Part 31

_Maximus_, surnamed the _Cynic_, because he had from his Youth professed the Philosophy, and wore the Habit, of that Sect, was a Man of a most infamous Character, and had been publicly whipt in _Egypt_, his native Country, and confined to the City of _Oasis_, for Crimes not to be mentioned[1175]. Being released from his Banishment, he wandered all over the East, and was every where equally abhorred and detested on account of his matchless Impudence and scandalous Manners[1176]. At last he repaired to _Constantinople_, where he had not been long, when, by one of the boldest Attempts mentioned in History, he caused himself to be installed and ordained Bishop of that City: for the Doors of the Church being broken open in the Dead of the Night, by a Band of _Egyptian_ Mariners, he was placed on the Episcopal Chair in the profane Dress of a _Cynic_, by some Bishops whom his Friends had sent out of _Egypt_ for that Purpose. But the People, and some of the Clergy, in the adjoining Houses, being alarmed at the Noise, and crouding to see what occasioned it, _Maximus_ and his unhallowed Crew thought fit to withdraw, and complete the Ceremony in a Place better adapted to such a Scene of Profaneness, the House of a Player on the Flute[1177]. _Maximus_, thus ordained, in equal Defiance of the Imperial Laws and Canons of the Church, had the Assurance to claim the See of _Constantinople_ as his Right, and to protest against the Election of _Gregory Nazianzen_, and likewise of _Nectarius_, who was chosen upon the Resignation of _Gregory_, tho’ they had both been named to that Dignity by the Council of _Constantinople_, that is, by all the Eastern Bishops. But no Regard being had to his Protest, nay, his Ordination being declared null by the Council, and he driven out of the City by the Populace, and rejected with Indignation by the Emperor, he had recourse to the Bishops of the Vicariate of _Italy_, then assembled in Council with _Ambrose_ Bishop of _Milan_ at their Head, as I have observed above. [Sidenote: _He is acknowleged by_ Ambrose, _and the_ Italian _Bishops_.] These giving an intire Credit to the Accounts of the lying and deceitful _Cynic_, as they were quite unacquainted with what had passed in the East, not only admitted him to their Communion, but, without farther Inquiry or Examination, acknowleged him for lawful Bishop of _Constantinople_, and writ the above-mentioned Letter to _Theodosius_ in his Behalf[1178]. We must not confound this Council with that of _Aquileia_, as I find most Writers have done: for the latter was composed of almost all the Western Bishops under _Valerian_ Bishop of the Place; whereas the Council I am now speaking of, consisted only of the Bishops of the Vicariate of _Italy_, under the Bishop of _Milan_ their Metropolitan. It is surprising that _Ambrose_, and the other Bishops of that Council, should not have been better informed with respect to the Ordination of _Maximus_, since _Acholius_ Bishop of _Thessalonica_, with Five other Bishops of _Macedon_, had, at least a Year before, transmitted to _Damasus_ a minute Account of it, agreeing in every Particular with that which I have given above from _Gregory Nazianzen_[1179]. [Sidenote: _The Emperor’s Answer to their Letter._] The Letter from the Council caused no small Surprize in _Theodosius_: he was sensible they had suffered themselves to be grosly imposed upon; but, not judging it necessary to undeceive them, he only told them, in his Answer to their Letter, that the Reasons they alleged did not seem sufficient to him for assembling an Oecumenical Council, and giving so much Trouble to the Prelates of the Church; that they were not to concern themselves with what happened in the East, nor remove the Bounds, that had been wisely placed by their Fore-fathers between the East and the West; and that, as to the Affair of _Maximus_, by espousing his Cause they had betrayed either an unwarrantable Animosity against the Orientals, or an inexcusable Credulity in giving Credit to false and groundless Reports[1180].

[Sidenote: _A Council of all the Western Bishops assembled at_ Rome.]

