, 188

Pepperell, William, 249, 250, 252

Pert, Sir Thomas, 8

Peru, 9, 15, 200

Philadelphia, 192, 194, 195, 198

Philip II., 2, 202

Phipps, Sir William, 104, 105, 227-30, 278

Pilgrim Fathers, 54, 80-82, 103

Piscataqua River, 123

Pitt, William, 173, 269, 271, 273, 276

Pittsburg, 274

Plymouth, 76-87, 93, 107, 108, 168, 169, 171, 175

Plymouth Company, 24, 77, 78

Pocahontas, 29, 34, 35

Pokanoket Indians, 97

Pontgravé, 203, 204

Popham, George, 77

Popish Plot, the, 100

Port Royal, 35, 63, 72, 158, 203, 227, 229, 233, 237

Portland, 226

Portsmouth (America), 114, 115, 125

Portugal, 236

Postal service, 184

Potomac, the, 34

Pouchot (French commander), 275

Powhattan, 27, 29, 32, 34, 38

Prado, Albert de, 7

Prices, 177

Prideaux, General, 275

Pring, Martin, 22, 23

Printing, 184

Providence, 114-19, 182

Prowse, _History of Newfoundland_, 243 _n._

Puritans, the, 181,182

Pym, John, 90, 94

Q

Quaker settlements, 146-56

Quakers, the, 96, 97, 98, 116, 272

Quebec, 202, 204, 207, 210, 211, 225, 227, 228, 231, 232, 244, 275-80

Quincy, Samuel, 158

Quinipiac River, 118

R

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 63, 200

Raleigh, Professor, 19 _n._

Ramesay, French governor, 235

Ramillies, Battle of, 232

Randolph, Edward, 72, 98, 99, 100

Rasle, Sebastian, 245

Ratcliffe, Captain John, 26, 27, 32

Religion, 195-97

Rhode Island, 98, 105, 114-19, 171, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179, 182, 184, 235, 236, 238, 249, 259

Rice, 191, 192

Richebourg, 51

Richelieu, 207, 209

Richelieu River, 208, 226, 280

Richmond, 27

Rigby, Edward, 120, 121

Rio de la Plata, 9

Roanoke, 20

Robinson, John, 79, 82

Roche, Marquis de la, 202

Rogers, Robert, 265, 267, 274, 276, 280

Rolfe, John, 35

Rowley, 171

Roxbury, 180

Royal African Company, 190

Rut, John, 7

Ryswick, Treaty of, 231

S

Sable Island, 202

Sacheverell, Dr, 237

Saco, 119

St Augustine, 72, 161, 162

St Foy, Battle of, 279

St Ignace, 214

St John, 241, 242

St Joseph, 247

St Luc de la Corne, Chevalier, 247

St Lawrence River, 16, 166, 201, 202, 204, 207, 208, 239, 240, 251, 268, 276, 280

