Chapter XI.). The coarser thread is used to make bags for holding the
legumes, corn, &c.; the finer for making _sheets_, _napkins_, and _shirts_. The peasants in this district use _no other kind of linen_, not being acquainted with the culture either of flax or hemp. The ground is too dry and unproductive to suit these plants. The linen made of the Spanish Broom is as supple as that made from hemp; it might be even as beautiful as real linen, if more pains were taken with it. It becomes whiter, the oftener it is washed. It is rarely sold, each family making it for its own use. The stalks, after the rind has been separated from them, are tied in small bundles, and sold for lighting fires.
Let us now see how far Pliny’s account of the Spartum agrees with these representations of the mode of manufacturing Broom-bark. The Spartum, of which he speaks, is “_the rush of a dry soil_,” a description far more applicable to the young twigs of the Spanish Broom than to the grassy stems of the Stipa Tenacissima, or indeed to any other plant. His Spartum was used for making fires and for giving light (_hinc ignes facesque_), purposes for which the Stipa Tenacissima is not at all adapted, but to both of which the stems and twigs of the Spanish Broom are applied. The tender tops of Pliny’s Spartum served as food for animals. According to Trombelli sheep and goats feed upon the Spanish Broom in Italy; but we cannot find that this is the case with the Stipa Tenacissima. Pliny’s Spartum, after being steeped in water, was beaten in order to be made useful (_Hoc autem tunditur, ut fiat utile_); and this process was quite necessary in preparing the twigs of Spanish Broom, whereas the Stipa Tenacissima is most commonly manufactured without going through any such process. Clusius indeed states (_l. c._) that by macerating it in water like flax, and then drying and beating it, the Spaniards of Valencia make a kind of shoes, which they call _Alpergates_, also cords, and other finer articles; but, at the same time, he says, that it is made into mats, baskets, ropes, and cables, merely by being dried, platted, and twisted, without any other operation. The same account is given by Townsend, who visited the country as late as 1787, and who further states, that “the esparto rush” had latterly “been spun into fine thread for the purpose of making cloth[215].” It seems, however, that this had only been done as an experiment, whereas the accounts which have been quoted show, that the manufacture of cloth from broom-bark had been long established in Albania, Italy, and the South of France. In the latter district more especially, the entire dependence of the people on this material as a substitute for flax and hemp, and the primitive mode in which this domestic manufacture was carried on in a retired and mountainous region, seem to indicate the high antiquity of the practice. All the other authors, who mention the use of the Stipa Tenacissima, certainly give little countenance to the idea of its fitness to supply a thread for making cloth. Mr. Carter, adopting the common opinion that the Spartum of Pliny is the Stipa Tenacissima, observes, that “at present the meanest Spaniard would think clothing made from this grass very rough and uncomfortable[216].” We shall only quote one other authority, that of Löfling, the favorite pupil of Linnæus, who became botanist to the King of Spain, and whose Iter Hispanicum (_Stockholm_, 1758.) relates particularly to the plants of that country. He follows Clusius in supposing the Spartum of Pliny to be the Stipa Tenacissima of Linnæus. He mentions, that its stem is two or three feet high, with leaves so long, thin, tough, and convoluted, that they are admirably adapted for the purposes to which they are applied. He adds, “Hispanis nominatur Esparto. Usus hujus frequentissimus per universam Hispaniam ad storeas ob pavimenta lateritia per hyemem: ad funes crassiores pro navibus ad que corbes et alia utensilia pro transportandis fructibus.” (_p._ 119.)
[215] Journey through Spain, vol. iii. p. 129, 130.
[216] Carter’s Journey, vol. ii. p. 414, 415.
Pliny’s remark, that the Spartum, of which he speaks, could not be sown (_quæ non queat seri_), is not true of the Spanish Broom; but this is of little importance in the present inquiry, because it is coupled with the remark, that nothing else could be sown in the same situation (_nec aliud ibi seri aut nasci potest_); a remark, which is totally unfounded in fact. The Spanish Broom would unquestionably be propagated by its seed, which is very abundant.