Upon the Receipt of this Letter, the _Italian_ Bishops, finding _Theodosius_ no ways disposed to assemble an Oecumenical Council, applied to _Gratian_, who not only granted them Leave to meet at _Rome_, the Place they chose, but dispatched Letters to all the Bishops both in the East and West, giving them Notice of the Time and Place, in which the Council was to be held, and inviting them to it[1181]. But of all the Eastern Bishops, Two only complied with this Invitation; _viz._ _Epiphanius_ Bishop of _Salamis_ in the Island of _Cyprus_, and _Paulinus_, whom all the West acknowleged for lawful Bishop of _Antioch_. The Western Bishops were all present, either in Person, or by their Deputies; and _Damasus_ presided[1182]. But, as to the Transactions of this great Assembly, we are almost intirely in the Dark; for all we know of them is, that they unanimously agreed not to communicate with _Flavianus_, the new Bishop of _Antioch_, nor with _Diodorus_ of _Tarsus_, or _Acacius_ of _Berœa_, who had been chiefly instrumental in his Promotion; that they condemned the Heresy of _Apollinaris_; and that, at the Request of _Damasus_, a Confession of Faith was drawn up by _Jerom_, and approved by the Council, which the _Apollinarists_ were to sign, upon their being re-admitted to the Communion of the Church[1183]. As for _Maximus_, they seem to have abandoned his Cause, being, in all Likelihood, undeceived, with respect to his Ordination, by _Acholius_ Bishop of _Thessalonica_, and St. _Jerom_, who assisted at the Council, and could not be Strangers to the Character of _Maximus_, nor unacquainted with the scandalous Methods by which he had attained the Episcopal Dignity.

[Sidenote: _The Misunderstanding between the East and the West increased._]

The Resolution they took not to communicate with _Flavianus_, whose Election, though imprudently made, was undoubtedly Canonical, and had been approved and confirmed by the Oecumenical Council of _Constantinople_, not only increased the Jealousies and Misunderstanding between the East and the West, but occasioned a great Disagreement, and endless Quarrels, among the Eastern Bishops themselves. For those who acknowleged _Paulinus_, _viz._ the Bishops of _Egypt_, of the Island of _Cyprus_, of _Arabia_, insisted upon the Deposition of _Flavianus_[1184]. _Nestorius_ mentions some Letters, written by the Bishops of _Egypt_ against _Flavianus_, with great Virulency, and a _tyrannical Spirit_, to use his Expression[1185]. On the other hand, the Bishops of _Syria_, of _Palæstine_, of _Phœnicia_, _Armenia_, _Cappadocia_, _Galatia_, _Pontus_, _Asia_, and _Thrace_, not only maintained, with equal Warmth, the Election of _Flavianus_, but began to treat their Brethren in the East, who had joined the Western Bishops against them, as Schismatics, as Betrayers of their Trust, as Transgressors of the Canons of _Nice_, commanding the Elections and Ordinations of each Province to be made and performed by the Bishops of the same Province, and all Disputes concerning them to be finally decided in the Place where they had begun[1186]. This Schism occasioned great Confusion in the Church, which continued till the Year 398, when _Chrysostom_, after having, with indefatigable Pains, long laboured in vain to bring about an Accommodation between the East and the West, had at last, soon after his Promotion to the See of _Constantinople_, the Satisfaction of seeing his pious Endeavours crowned with Success, as I shall relate in a more proper Place.

[Sidenote: _No Regard paid by the Eastern Bishops to the Judgment of the Pope._]

From this whole Account it is manifest, as the Reader must have observed, that the Orientals paid no manner of Regard either to the Judgment of the Bishop of _Rome_, or to that of the whole Body of the Western Bishops, assembled in Council under him. For though they well knew the Bishop of _Rome_, and his Collegues in the West, to be warmly engaged in favour of _Paulinus_, yet they refused to acknowlege him, even after the Death of _Meletius_; and therefore raised _Flavianus_ to the See of _Antioch_, in the room of _Meletius_, and confirmed that Election in an Oecumenical Council. The Western Bishops exclaimed against it, desiring it might be referred to the Decision of a General Council. But not even to that Demand would the Orientals agree, thinking, as they declared in their Answer, that there was no Occasion for a Council, since _Flavianus_ had been chosen and ordained by the Bishops of the Diocese, which was all the Canons of _Nice_ required. They therefore exhorted them to divest themselves of all Prejudices, to sacrifice all private Affections to the Peace and Unity of the Church, and to put an End to the present, and prevent all future, Disputes, by approving, with their joint Suffrages, an Election which had been approved and confirmed by an Oecumenical Council[1187].

[Sidenote: _The Custom of appointing Vicars introduced by_ Damasus, _and on what Occasion_.]