St Lawrence, Gulf of, 200

St Mary's, 57, 197

St Simon's, 74

St Sulpice, 209

Salem, 87, 91, 148

Salmon Falls, 226

Salzburgers, 159, 164

San Domingo, 220

Sandford, Peleg, 117

Sandys, colonist, 42

Sandys, Sir Edwin, 25, 36, 38, 39, 40

Savannah River, 16, 157-59

Saye and Sele, Lord, 107, 124

Sayle, William, 68, 69

Schenectady, 140, 226, 227, 275

Schuyler, Peter, 236

Scrooby, 79

Sculkill River, 152

Secker, Archbishop, 181

Seeley, _Growth of British Policy_, 128 _n._, 129 _n._

Seignelay, 219

Seneca Indians, 212

Seven Years' War, 265, 266

Shaftesbury, Earl of, 47, 64, 66, 69, 191

Sharpe, Governor, 260

Sheep, 175

Shipbuilding, 173

Shirley, Governor, 248-52, 257, 259-61, 263-67

Silver, 171

Sioux Indians, 218

Slaughter, Colonel, 142

Slavery, 188, 189, 190

Slye, Gerald, 61

Smith, Adam, 170, 174

Smith, Adam, _Wealth of Nations_, 174 _n._

Smith, _A Description of New England_, 78 _n._, 81 _n._

Smith, Captain John, 26-31, 40, 77, 81

Smith, Thomas, 71

Smythe, Ambrose, 188

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 180, 184

Somers, Sir George, 24, 31

Somers Islands, 34

Sothel, Seth, 67, 70

Southampton, Earl of, 22, 36, 38, 40

Spanish Succession, War of, 223, 242

Specie, 175-77, 193

Spithead, 241

Spotswood, Alexander, 52, 53, 190, 196

Stamford (America), 118

Standish, Miles, 81

Stith, Rev. William, 195

Stone, Captain, 109

Stone, William, 57, 58

Stoughton, William, 99, 100, 168 _n._, 230

Stukeley, Thomas, 10

Stuyvesant, Peter, 131-33, 135, 191

Sunderland, Earl of, 234

Swift, Dean, 241

T

Tadoussac, 203, 217

Talon, the Intendant, 211, 214

Tew, Captain, 143

Texas, 220, 221

Thomas, Gabriel, 154

Thompson, David, 123

Thorne, Master, 11

Three Rivers, 210

Thwaites, _The Colonies_, 1492-1750, 84 _n._, 181 _n._

Ticonderoga, 204, 263, 266, 268, 272, 274, 275

Timber trade, 172

Tison, Thomas, 14

Tobacco, 41, 174, 188, 191, 192, 193

Tonty, Henri de, 217-21

Toronto, 246

Townshend, General, 276

Townshend, Lord, 174

Tracey, Marquis de, 211

Trade and Plantations, Committee of, 100, 103, 171, 189, 246

Tull, Jethro, 174

Tuscarora Indians, 52, 73, 74

U

Ulster Protestants, 187, 265

Underhill, Captain, 109, 110

Underhill, _Newes from America_, 110 _n._

Usselinx, William, 131

Utrecht, Treaty of, 73, 223, 243, 244

V

Van der Douch, 130

Van Twiller, 130

Vane, Henry, 92

Vasco de Gama, 3, 200

Vauban, 248, 272

Vaudreuil, Governor, 276

Vaughan, 248, 250

Venango, 257

Venice, 3

Ventadour, Duc de, 205, 206

Vergennes, 281

Verrazano, 200, 201

Vervins, Treaty of, 202

Vetch, Samuel, 233, 234, 235, 240

Vignau, Nicholas, 205

Villebon, 229

Virginia, 17, 19-59, 61-65, 71, 74, 76, 77, 81, 88, 97, 107, 170, 187-98, 204, 235, 255-57, 260-62, 264, 265, 274

Virginia Company, 28 _n._, 193

W

Wabash River, 247

Wages, 177, 178

Walker, Sir H., 239, 240, 241

Walker, _Journal_, 241 _n._

Walpole, Horace, 260

Walpole, Sir Robert, 160, 173, 191

Walsingham, Francis, 17

_Wampum_, 175

Ward, Nathaniel, 183

Warren, Admiral, 249-51

Warwick, Earl of, 11, 37

Washington, George, 256-62, 265

Watertown, 89, 102

Webb, General, 267

Wells, 232

Wentworth, Governor, 172

Wesley, Charles, 159

Wesley, John, 159, 160

Wesley, _Journal_, 159 _n._, 160 _n._

West Indies, 6, 14, 170, 188

West Joseph, 69, 70

Westminster, Treaty of, 138, 147

Wethersfield, 108, 109

Whalley, Edward, 118

Wheelwright, John, 92

White, Father, 55

White, John, 87

Whitefield, George, 62, 164, 181, 196, 249

Whitmore, 270

William III., 49, 60, 103, 141, 223, 225

William and Mary College, 51, 194

Williams, John, 232

Williams, Roger, 91, 109, 114, 115, 116

Williamsburg, 52, 197

Williamson, Mr, 160

Williamson, Sir Joseph, 137

Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 9

Windsor, 108

Wine, 171

Wingfield, Edward, 27

Winslow, Edward, 82, 83

Winslow, John, 102, 114

Winslow, John (Junior), 264, 267

Winthrop, John, 88-92

Winthrop, John (Junior), 108, 111, 112, 119, 171, 172

Winthrop, _History of New England, etc._, 89 _n._, 92 _n._, 118 _n._, 177 _n._

Wisconsin River, 213, 215

Wolfe, General James, 228, 267, 270, 272, 274, 276-79, 280

Wood, _Siege of Quebec_, 278 _n._

Wood Creek, 235

Woodward, Thomas, 65

Wool, 171-75

Wright, _Life of Wolfe_, 267 _n._

Wyatt, Sir Francis, 41, 42

Y

Yale College, 182, 183

Yamassee Indians, 53, 74

Yeamans, Sir John, 68, 69

Yeardley, Sir George, 36, 37, 41

York (Paine), 230

Young, _Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers_, 84 _n._

Z

Zengler, John P., 144

TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH

+------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the | | original document have been preserved. | | | | Typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | Page 11 bee changed to be | | Page 38 Opechaucanough changed to Opechancanough | | Page 39 similiar changed to similar | | Page 42 Governer changed to Governor | | Page 59 Calender changed to Calendar | | Page 67 Culpepper changed to Culpeper | | Page 89 Brodestreet changed to Brodstreet | | Page 93 gentlemad changed to gentleman | | Page 119 there changed to their | | Page 122 Englishmen changed to Englishman | | Page 136 accordanee changed to accordance | | Page 148 Willian changed to William | | Page 218 mutined changed to mutinied | | Page 244 circumcried changed to circumscribed | | Page 246 Onnondaga changed to Onondaga | | Page 247 Michilmackinad changed to Michillimackinad | | Page 255 backswoodsmen changed to backwoodsmen | | Page 257 Dusquesne changed to Duquesne | | Page 264 Massachuetts changed to Massachusetts | | Page 301 D'Anville changed to D'Auville | | Page 305 Michilmackinad changed to Michillimackinad | | Page 305 Onnondaga changed to Onondaga | | Page 305 Opechaucanough changed to Opechancanough | +------------------------------------------------------+