From these facts, the reader will have no difficulty in forming his decision. Notwithstanding the respect due to the authority of Clusius, into which that of all the subsequent writers seems to resolve itself, it appears to us that the evidence preponderates against the use of Stipa Tenacissima for making cloth in ancient times, and points to the conclusion, that the coarse garments, to which Pliny alludes, were fabricated from the fibrous rind of Spartium Junceum.
One of the most interesting facts in the geography of plants is the frequent substitution in one country, of a plant of a certain natural order for another of the same natural order in another country. The Indians have a plant, bearing a very close and striking resemblance to the Spartium Junceum, which they employ just as the natives of Bas Languedoc employ that plant. We refer to the Crotalaria Juncea, called by the natives Goni, Danapu, or Shanapu, and by us the Sun-plant, or Indian Hemp. From the bark are made all kinds of ropes, packing-cloths, sacks, nets, &c. In order to improve the fibre, the plants are sown as close as possible and thus draw up to the height of about ten feet. According to Dr. Francis Buchanan, the plant thrives best on a poor sandy soil, and requires to be abundantly watered. After being cut down it is spread out to the sun and dried. The seed is beaten out by striking the pods with a stick. After this the stems are tied up in large bundles, about twelve feet in circumference, and are preserved in stacks or under sheds. When wanted, the stems are macerated during six or eight days. They are known to be ready, when the bark separates easily from the pith. “The plant is then taken out of the water, and a man, taking it up by handfuls, beats them on the ground, and occasionally washes them until they be clean; and at the same time picks out with his hand the remainder of the pith, until nothing except the bark be left. This is then dried, and being taken up by handfuls, is beaten with a stick to separate and clean the fibres. The hemp is then completely ready, and is spun into thread on a spindle, both by the men and women. The men alone weave it, and perform this labor in the open air with a very rude loom.” The fabric made from it is a coarse, but very strong sack-cloth.
“The fibres, when prepared,” says Ironside, “are so similar to hemp, that Europeans generally suppose them to be the produce of the same plant[217].”
[217] Account of the culture and uses of the Son-or Sun-plant of Hindostan by Ironside, in the Phil. Trans., vol. lxiv.: Dr. F. Buchanan’s Journey, vol. i. 226, 227, 291.; vol. ii. 227, 235.: Wissett on Hemp, passim.: Roxburgh’s Flora Indica, vol. iii. p. 259-263.
The genus _Lupinus_ (_the Lupin_), belonging to the same natural order as Spartium and Crotalaria, might probably afford materials of the same kind. Mr. Strange (_Lettera_, &c. p. 70.) mentions the filamentous substance of the Lupin _as adapted for making paper_.
Theophrastus[218] (Hist. Pl. viii. 13.) gives the following account of a bulbous plant, called by him Βολβὸς ἐριοφόρος, the root of which supplied materials for weaving:--“It grows in _bays_, and has the wool under the first coats of the bulb so as to be between the inner eatable part and the outer. Socks and other garments are woven from it. Hence this kind is woolly, and not hairy, like that in India.”
[218] “Theophrastus relates, that there is a kind of bulb growing about the banks of rivers, and that between its outer rind and the part of it which is eaten there is a woolly substance, out of which they make certain kinds of socks and cloths. But in the copies which I have found, he neither mentions in what country this is done, nor anything else with greater exactness, except that the bulb is called _eriophoros_; nor does he make any mention at all of spartum, although he examined the whole subject with great care 390 years before my time, as I have observed in another place (Viz., lib. xv. 1.), from which circumstance it appears, that spartum came into use since that time.”
It is difficult to determine what plant is meant, though the description seems accurate and scientific. Billerbeck absurdly supposes it to be cotton-grass[219]. By former botanists, men of great eminence, it was supposed to be Scilla Hyacinthoides. Sprengel objects, that this species does not grow in Greece[220]. Sir James Smith however (_article_ SCILLA in _Rees’s Cyclop._) represents it as growing in Madeira, Portugal, and the Levant. If this account be true, Theophrastus may have been acquainted with it. In another article, Eriophorus, Sir J. Smith doubts whether either Scilla Hyacinthoides or any other bulb produces wool of such quality and in such quantity as to answer the description of Theophrastus. But, we learn from other well-informed botanists, that various bulbs have under the outermost coats a copious tissue of tough fibres, _fully sufficient_ to be employed in _weaving_. This is particularly the case with the genera _Amaryllis_, Crinum, and _Pancratium_, as well as _Scilla_. The fibrous coats serve as a protection to the interior and more vital parts of the bulb.