To return to _Damasus_: He was the first who introduced the Custom, which his Successors took care to improve, of conferring on certain Bishops the Title of their Vicars, pretending thereby to impart to them an extraordinary Power, enabling them to perform several Things, which they could not perform in virtue of their own. _Acholius_ Bishop of _Thessalonica_ was the first who enjoyed this Title, being, by _Damasus_, appointed his Vicar in _East Illyricum_, on the following Occasion: _Illyricum_, comprising all antient _Greece_, and many Provinces on the _Danube_, whereof _Sirmium_ was the Capital, had, ever since the Time of _Constantine_, belonged to the Western Empire. But, in the Year 379. _Dacia_ and _Greece_ were, by _Gratian_, disjoined from the more Westerly Provinces, and added, in favour of _Theodosius_, to the Eastern Empire, being known by the Name of _East Illyricum_, whereof _Thessalonica_, the Metropolis of _Macedon_, was the chief City. The Bishops of _Rome_, as presiding in the Metropolis of the Empire, had begun to claim a kind of Jurisdiction, or rather Inspection in Ecclesiastical Matters, over all the Provinces of the Western Empire; which was the first great Step by which they ascended to the Supremacy they afterwards claimed and established. This _Damasus_ was unwilling to resign with respect to _Illyricum_, even after that Country was dismembered from the Western, and added to the Eastern Empire. In order therefore to maintain his Claim, he appointed _Acholius_ Bishop of _Thessalonica_ to act in his stead, vesting in him the Power which he pretended to have over those Provinces. Upon the Death of _Acholius_ he conferred the same Dignity on his Successor _Anysius_, as did the following Popes on the succeeding Bishops of _Thessalonica_, who, by thus supporting the Pretensions of _Rome_, became the first Bishops, and, in a manner, the Patriarchs, of _East Illyricum_; for they are sometimes distinguished with that Title. This, however, was not done without Opposition, the other Metropolitans not readily acknowleging for their Superior one who, till that time, had been their Equal[1188]. _Syricius_, who succeeded _Damasus_, inlarging the Power claimed by his Predecessor, decreed, that no Bishop should be ordained in _East Illyricum_ without the Consent and Approbation of the Bishop of _Thessalonica_[1189]. But it was some time before this Decree took place. Pope _Innocent_ I. writes, that his Predecessors committed to the Care of _Acholius_, _Achaia_, _Thessaly_, the Two _Epirus’s_, _Candia_, the Two _Dacia’s_, _Mœsia_, _Dardania_, and _Prævalitana_, now Part of _Albania_, impowering him to judge and decide the Controversies that might arise there, and appointing him to be _the first among the Primates, without prejudicing the Primacy of those Churches_[1190]. Thus were the Bishops of _Thessalonica_ first appointed Vicars or Vicegerents of the Bishops of _Rome_, probably in the Year 382. for in that Year _Acholius_ assisted at the Council of _Rome_, and it was, in all Likelihood, on that Occasion that _Damasus_ vested him with this new Dignity. [Sidenote: _The Institution of Vicars improved by the succeeding Popes._] The Contrivance of _Damasus_ was notably improved by his Successors, who, in order to extend and inlarge their Authority, conferred the Title of their Vicars, and the pretended Power annexed to it, on the most eminent Prelates of other Provinces and Kingdoms, engaging them thereby to depend upon them, and to promote the Authority of their See, to the utter Suppression of the antient Rights and Liberties both of Bishops and Synods. This Dignity was for the most part annexed to certain Sees, but sometimes conferred on particular Persons. Thus was _Austin_ appointed the Pope’s Vicar in _England_, _Boniface_ in _Germany_; and both, in virtue of the Power which they pretended to have been imparted to them with that Title, usurped and exercised an Authority above that of Metropolitans. The Institution of Vicars was, by the succeeding Popes, improved into that of Legates, or, to use _De Marca_’s Expression, the latter Institution was grafted on the former[1191]. [Sidenote: _Legates vested with greater Power than Vicars._] The Legates were vested with a far greater Power than the Vicars, or, as Pope _Leo_ expresses it, _were admitted to a far greater Share of his Care, though not to the Plenitude of his Power_[1192]. They were sent on proper Occasions into all Countries, and never failed exerting, to the utmost Stretch, their boasted Power, oppressing, in virtue of their paramount Authority, the Clergy as well as the People, and extorting from both large Sums, to support the Pomp and Luxury in which they lived.

The Custom of appointing Vicars and Legates may well be alleged as a remarkable Instance of the Craft and Policy of the Popes, since, of all the Methods they ever devised (and many they have devised) to extend and establish their Power, none has better answered their ambitious Views. But how _Bellarmine_ could lay so much Stress upon it as he does[1193], to prove, that the Pope has, by _Divine Right_, a sovereign Authority and Jurisdiction over all the Churches of the Earth, is unconceivable. [Sidenote: _The sending Legates no Proof of the Pope’s universal Jurisdiction._] For it is certain, beyond all Dispute, that such a Custom had never been heard of till the Time of _Damasus_, that is, till the Latter-end of the Fourth Century, when it was first introduced, upon the dismembering of _East Illyricum_, by _Gratian_, from the Western Empire. _Damasus_ did not even then claim that sovereign and unlimited Power, with which _Bellarmine_ is pleased to vest him, but only a kind of Inspection over the Provinces of the Western Empire, as Bishop of the first See. [Sidenote: _The Disingenuity of_ Bellarmine.] And here I cannot help observing the Disingenuity of _Bellarmine_, who, in speaking of this Institution, expresses himself thus: Leo _appointed_ Anastiasius _Bishop of_ Thessalonica _his Vicar in the East, in the same manner as the Predecessors of_ Anastasius _had been Vicars to the Predecessors of_ Leo[1194]. From these Words every Reader would naturally conclude, and _Bellarmine_ designs they should, that the Bishops of _Thessalonica_ had been the Pope’s Vicars from the Beginning, or Time out of Mind; whereas it is certain, that this Institution had taken place but a few Years before. Pope _Leo_ I. in conferring on _Anastasius_ the _Vicariate Dignity of his See_, as he styles it, declared, that he followed therein the Example of his Predecessor _Syricius_[1195], _who first appointed_ Anysius _to act in his stead_. But he was doubly mistaken; for these Vicars were first instituted, as is notorious, by _Damasus_, and not by _Syricius_; and it was not by _Syricius_, but by _Damasus_, that _Anysius_ was vested with that Dignity[1196]. The Bishop of _Thessalonica_ is styled, by the antient Writers, the Pope’s Vicar in _East Illyricum_, which is manifestly confining his Vicariate Jurisdiction to that District; but _Bellarmine_ extends it at once all over the East, by distinguishing him with the Title of _the Popes Vicar for the East_[1197]. But how little Regard was paid to the Pope’s Authority in the East, I have sufficiently shewn above.

I find nothing else in the antient Writers concerning _Damasus_ worthy of Notice, besides his generously undertaking the Defence of _Symmachus_, who, being Prefect of _Rome_ in 384. the last Year of _Damasus_’s Life, and a _sworn_ Enemy to the Christians, was falsly accused to the Emperor, as if he had with great Cruelty persecuted and oppressed them. But _Damasus_ had the Generosity to take his Part, and clear him, by a Letter he writ to the Emperor, from that Charge[1198]. [Sidenote: Damasus _dies_.] This was one of the last Actions of _Damasus_’s Life; for he died this Year on the 10th or 11th of _December_, being then in the Eightieth Year of his Age, after he had governed the Church of _Rome_ for the Space of Eighteen Years, and about Two Months[1199]. He was buried, according to _Anastasius_[1200], near his Mother and Sister, in a Church which he had built at the Catacombs, on the Way to _Ardea_; whence that Place, though Part of the Cœmetery of _Calixtus_, is by some called the Cœmetery of _Damasus_[1201]. He proposed at first being buried near the Remains of St. _Sixtus_, and his Companions; but afterwards changed his Mind, lest he should disturb the Ashes of the Saints[1202]. He caused the Church of St. _Laurence_, near the Theatre of _Pompey_, probably that which his Father and he himself had formerly served, to be rebuilt, inlarged, and embellished; Whence it is still known by the joint Titles of St. _Laurence_ and _Damasus_[1203]. In that Church his Body is worshiped to this Day. But, how or when it was removed thither, nobody knows[1204]. [Sidenote: _The Decrees ascribed to him suppositious._] Several Decrees are ascribed to _Damasus_ by _Gratian_, _Ivo_ of _Chartres_, _Anastasius_, and others, but all evidently forged by some Impostor blindly addicted to the See of _Rome_, and quite unacquainted with the Discipline of the Church in the Fourth Century. In one of them a Canon is quoted from the Council of Nice, forbidding the Laity to eat or drink of any thing that was _offered to the holy Priests_, because none but the _Jewish_ Priests were allowed to eat of the Bread that was offered on the Altar. We know of no such Canon; and besides, it is not at all probable, that the Council of _Nice_ would have restrained the Clergy from sharing at least with the Poor what was offered them. In another of these Decrees the Paying of Tythes is commanded, on pain of Excommunication; whereas it might be easily made appear, that, in the Fourth Century, the Offerings destined for the Maintenance of the Clergy were still voluntary. Another Decree supposes, that, by an antient Custom, all Metropolitans swore Fealty to the Apostolic See, and could ordain no Bishops till they had received the Pall from _Rome_. For the Sake of this, _Baronius_ admits all the rest: but of such a Custom not the least Mention, or distant Hint, is to be met with in any antient Writer.