[219] Flora Classica, p. 20.
[220] German translation of Theophrastus, Notes, vol. ii. p. 283.
Hoffmansegg and Link, who travelled in Portugal, in the description of Scilla Hyacinthoides, say, “Bulbus tomento viscoso tectus[221].”
[221] Annals of Botany, by König and Sims, Lond. 1805, vol. i. 101.
Sonnini says of the Scilla Maritima, “The Greeks of the Archipelago call it Kourvara-skilla, _kourvara_ signifying properly a ‘tuft of thread’ (_peloton de fil_[222]).” Does this refer to the fibres mentioned by Theophrastus? The _size_ of this bulb, which is the common squill, used in pharmacy, seems to favor this supposition. It is often as large as a man’s head[223]. Hoffmansegg and Link[224] say it grows abundantly on barren hills in Spain and Portugal; but add, “The name _maritima_ is not quite proper: for the plant is seldom met with near the sea-shore, and sometimes very remote from it.” On the other hand, it must have been so called, because it was reported by others to grow on the sea-shore; and Sir James Smith (_in Rees’s Cyclopedia_) expressly states, that it grows on “sandy shores.” Redouté says the same.
[222] Voyage en Grèce, tom. i. ch. 14. p. 295.
[223] “Bulbus ovatus, tunicatus, _crassitie ferè capitis humani_.” Desfontaines’ Flora Atlantica, tom. i. p. 297.
[224] An. of Bot. vol. i. p. 101.
From the account of Pancratium by Sir James Edward Smith (_in Rees’s Cyclop._), we learn that two species grow in Greece, viz. P. Maritimum and Illyricum.
The remarks now offered appear to prove, that there certainly may have been a bulb, such as Theophrastus describes, though we have not sufficient information to decide its genus and species. It may have been the Scilla Maritima.
It is to be observed, that he refers also to an Indian bulb, having similar properties. Perhaps he alluded to some plant of a kind similar to Agave Vivipara, the leaves of which are extensively used in India for making cordage[225].
[225] Dr. F. Buchanan’s Journey in Mysore, &c. i. p. 36.
We cannot better conclude this part of the subject, than by giving the following interesting communication of Dr. Daniel Stebbins, of Northampton, Mass., to the Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, a gentleman who has, in our opinion, rendered most valuable services, not only to the people of the United States, but to the world at large, since his appointment to the office of Commissioner of Patents.
_Northampton, Hampshire County, Mass._
“Dear Sir: The favorable notice of silk culture in document No. 109, from the Patent Office report of February, 1843, is my apology for presenting the enclosed samples of _paper_, made of mulberry foliage and bark. Unfortunately, the _external cuticle_ of the bark had not been removed; producing the spots, but does not injure the paper for the use intended, which was for the purpose of depositing silk-worms’ eggs upon something dark; and this being _unbleached_, is considered adapted to the habits of the silk-worm, and is now in successful experiment.
“The four samples are all of one batch; the darkest, having more of the outside cuticle, was most buoyant, rose to the top and came off first.
“A quantity of genuine Canton foliage, which retains its verdure in greater perfection and later than any other mulberry, is gathered, dried, and sent to the mill for making paper, bleached, without spots, fit for cotton paper, as hoped; and, if successful, I shall take pleasure in sending you a sample, to be preserved with the enclosed.