[Sidenote: _His Writings in Prose and Verse._]

_Damasus_ is ranked by _Jerom_[1205] among the Ecclesiastical Writers, on account of the many small Pieces he writ, chiefly in Verse; for he had a particular Genius for Poetry, and was no despicable Poet, if some Compositions ascribed to him were truly his. He writ several Books, both in Prose and Verse, in Commendation of Virginity; but neither that, nor any of his other Works, has reached our Times, besides some Letters, and a few Epitaphs, Inscriptions, and Epigrams, which have been carefully collected by _Baronius_[1206], though it may be justly questioned whether the several Pieces ascribed to him by that Writer were written by him. A short History of the first Popes, styled, _The Pontifical of_ Damasus, and published together with the Councils, has long passed for the Work of _Damasus_; but now even _Baronius_ owns it not to be his; and most Critics are of Opinion, that it was written after the Time of _Gregory the Great_; nay, some ascribe it to _Anastasius Bibliothecarius_, who flourished in the Ninth Century[1207]. As for his Letters, those to _Aurelius_ of _Carthage_, to _Stephen_, styled, _Archbishop of the Council of_ Mauritania, to _Prosper_ Primate of _Numidia_, to the Bishops of _Italy_, are all spurious, as well as the Letters to which some of them are Answers, and supposed to have been forged by that notorious Impostor _Isidorus Mercator_[1208]. His genuine Letters are the Two, that are to be found among the Works of _Jerom_, to whom they were written; Two to _Acholius_ Bishop of _Thessalonica_, published by _Holstenius_ in his _Collection of the antient Monuments of the Church of_ Rome[1209]; a Letter of great Length to _Paulinus_ of _Antioch_, whereof the chief Heads are set down by _Theodoret_ in his History, as are likewise those of his Letter to the Orientals concerning _Timotheus_, the favourite Disciple of _Apollinaris_. Several Letters from the Councils, that were held in _Rome_ in his Time, and at which he presided, are still extant, and may well be ascribed to him. The Two Letters to _Jerom_ are well worth perusing, being written in a pure, easy, and elegant Style, and with a great deal of Spirit, Vivacity, and even Gaiety, though _Damasus_ was then much advanced in Years, and overburdened with Cares and Business[1210]. In one of them he declares, that his only Delight was to read the Scriptures; and that all other Books, however well written, gave him rather Disgust than Pleasure. _Jerom_ returned to _Rome_ from the East in 382. with _Epiphanius_ Bishop of _Salamis_, and _Paulinus_ of _Antioch_, to assist at the Council held there. [Sidenote: Jerom _kept at_ Rome, _and employed by him_.] The other Two returned to their Sees; but _Jerom_ continued at _Rome_, being kept there by _Damasus_, who employed him in answering the Letters he received from the Councils of several Churches applying to him for his Advice[1211]. _Damasus_, taken with his Learning and Erudition, and chiefly with the Knowlege he had of the Scripture, had long before lived in great Intimacy with him, and upon his leaving _Rome_ writ frequent Letters to him, not thinking it beneath the Rank he held in the Church to consult him as his Master about the true Meaning of some difficult Passages in holy Writ[1212]. Thus in one of his Letters he desires him to explain the Parable of the Prodigal Son[1213], and in another to interpret the Word _Hosanna_, which he says was differently interpreted by different Writers, who seemed to contradict each other[1214]. In Compliance with this Request, _Jerom_ writ the Piece on that Subject, which is still extant. It was likewise at the Desire of _Damasus_ that he corrected the _Latin_ Version of the New Testament, and revised at _Rome_ the _Latin_ Version of the Psalms, comparing it with the _Greek_ Text of the _Septuagint_. But as to the Letter, with which _Damasus_ is supposed to have encouraged him to undertake that Work, it is evidently supposititious, and altogether unworthy of him.

[Sidenote: _Psalmody falsly ascribed to him._]