“I began, some ten or twelve years since, to bring silk culture into notice among the members of the Hampshire Agricultural Society, believing that if we tried the right kind of trees, (such as used in China,) we could raise silk, yet could not afford to pay $1 per tree, as then asked for multicaulis; not reflecting how easily they could be propagated by cuttings and layers. Under this view of the subject, I wrote to the Rev. E. C. Bridgman, missionary at Canton, China, a native of Hampshire county, with the request that he would procure and forward me some _mulberry seed_ of the most approved kind for growing in China, for the use of members of the agricultural society. He promptly attended to the request; the seed was forwarded and sown in the spring of 1834 or 1835. It grew finely, and developed a splendid leaf.
“About two years since, while Dr. Parker, with a Chinaman, was here on a visit, on being shown the Canton foliage, it was readily recognized. As the trees had grown here very luxuriantly, and developed a larger leaf than in China, Dr. Parker suggested that our soil might be more congenial to the plant than even China, its native soil.
“Soon after receiving the seed from Canton, a friend sent me another parcel from the South of Asia, with high commendations, that if it would grow here, it would be of essential benefit to the United States for raising silk. It succeeded well, and is more hardy than the white mulberry, very productive in small branches, and a good-sized leaf. I named the latter _Asiatic Canton_. These two kinds are highly approved of for feeding silk-worms--the Canton for leaf-feeding, and the Asiatic for branch feeding. I have, however, almost every variety which was cultivated during the mulberry speculation--covering, altogether, some ten or twelve acres, besides a large number of young Canton and Asiatic seedlings, of this year’s sowing, from seed of my own raising, to enlarge the plantations.
“A few days since, the Rev. William Richards, of the Sandwich Islands, with the young prince, called on me. At a former visit, I had supplied him with Canton mulberry-seed, silk-worms’ eggs, and dry mulberry foliage to use in case the eggs should hatch on the passage; but this they did not do until his arrival home. About the same time, other eggs had been received there from China; but the cocoons raised from them were not _one quarter_ as large as the American, and must have required some 10,000 to 12,000 to make a pound of silk, while in America 2,400 to 3,000 would make a pound.
“Mr. Titcomb, also a silk-grower in one of the islands, having the American and Chinese, crossed them: but the crossing produced cocoons so small as to require from 5,000 to 6,000 to make a pound of silk, while not over 3,000 of the American would be required to do the same thing(!).
“Mr. Richards was shown several _pamphlets_, _newspapers_, _cap_ and _writing paper_, supposed to have been made of mulberry bark. He said rags were _not_ used in India[226], China, or the islands, for making paper, but they always make it of some vegetable leaf; that the bark was too valuable for that, and was used to make _fabrics_. (See Chapters XI. and XII. of this Part. Also Appendix A.)
“We, as Americans, have the appropriate soil and climate for the Canton and Asiatic mulberry, with the pea-nut variety of worms, which, being managed with due care and attention, together with the skill, ingenuity, and perseverance of Americans--and, in addition, and could we have the aid of our country to encourage new beginners--we might hope to compete with any nation in the production of silk, their cheap labor and cheap living to the contrary notwithstanding. There is abundant evidence that worms fed exclusively on the Canton mulberry have been larger, and produced heavier cocoons, by one-third in size of worms and weight of cocoons, than by other feed. I have supplied an order of the peanut variety of eggs, to go to Guatemala; and Canton seed, of my own raising, to go to Rio; and now have an order for a number of the genuine Canton mulberry trees, roots, or cuttings, to go to Lima, where the applicant went on business, a few years since, taking with him a few multicaules, at $2 each--now multiplied to 50,000; who, without any practical knowledge of raising trees, reeling and manufacturing silk, or having seen a silk-worm or reel until he introduced them in 1843, has now presented me with beautiful samples of _floss cocoons, reeled and sewing silk_, done by ladies as a diversion, without any assistance, and very little instruction from him. The silk is of good quality. Samples had been sent by a mercantile house in Lima to England, for an opinion of the quality; but no return had been received when he came away. He has come to this place with a native Spaniard, to obtain more perfect information in all the branches of reeling, twisting, coloring(!), &c.; to procure machinery, with a view of enlarging operations, so that he might turn off twenty-five pounds per day of sewings, cords, braids, &c. He represents the climate and soil as adapted to the culture of silk, and could feed every month in the year; that the necessaries of living are procured with but little labor; that the laboring population are indolent, _the wealthy classes too proud to labor_. He feels confident of success, and that he can introduce habits of industry by silk culture, that would counteract their natural indolence; and he will inform me of his success in due time, that may be more interesting than speculations upon what he intends doing. He has engaged several to perfect themselves in reeling, &c., to accompany him when he returns to Lima with his machinery. He has become so satisfied with the superiority of the genuine Canton mulberry, that he has engaged to take it on with him for propagation and use.
“I have letters from widely different locations, rendering favorable accounts of this year’s success in growing silk, and in corroboration of the prevalent opinion _that the silk cause will finally prevail_. I have several letters on this subject--one from a gentleman presiding over one of our most eminent literary institutions, under date of June, 1844. Discoursing about the culture of silk, he writes as follows:
“‘If this earnest waking up to a scientific and practical consideration of the subject be not soon crowned with signal success, it will not be for want of enterprize or skill in our countrymen, but merely from the high price of labor here, compared with the scanty wages given in other silk-growing countries. Even this consideration, though it may _retard_ for a while the complete success of this department of productive industry, will not prevent its ultimate _triumph_.’
“Another gentleman, under date of August, 1844, writes from the far West, ‘that the soil and climate of the Western and South-western States are admirably suited to the growth of the mulberry and raising silk-worms,’ and that ‘eventually the two great staples of the Western and South-western States will be _silk_ and _wool_.’ It is the opinion of competent skilful silk manufacturers, who have made critical experiments upon the _Pongee-silk_ (so called) of foreign make, by tests which they consider satisfactory and decisive, that it is _only a vegetable production_, and that the material was never operated upon _by the silk-worm_(?). There can be no reasonable doubt about the ultimate success of silk-culture in some _future_ years; but to accelerate that desirable event, which may constitute an important American staple for revenue (which might not only enrich the Government, but reward the labor of personal enterprize), a bounty is deemed necessary to stimulate and encourage that portion of the agricultural population whose circumstances or health disqualifies them for the more laborious exercises of the fields, to commence operations upon a new and untried crop. Our extensive imports of raw and manufactured silks are encouraged by us as consumers, instead of being producers. We now contribute to support foreign enterprize and industry, to produce the article of silk, which we might, with proper encouragement, raise ourselves, not only for our own consumption, but for exportation.”
Very respectfully, yours, &c. Daniel Stebbins. Henry L. Ellsworth, Esq., Commissioner of Patents.
[226] Abdollatiph who visited Egypt A. D. 1200, informs us (Chapter iv. p. 188 of Silvestre de Sacy’s French translation, p. 221 of Wahl’s German translation.), “_that the cloth, rags, &c. found in the catacombs, and used to envelope the mummies, was made into garments, or sold to the scribes to make paper for shop-keepers_.” This cloth is proved to be linen (See Part IV. p. 365), and the passage of Abdollatiph may be considered as decisive proof, which however has never been produced as such, of the manufacture of linen paper as early as the year 1200. Professor Tychsen in his learned and curious dissertation on the use of paper from Papyrus (published in the _Commentationes Reg. Soc. Gottingensis Recentiores_, vol. iv. A. D. 1820), has brought abundant testimonies to prove that _Egypt supplied all Europe with this kind of paper until towards the end of the eleventh century_. The use of it was then abandoned, cotton paper being employed instead. The Arabs in consequence of their conquests in Bucharia, had learnt the art of making _cotton paper_ about the year 704, and through them or the Saracens it was introduced into Europe in the _eleventh century_. Another fact should not be lost sight of, namely, “that most of the old MSS. in Arabic and other oriental languages are written on this sort of paper,” and that it was first introduced into Europe by the Saracens of Spain. (For further proof, see Appendix A. Also Part IV. already referred to.)
The amount of silk imported into the United States annually, nearly equals that of linen and woollen together, and is equal to one half of all other fabrics combined. Is it not then, an important consideration, that this expenditure be saved to the nation?
PART SECOND.
ORIGIN AND ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE SHEEP.